1.1 identification hard & softwoods
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There are two main types of trees: deciduous and coniferous. Deciduous trees, also known as broadleaf or hardwood trees, lose their leaves in autumn and have large broad leaves. Coniferous trees, also known as softwood or needle-leaf trees, are evergreen and have needle-like leaves and cones bearing seeds. Common deciduous trees in Ireland include oak, ash, beech, sycamore, and elm while common coniferous trees include Scots pine, Douglas fir, Norway spruce, and Sitka spruce.
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Softwood and Hardwood
Hardwoods come from angiosperms and have broad leaves, while softwoods come from conifers and are needle-leaved. The key anatomical differences are that hardwoods have vessels (pores) and a greater diversity of cell types like fibers, rays, and parenchyma. Softwoods mainly consist of long tracheids that perform conductive and mechanical functions, along with some parenchyma cells. Rays are usually only one cell wide in softwoods, while softwoods also contain resin canals.
Wood anatomy and structure , wood and its products
This document provides an overview of wood structure and anatomy at different structural levels from gross to microscopic. It discusses the gross structure of wood including heartwood, sapwood, growth rings, and defects. It then covers the microstructure of wood including different cell types in softwoods and hardwoods such as tracheids, fibres, vessels, and parenchyma. Specific features of softwood and hardwood microstructure are described along with cell wall features, extractives in heartwood, and reaction wood.
Silvicultural systems
Silviculture is the art and science of growing and reproducing trees in a sustainable way based on forest ecology principles. There are even-aged and uneven-aged silvicultural systems that use natural regeneration strategies or planting to meet landowner objectives. Common even-aged systems include clearcutting, where all trees are harvested at once, and shelterwood, where trees are harvested in two cuts to establish regeneration first. Selection is an uneven-aged system where trees of all sizes are periodically harvested over 10-15 years. Intermediate treatments like thinning improve stand quality between regeneration harvests. Natural regeneration uses seeds and sprouts while artificial regeneration may involve site preparation and planting.
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This document discusses different methods for converting logs into timber. It describes felling timber and transporting logs. It then explains four methods for converting logs: horizontal bandsaw, through and through sawing, quarter sawing, and tangential sawing. For each method, it provides the advantages and disadvantages. An exam question is included that asks the reader to name the conversion methods shown in diagrams, state the advantages and disadvantages of each, and determine which board shown is most likely to cup and why.
characteristics of wood
Wood is a hygroscopic, porous material produced as secondary xylem in tree stems. It is composed of cellulose, which provides strength, and lignin, which provides compression resistance. Wood is formed through secondary growth as trees increase in diameter each year by adding new woody layers between the existing wood and inner bark. Each year's growth results in growth rings, and over time the inner heartwood becomes resistant to decay while the outer sapwood remains vulnerable.
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This document discusses how trees grow. It describes the key parts of a tree including leaves, branches, trunk and roots. It then explains the functions of these parts, such as roots absorbing water and minerals from the soil. It details the processes of photosynthesis, where leaves use sunlight to produce food, and transpiration, where leaves release water vapor. It outlines the stages of growth from a seed germinating to becoming a sapling. Annual growth rings are formed that show the tree's age. The internal structure of the trunk is also described including the bark, cambium layer, sapwood and heartwood.
Timber
Timber is one of the oldest construction materials. It has several qualities including being a natural, renewable resource with satisfactory engineering properties. Timber is workable, durable, and can withstand fire better than other materials like steel or concrete. Trees grow either endogenously, increasing in height only, or exogenously, increasing in both height and diameter. Most structural timber comes from exogenously growing trees. Wood is composed of cells and cell walls. The arrangement and properties of wood cells can vary between species and impact the characteristics of the timber.
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here is some info on basic structure structure of woods.
for more in detail check for references in the slides
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3. The objectives of thinning include improving tree health and quality, increasing growth rates, and producing wood products while storing carbon from the atmosphere.
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3. cell structure
The main functions of tree cells are to transport water and minerals up the tree and energy-rich sap down the tree, provide strength to the tree, and store food. Hardwood cell structures contain three main cell types - vessels that transport water and minerals, fibers that provide strength, and parenchyma cells that surround vessels and store food. Softwood cell structures contain two main cell types, tracheids that provide strength and assist in water transportation through pits in their cell walls, and parenchyma cells that store food.
5. timber seasoning
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This document discusses various methods of plant propagation including sexual propagation through seeds and asexual propagation through methods like cutting, grafting, budding, layering, division, and tissue culture. It provides details on each method, including defining key terms and outlining the basic process. The goal of plant propagation is to multiply plants of the same species while maintaining desirable traits.
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This document discusses defects and diseases that can occur in wood. It describes natural defects like knots, resin pockets, shakes and waney edges that form during tree growth. It also covers artificial defects such as cupping, bowing, twisting and end splitting caused by improper drying. Fungal diseases and insect pests that damage wood are also examined, along with conditions needed for decay. The life cycles of fungi and boring insects are detailed.
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Wood is one of the most used natural building materials in the world. A number of valuable properties such as low heat conductivity, small bulk density, relatively high strength, amenability to mechanical working etc. makes wood as famous building material.
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In this article, we are going to discuss about the Classification and structure of tree and also about the Processing of timber from felling of tree to preservation of timber.
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1. Stand density management involves controlling tree density through initial spacing or subsequent thinning to achieve management objectives such as improving growth.
2. Thinning is the removal of trees from an immature forest stand to improve growth and form of remaining trees without permanently breaking the canopy.
3. The objectives of thinning include improving tree health and quality, increasing growth rates, and producing wood products while storing carbon from the atmosphere.
Seasoning ppt
Wood seasoning involves partially drying wood to remove moisture. Wood from freshly felled trees contains 100-200% moisture. This must be removed to make the wood suitable for use. There are two main seasoning methods - air seasoning and kiln drying. Air seasoning involves stacking wood outdoors to dry slowly. Kiln drying allows for carefully controlled drying rates indoors. Proper stacking, ventilation, and shed protection are important for air seasoning to minimize cracking and defects. Kiln drying is more effective and reduces drying time but is more expensive. The document provides details on wood moisture content requirements, seasoning methods, shed designs, and defect control.
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4. tree conversion
Tree conversion involves cutting down trees in winter and transporting logs to sawmills to be cut into boards. There are three main conversion methods: through and through sawing cuts logs parallel to the grain but can cause cupping; tangential sawing cuts at 90 degree angles to produce flame figured boards but are prone to shrinkage; quarter sawing cuts at 45 degree angles to produce stable boards with attractive grain for flooring but is the most expensive due to extra processing steps.
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Tree breeding is the application of genetic principles to improve the traits of forest trees. It involves selecting superior trees, known as plus trees, for traits like growth, form, and disease resistance. Progeny of plus trees are tested in progeny tests and seed orchards established to produce improved seed for planting. Tree breeding techniques include selection, hybridization, progeny testing, and use of seed orchards. The long generation times of trees require accelerated breeding approaches like vegetative propagation to shorten breeding cycles. Modern techniques also include use of micropropagation and genetic engineering. Tree breeding aims to develop trees with improved traits for yield, quality and stress resistance to enhance forest productivity.
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Comparison tree method of selection
This document describes the comparison-tree method for selecting superior trees for breeding programs. The method involves comparing candidate trees to nearby comparison trees of similar age and site conditions to account for environmental influences. If the candidate tree is superior to the comparison trees for traits of interest like growth, form, or disease resistance, it is designated as a plus tree suitable for the breeding program. Guidelines are provided for selecting stands and individual trees to identify the most genetically superior specimens while maintaining genetic diversity.
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3. cell structure
The main functions of tree cells are to transport water and minerals up the tree and energy-rich sap down the tree, provide strength to the tree, and store food. Hardwood cell structures contain three main cell types - vessels that transport water and minerals, fibers that provide strength, and parenchyma cells that surround vessels and store food. Softwood cell structures contain two main cell types, tracheids that provide strength and assist in water transportation through pits in their cell walls, and parenchyma cells that store food.
5. timber seasoning
Timber seasoning is the controlled process of reducing moisture content in wood. It aims to dry wood to around 22% moisture content. This makes the wood more stable and prevents defects like splitting or fungal/insect damage. There are two main seasoning methods - air seasoning which is slow and done outdoors, and kiln seasoning which is faster using controlled heat, humidity and air flow. Moisture content is measured using moisture meters or weighing samples before and after drying. Seasoning causes wood to shrink unevenly which can lead to cupping or shakes.
4. forestry distrubtion and deforestation
The document discusses different forest types around the world and issues relating to deforestation. It describes four main forest belts characterized by different climates: the northern coniferous belt, northern temperate belt, tropical rainforests, and southern temperate belt. It then explains that deforestation involves clearing large forest areas without replanting, which is reducing forests globally. The main causes of deforestation are farming, ranching, logging, and fuel demand, while the effects include species loss, pollution, climate change, and flooding. Prevention efforts include sustainable forest management and using alternatives to tropical hardwoods.
Hardwood, softwood and manufactured wood
Hardwood comes from angiosperm trees like oak, maple, and beech trees, and is commonly used for furniture. Softwood comes from coniferous and evergreen trees and accounts for 80% of timber production worldwide. Manufactured wood like plywood and MDF are man-made materials that are alternatives to natural wood.
6. fungal attack
Fungal attack can cause damage to wood by feeding on its cells, softening and decaying the wood over time. Fungi need moisture levels above 20%, a food supply like wood, and oxygen to grow. The life cycle of wood rotting fungi involves spores spreading via wind, insects, animals or humans and germinating on wood if conditions are suitable, growing into a mycelium network and producing more spores to spread the fungus. There are two main types of wood rot caused by fungi - wet rot which affects wood above 40% moisture content, usually outdoors, and dry rot which occurs indoors in damp areas with poor ventilation. Preventing fungal attack involves keeping moisture levels below 20% and
2. tree growth & structure
Trees grow from seeds or cuttings. Seeds germinate after being dispersed from the tree, developing roots and shoots. The seedling grows leaves and becomes a sapling. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil which travel up through the xylem cells to the leaves. Leaves use photosynthesis to produce food from sunlight, water and carbon dioxide, releasing oxygen. Transpiration occurs through pores in leaves, releasing water vapor. Food travels down the tree through phloem cells as new layers of xylem and phloem are added through the cambium layer, making the tree grow taller and thicker.
Timber conversion
Timber conversion involves turning felled trees into usable lumber through sawing. There are two main conversion methods: plain sawing, which is fastest but produces wood more prone to warping; and quarter sawing, which shows the grain beautifully but is more complex and wasteful. Proper conversion allows wood to be dried, shaped, and graded for its quality before being sold as lumber.
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This document defines and classifies various defects that can occur in wood. It discusses defects caused by natural forces like knots, shakes, and twisted fibers. It also covers defects caused by fungi like blue stain, brown rot, and white rot. Defects caused by insects such as beetles, marine borers, and termites are outlined. Finally, it examines defects from seasoning, conversion and manufacturing processes like wane, diagonal grain, and honeycombing. The document provides detailed descriptions and examples for each type of wood defect.
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- Deterioration of timber through decay, insects, and fire
- Methods of preserving timber through oily and water-soluble preservatives applied by painting, dipping, or pressure processes
Timber - A Construction Material
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Partsofthetree
The document lists and repeats the main parts of a tree - trunk, roots, leaves, branches, flowers, and fruit. It then asks questions about each part and can be used to learn the names of the basic structural components that make up a tree.
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The Earth's natural vegetation
Natural vegetation refers to plants that grow without human assistance. It is an important part of the physical environment and ecosystem, as plants provide food and resources for humans and animals. Natural vegetation can be classified into different types based on location and climate, including forest, grassland, and desert vegetation. The dominant types of forests include tropical rainforests near the equator and temperate coniferous forests at higher latitudes. Forests are important habitats, provide raw materials, help regulate climate, and are used for recreation.
Sec1 - Deciduous & Coniferous Forest
Temperate forests are found in areas with four seasons, such as Western Europe and Eastern North America. They have three layers - a canopy layer of large, broad-leaved trees up to 30 meters tall; a middle shrub layer; and a bottom floor layer of grasses, mosses and ferns. The trees shed their leaves in autumn to avoid water loss in winter when there is no rainfall.
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1) Wood is a natural material that has been used for centuries for structural and furnishing purposes. It comes in various types that are used for different applications based on their properties.
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1.1 identification hard & softwoods
- 1. Types of Trees Deciduous and Coniferous Trees