1 universal features of life on earth
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The document discusses key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes. Prokaryotic genes have a simple structure with a promoter, protein coding sequence, and terminator. Eukaryotic genes have a more complex structure with exons that can be separated by large introns. The document also discusses how gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and mutations can drive evolution. It notes that while most mutations are deleterious, some provide adaptations that allow organisms to escape natural selection.
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Ap Chapter 21
The document summarizes key aspects of genomics and the human genome project. It discusses that the human genome project mapped the human genome through linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing. It was completed in 2003 and found that humans have around 20,000 genes and repetitive non-coding DNA makes up around half the genome. Transposons and retrotransposons are types of repetitive DNA that can move locations within genomes.
21 lecture genome_and_evolution
This document provides an overview of key concepts from Chapter 21 of Campbell Biology about genomes and their evolution. It discusses the stages of genome sequencing, including genetic mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing. It also describes how new sequencing techniques like whole-genome shotgun sequencing have accelerated the process. Bioinformatics tools are now used to analyze whole genomes and understand gene functions on a systems level. Comparisons of complete genome sequences from different organisms reveal variation in genome size, number of genes, and amount of noncoding DNA between domains of life.
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The document discusses genomic concepts including:
- Genomics is the study of genomes including large chromosomal segments containing many genes. Functional genomics aims to deduce information about DNA function.
- The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs with about 3% coding for proteins. Genome size is measured in picograms or base pair number and complexity is distinct from length.
- Chromosomal organization differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes possess multiple linear chromosomes packed into complexes while prokaryotes have single circular chromosomes.
- Much non-coding DNA in large genomes includes introns, regulatory elements, repeats and intergenic sequences. Nucleic acid thermodynamics
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The document discusses several topics related to genome evolution, including:
1. Genome evolution involves the acquisition of new genes through gene duplication within genomes or lateral gene transfer between species. Gene duplication can occur at the whole genome level or for individual or groups of genes.
2. Genome evolution also involves rearrangement of existing genes through domain shuffling, where gene segments are joined to form new proteins, or domain duplication where repetitive domains evolve new functions.
3. Introns may have evolved early in ancestral genes and are gradually being lost from genomes ("introns early" hypothesis) or evolved more recently and are accumulating ("introns late"). Early evidence supported "introns early" with conserved intron positions in homologous genes.
Genome evolution discussion questions
This document contains questions submitted by a student for their PhD dissertation discussion. It includes questions about evolution, genome evolution, gene migration, DNA mutation, intron evolution, genome size variation, gene duplication, and references related to these topics. Experimental evidence is discussed for endosymbiotic theory, chloroplast and mitochondria DNA originating from bacteria, and gene migration between organelle and nuclear genomes.
Genome evolution - tales of scales DNA to crops,months to billions of years, ...
Genome evolution - tales of scales DNA to crops,months to billions of years, ...Pat (JS) Heslop-Harrison
Pat Heslop-Harrison: Lecture to University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia December 2013
Some DNA sequences are recognizable in all organisms and originated with the start of life. Others are unique to a single species. Some sequences are present in single copies in genomes, while others are present as millions of copies. The total amount of DNA in cells of an advanced eukaryotic species can vary over three orders of magnitude, and chromosome number can vary similarly. How can such huge variations be accommodated within the constraints of organism growth, development and reproduction? What are the evolutionary implications of these huge variations? How can we use the information to understand plant evolution, cytogenetics, genetics and epigenetics? What are the implications for future evolution, biodiversity and responses of plants during plant breeding or climate change?
Recommended
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The document summarizes key aspects of genomics and the human genome project. It discusses that the human genome project mapped the human genome through linkage mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing. It was completed in 2003 and found that humans have around 20,000 genes and repetitive non-coding DNA makes up around half the genome. Transposons and retrotransposons are types of repetitive DNA that can move locations within genomes.
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The document summarizes the whole-genome shotgun approach to genome sequencing. It describes the four main steps: 1) cutting DNA into overlapping fragments, 2) cloning fragments in vectors, 3) sequencing each fragment, and 4) using computer software to order sequences into an overall sequence. This approach skips mapping and directly sequences random fragments. It is now widely used and has increased sequencing speed and decreased costs.
Genome
The document discusses genomic concepts including:
- Genomics is the study of genomes including large chromosomal segments containing many genes. Functional genomics aims to deduce information about DNA function.
- The human genome contains 3.2 billion base pairs with about 3% coding for proteins. Genome size is measured in picograms or base pair number and complexity is distinct from length.
- Chromosomal organization differs between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Eukaryotes possess multiple linear chromosomes packed into complexes while prokaryotes have single circular chromosomes.
- Much non-coding DNA in large genomes includes introns, regulatory elements, repeats and intergenic sequences. Nucleic acid thermodynamics
Genome origin
The document discusses several topics related to genome evolution, including:
1. Genome evolution involves the acquisition of new genes through gene duplication within genomes or lateral gene transfer between species. Gene duplication can occur at the whole genome level or for individual or groups of genes.
2. Genome evolution also involves rearrangement of existing genes through domain shuffling, where gene segments are joined to form new proteins, or domain duplication where repetitive domains evolve new functions.
3. Introns may have evolved early in ancestral genes and are gradually being lost from genomes ("introns early" hypothesis) or evolved more recently and are accumulating ("introns late"). Early evidence supported "introns early" with conserved intron positions in homologous genes.
Genome evolution discussion questions
This document contains questions submitted by a student for their PhD dissertation discussion. It includes questions about evolution, genome evolution, gene migration, DNA mutation, intron evolution, genome size variation, gene duplication, and references related to these topics. Experimental evidence is discussed for endosymbiotic theory, chloroplast and mitochondria DNA originating from bacteria, and gene migration between organelle and nuclear genomes.
Genome evolution - tales of scales DNA to crops,months to billions of years, ...
Genome evolution - tales of scales DNA to crops,months to billions of years, ...Pat (JS) Heslop-Harrison
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Some DNA sequences are recognizable in all organisms and originated with the start of life. Others are unique to a single species. Some sequences are present in single copies in genomes, while others are present as millions of copies. The total amount of DNA in cells of an advanced eukaryotic species can vary over three orders of magnitude, and chromosome number can vary similarly. How can such huge variations be accommodated within the constraints of organism growth, development and reproduction? What are the evolutionary implications of these huge variations? How can we use the information to understand plant evolution, cytogenetics, genetics and epigenetics? What are the implications for future evolution, biodiversity and responses of plants during plant breeding or climate change?
Gene families and clusters
Gene families are sets of similar genes formed by duplication of an original gene. A gene cluster is a subgroup of a gene family where the genes are located near each other on a chromosome. Examples discussed include haemoglobin gene clusters, histone gene clusters, and ribosomal RNA gene clusters. Haemoglobin genes are expressed at different developmental stages. Myoglobin is related to haemoglobin and encodes oxygen transport in muscle. Histone genes encode structural proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes. Ribosomal RNA genes are present in high copy numbers and encode components of ribosomes.
Introduction to genomes
The document provides an overview of DNA and genomes. It discusses the key discoveries in DNA structure including the double helix model proposed by Watson and Crick. It describes the components of DNA, including nucleotides, bases, sugars, and phosphates. It explains how the bases pair with each other and the structure of the DNA double helix. It also summarizes genome sizes from viruses to humans and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes.
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Genetic engineering allows manipulation of a genome by introducing, eliminating, or modifying genes. The main steps are: 1) Isolating the gene of interest using restriction enzymes to cut DNA into fragments; 2) Inserting the gene into a bacterial plasmid using recombinant DNA techniques; 3) Detecting colonies containing the inserted gene through tests or hybridization; 4) Cloning the bacteria to produce many copies containing the gene.
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This document discusses gene organization in microbes. It begins by defining the term "genome" and explaining that a genome contains an organism's complete set of DNA. Prokaryotes like bacteria have simpler genomes than eukaryotes, with a single circular chromosome and sometimes additional plasmids. Plasmids are small circular DNA structures that can be transferred between bacteria. The document then compares prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes, noting that eukaryotes have membrane-bound nuclei while prokaryotes do not. It also discusses viral genomes, karyotypes, and different hypotheses about the relationship between genes and proteins.
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- These virus particles carrying bacterial DNA can then infect new bacterial cells.
- When the virus injects its DNA into the new host cell, the bacterial DNA may recombine into the bacterial chromosome.
- This transfers genes from one bacterium to another mediated by bacteriophages, which act as the transducing agent carrying genetic material between bacteria.
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Gene families are sets of similar genes formed by duplication of an original gene. A gene cluster is a subgroup of a gene family where the genes are located near each other on a chromosome. Examples discussed include haemoglobin gene clusters, histone gene clusters, and ribosomal RNA gene clusters. Haemoglobin genes are expressed at different developmental stages. Myoglobin is related to haemoglobin and encodes oxygen transport in muscle. Histone genes encode structural proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes. Ribosomal RNA genes are present in high copy numbers and encode components of ribosomes.
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Forward genetics, also known as classical genetics, is a traditional approach that begins by observing a mutant phenotype in an organism and then identifying the corresponding mutated gene. Reverse genetics is a molecular approach that begins with a known DNA sequence and proceeds to analyze the resulting phenotype after altering or inhibiting expression of that sequence, enabled by recent advances in molecular genetics techniques. Both forward and reverse genetics are commonly used methods to understand gene function.
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This document discusses various gene transfer methods. It defines gene transfer as the insertion of genetic material into a cell. There are natural methods like conjugation, transformation, and transduction that involve the transfer of genes between bacteria. There are also artificial physical, chemical, and electrical methods to transfer genes into cells, including microinjection, gene guns, calcium phosphate, liposomes, and electroporation. The document provides examples of how these various gene transfer methods can be used to insert genes into bacteria, plants, and animals.
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DNA carries genetic instructions in all living things. It is a double-stranded molecule shaped like a twisted ladder. Each strand has a backbone made of sugar and phosphate, with nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) forming rungs between the strands via hydrogen bonding. The structure was discovered in 1953 by Watson and Crick. DNA is found in the cell nucleus and mitochondria, where it stores and transmits hereditary information from parents to offspring that directs protein synthesis and cell functions.
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This document provides an overview of genetic engineering and its applications to microorganisms. It defines genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. The key steps involved are isolating the gene of interest, inserting it into a vector, introducing the vector into a host cell, and harvesting the gene product from the clone. Common hosts used are bacteria, yeast, plant and animal cells. The document also discusses some tools used in genetic engineering like restriction enzymes and DNA ligase. It outlines several applications of genetic engineering in medicine, research, agriculture and industry. It concludes by noting some ethical and safety concerns regarding genetically modified organisms.
Genome
This document discusses genome size variation in organisms. It begins by defining the genome and describing genome organization in prokaryotes, viruses and eukaryotes. In eukaryotes, DNA is organized into chromosomes within the nucleus. The document then describes models of chromatin fiber structure and components of the nucleosome. It explains that genome size refers to the total DNA content and can be measured in picograms or megabases. Genome size varies significantly between plant species from 130 Mbp in Arabidopsis to 2.5 Gbp in maize. Factors influencing genome size include cell size, developmental rate, transposable elements and chromosomal mutations.
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This document discusses bacterial genetics and various mechanisms of genetic variation in bacteria. It describes the basic structure of DNA and RNA, and how genetic information is stored and transferred between generations in bacteria via chromosomes, plasmids, and transposons. The key mechanisms of genetic variation discussed are mutation, transformation, transduction, conjugation, and transposition. Mutation can occur via point mutations, frameshift mutations, or through exposure to mutagens. Transformation, transduction, and conjugation allow for the lateral transfer of genetic material between bacteria.
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The document discusses key concepts in genetics and evolutionary theory. It explains that DNA stores and transmits genetic information from generation to generation. Genes are segments of DNA that code for proteins. There are two main sources of genetic variation: mutation, which causes changes in DNA sequences, and gene shuffling during sexual reproduction, which creates new combinations of genes. Genetic variation provides the raw material for evolution and allows species to evolve to keep up with their environment or face extinction.
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This document provides an overview of genome sequencing and analysis. It discusses the three main stages of genome sequencing: genetic mapping, physical mapping, and DNA sequencing. Both the traditional three-stage process and whole genome shotgun approach are described. The document also covers how bioinformatics is used to analyze genomes through databases and software. Comparisons of sequenced genomes from different organisms provide information about evolutionary relationships and histories of genes.
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This document discusses gene organization in microbes. It begins by defining the term "genome" and explaining that a genome contains an organism's complete set of DNA. Prokaryotes like bacteria have simpler genomes than eukaryotes, with a single circular chromosome and sometimes additional plasmids. Plasmids are small circular DNA structures that can be transferred between bacteria. The document then compares prokaryotic and eukaryotic chromosomes, noting that eukaryotes have membrane-bound nuclei while prokaryotes do not. It also discusses viral genomes, karyotypes, and different hypotheses about the relationship between genes and proteins.
Forward and reverse genetics
This document discusses forward and reverse genetic approaches for understanding gene function. Forward genetics begins with a phenotype and identifies the underlying gene, while reverse genetics starts with a gene and determines its phenotype. Specific reverse genetic techniques described include large-scale random mutagenesis, homologous recombination, transposable element excision, RNA interference, genome editing using ZFNs/TALENs/CRISPR, and site-directed mutagenesis combined with transgenics. The document provides details on how each technique is used to alter genes and study their function.
Horizontal gene transfer in bacteria
the horizontal gene transfer in bacteria is not only important for survival but has its evolutionary significance too. this presentation is a prelude to the three classical types of HGT in bacteria
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This document provides an overview of genomics, including its history, major research areas, and applications. Genomics is concerned with studying the genomes of organisms, including determining entire DNA sequences and genetic mapping. Major research areas discussed include bacteriophage, human, computational, and comparative genomics. Applications of genomics discussed include functional genomics, predictive medicine, metagenomics for medicine, biofuels and more. The first genomes sequenced were small viruses and mitochondria, while the human genome project aimed to map the entire human DNA sequence.
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This document discusses nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions and signal transduction between the nucleus and organelles. It provides examples of non-Mendelian inheritance from the cytoplasm, including chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA inheritance. The document outlines anterograde and retrograde signaling pathways between the nucleus and organelles, as well as cross-talk between mitochondria and chloroplasts. Maintaining organellar genomes provides benefits like preventing total organelle loss and generating cytoplasmic variation, which can be useful under environmental stress. However, more research is still needed to fully understand how organelle and nuclear genomes coordinate gene expression.
MIC150 - Chap 5 Gene Transfer
Transduction is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Here are the key points about transduction:
- Bacteriophages infect bacteria and insert their DNA into the bacterial chromosome.
- Sometimes during viral replication, small fragments of bacterial DNA are accidentally packaged into new viral particles instead of viral DNA.
- These virus particles carrying bacterial DNA can then infect new bacterial cells.
- When the virus injects its DNA into the new host cell, the bacterial DNA may recombine into the bacterial chromosome.
- This transfers genes from one bacterium to another mediated by bacteriophages, which act as the transducing agent carrying genetic material between bacteria.
Epigenetics in fisheries and aquaculture
Epigenetics refers to heritable phenotypic changes that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence. Key epigenetic mechanisms in fisheries and aquaculture include DNA methylation, genome imprinting, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling. DNA methylation and histone modifications can suppress gene expression through various mechanisms like blocking transcription factor binding sites or recruiting histone modifier complexes. Genome imprinting leads to parental origin-specific gene expression and has effects on development and metabolism. These epigenetic processes modify gene activation and expression without altering the underlying genetic code.
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0.PDF
Prokaryotic genetic material differs from eukaryotes in several key ways:
1. Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus and have their DNA located in the nucleoid. They typically have a single circular chromosome while eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes.
2. Prokaryotic genes are arranged in operons and expressed together, whereas eukaryotic genes each have their own promoter and are independently expressed.
3. DNA replication in prokaryotes is rapid and ongoing, starting from a single origin of replication site, while eukaryotes tightly regulate replication during the cell cycle.
Organellar genome and its composition
The document discusses organellar genomes and their composition. It provides information on several key points:
1. Organellar genomes refer to the genetic material present in organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria. These genomes are much smaller than nuclear genomes, ranging from 5-200 kb.
2. The organellar genomes mainly contain genes for components involved in respiration and photosynthesis, as well as RNAs and proteins for transcription and translation. DNA makes up a very small percentage, around 0.1%, of the total dry weight of organellar material.
3. Endosymbiotic theory explains the origins of organellar genomes from once free-living prokaryotes that became incorporated into eukaryotic
121 lecture section 1 01.09.11.ppt
1. The document discusses molecular cell biology, including fundamental cell theory, taxonomy, sources of genetic variability, and model organisms.
2. It describes the key features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, such as plasma membranes, DNA, organelles, and differences in size and complexity.
3. Sources of genetic variability within and between species are explored, including meiosis, crossing over, transposable elements, gene duplication, and horizontal gene transfer.
Evolution
The document discusses several key topics related to molecular evolution and cell evolution:
1) All life on Earth descended from a single-celled common ancestor approximately 3.7 billion years ago. RNA may have functioned as the original self-replicating molecule before the emergence of DNA and proteins.
2) Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely originated through endosymbiotic relationships with bacteria, as evidenced by their retained genomes.
3) DNA and protein sequences can be compared to reconstruct evolutionary relationships and develop phylogenetic trees showing how groups of organisms are related. Slowly-evolving sequences like rRNA are used for distant comparisons, while rapidly-evolving mtDNA allows analysis of close relationships.
Neodarwinism or synthetic theory of evolution
Neo-Darwinism is a modified version of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It incorporates genetic variation as the raw material for evolution. Genetic variation arises from sources like mutations, recombination, and chromosomal changes. Natural selection leads to differential reproduction of adaptive variants, increasing their frequency over generations. Reproductive isolation maintains distinctiveness between species. According to Neo-Darwinism, evolution occurs through the appearance of genetic variation, its spread through populations by natural selection, and reproductive isolation leading to speciation.
Chapter 7 genome structure, chromatin, and the nucleosome (1)
This document provides an overview of genome structure and organization. It discusses the components of chromosomes, including DNA and histone and non-histone proteins. It describes differences in genome size and organization between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In humans, it notes the 22 pairs of autosomes and sex chromosomes. It also discusses repetitive and unique sequences in genomes, including pseudogenes, transposons, gene duplications, and the roles of introns and intergenic DNA.
13 and 14 powerpoint
A mutation is a mistake made when DNA is copied that can be passed from parent cells to daughter cells. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations which change a single gene, and chromosomal mutations which involve changes to whole chromosomes. Gene mutations include point mutations such as substitutions, insertions, and deletions. Chromosomal mutations include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Mutations can have harmful effects like genetic disorders but sometimes beneficial effects if they provide new functions. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes regulate genes differently, using operons, promoters/repressors, and transcription factors. Genetic disorders discussed include sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington's disease
Trends in evolution by faunafondness
Trends in evolution :- synopsis :- 1. INTRODUCTION
( DEFINITION OF EVOLUTION)
2.TRENDS IN EVOLUTION
3. DEFINITION OF MOLECULAR EVOLUTION
4.GENE EVOLUTION
*Mutation
*Horizontal gene transfer
*Sexual reproduction
5.EVOLUTION OF GENE FAMILIES
(Kind of gene families)
For more you can refer to www.faunafondness.com
Transposons2.pptx
transposon, class of genetic elements that can “jump” to different locations within a genome. Although these elements are frequently called “jumping genes,” they are always maintained in an integrated site in the genome. In addition, most transposons eventually become inactive and no longer move.1
Heridity and evoloution
Heredity refers to the passing of traits from parents to offspring. Variation means individuals have slight differences even if they belong to the same species. Genetics is the science of heredity and variation. During reproduction and cell division, small inaccuracies in DNA copying can lead to minor variations between individuals. However, not all variations provide equal chances of adaptation, as some variations may provide individuals with advantages depending on the environment. Mendel's experiments with pea plants showed that traits can be dominant or recessive, and are inherited independently. DNA contains the genetic information passed down from parents. In humans, sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes. Fossils provide evidence for evolution by showing extinct organisms and transitional forms between
Content of the genome
basic of the genome content,types of genomes,its size, factors altering the genome size, Genome complexity and c-value paradox
Introtocells 111109074946-phpapp01
This document provides an outline for a course on cell biology. It covers 10 main topics: introduction to cells, chemical foundations, methods of studying cells, genetic mechanisms, cell signaling, cell membranes and architecture, energetics, cellular traffic, cell birth/lineage/death, and the molecular basis of cancer. Grading will be based 50% on quizzes/exams and 50% on a seminar presentation. Presentations should last 1-2 hours and cover the topic comprehensively while maintaining audience impact.
Recombinant Dna technology, Restriction Endonucleas and Vector
Recombinant DNA technology allows DNA from different sources to be combined to form artificial DNA molecules. This is done by cutting the DNA with restriction enzymes and joining the pieces together with DNA ligase. The artificial DNA can then be inserted into host cells where it is replicated. This technology was developed in 1973 and has many important applications, including producing human insulin in bacteria to treat diabetes, creating genetically modified crops with desirable traits, and producing other proteins and vaccines. The basic steps involve isolating DNA, cutting it with restriction enzymes, ligating the pieces, introducing the DNA into host cells, replicating the DNA within the cells, and identifying cells containing the recombinant DNA.
genetic variation
1. All forms of life on Earth descended from a single common ancestor approximately 3.5 billion years ago. RNA may have predated cells as the original self-replicating molecule.
2. Genetic variation exists between and within species due to mutations, DNA recombination, viruses and mobile genetic elements. Sexual reproduction further increases genetic diversity.
3. The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs, with 1.5% coding for proteins. Half the genome consists of repetitive non-coding sequences. SNPs, indels and CNVs contribute to genetic variation between individuals.
Bacterial Genetics
This document summarizes bacterial genetics and the structure and replication of bacterial chromosomes. It notes that the bacterial chromosome is a single circular DNA molecule that replicates semi-conservatively. Genetic variation arises through mutation, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria, and extrachromosomal plasmids that can confer new traits. The genetic information is expressed through transcription and translation of DNA into mRNA and proteins.
CSHL
The document describes a comparative analysis of human chromosome 22q11.1-q12.3 and syntenic regions in chimpanzee, baboon, bovine, mouse, pufferfish and zebrafish genomes. It finds that while the human and chimpanzee genomes are about 98% identical, differences increase in other species like baboons at 92% and mice at 90%. Various deletions, duplications and other structural variations are observed between species. About half of predicted human genes on chromosome 22 have been experimentally validated.
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1 universal features of life on earth
- 1. Lecture 1 What is it to be alive? ©
- 4. Lecture 1
- 8. Lecture 1
- 9. Chapter 1
- 10. Lecture 1
- 11. Lecture 1
- 12. Lecture 1 Prokaryotic Gene Promoter Protein Coding Sequence Terminator Intron ~20 bp Eukaryotic Gene Exon 1 Exon 2 Exon 3 Promoter Intron ~2kb Intron>5kb Intron~5kb
- 13. Lecture 1
- 14. Lecture 1
- 15. So, who’s wrong? Both!
- 16. Lecture 1 One of the most profound technological accomplishments in human history is the sequencing of the human genome…
- 17. Lecture 1 One of the major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in the size/complexity of their genomes.
- 18. Lecture 1
- 19. Lecture 1
- 21. Mutation – a change in the nucleotide sequence of the genetic material of an organism – is the underlying force of evolution. •Mistakes during replication •Chemical Changes in the nucleic acids •UV – dimerization •Spontaneous decomposition – base changes •Chemical/physical changes at the chromosome level •Radiation (X-ray/Gamma) – double-strand breaks •Sexual reproduction (polyploidy)
- 22. Lecture 1 More than 200 gene families are common to all life. Most of these “orthologous genes” are essential.
- 23. Lecture 1 But how do they do this when most mutations tend to mess things up more than they improve them?
- 24. They must find a way to break free from the oppression of natural selection
- 25. Lecture 1 Duplication events Retroviruses Horizontal Gene Transfer - genes can be transferred between organisms both in the laboratory, and in nature.
- 26. hCYP3A Locus Chromosome-7 ~80% Homology 40 Kb 4 Kb 5 Kb P2 P1 3A43 3A4 3A7 3A5 43cDNA 4cDNA 7cDNA 5cDNA All have roughly 90% homology in the first 1000 bp of their promoters. Finta & Zaphiropoulos, 2000 Gellner et al., 2001
- 28. Lecture 1 Eukaryotes often have pseudogenes, duplicated genes that have accrued mutations that render them inactive, in their genomes. Mutated regulatory elements, frame shifts, addition/loss of stop codons, lost splice sites, deleterious mutations, etc.
- 30. Lecture 1
- 31. Conoidea based on 12S Ribosomal RNA
- 32. Lecture 1 We make assumptions when we do this… •Evolution is real - members of a group share a common evolutionary history, and are "closely related," more so to members of the same group than to other organisms. •Bifurcation - new kinds of organisms may arise when existing species or populations divide into exactly two groups. •Organisms change over time – closely-related groups are share synapomorphies, unique features not present in more distant ancestors And even more when we use gene sequences… •Mutations are a “one-way” street •We can assign a “value” for every base-pair mutated •“horizontal gene transfer” has not occurred among the orthologues.
- 33. Lecture 1 The identification and characterization of gene orthologues helps us in ever expanding ways: 1. Enhanced discovery • By finding regions that are highly conserved, primers can be designed to discover orthologues from new species 2. Accelerated science • We can compare gene sequences and hint at their function, expression patterns, etc. 3. More powerful experiments • We can plan methods to genetically engineer just about anything 4. GAAATAACA and Pharmacogenomics • We can peer into our own genomes and predict certain diseases and the success of many treatments