This document discusses theories of personality, including trait theories, type theories, and the five-factor model. Trait theories view personality characteristics on a continuum, while type theories view them as distinct categories. The five-factor model includes the traits of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Type A and Type B personality theories are also examined, with Type A individuals displaying aggressive, ambitious behaviors and Type B displaying more relaxed attitudes. The document provides background on the development of these theories.

1. Unit 3- Personality

2. Personality is the particular combination of emotional,
attitudinal, psychological and behavioural response
patterns of an individual. Personality is defined as the
characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions,
and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and
environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed
upon definition of personality, most theories focus
on motivation and psychological interactions with one's
environment.Trait-based personality theories, such as
those defined by Raymond Cattell, define personality as
the traits that predict a person's behavior. On the other
hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define
personality through learning and habits

3. According to Robert E. Park and Earnest W.
Burgess, personality is “the sum and
organisation of those traits which determine the
role of the individual in the group.”

4. • On the basis of these definitions it may be
said there are two main approaches to the
study of personality:
• The psychological, and
• The sociological

5. • The psychological approach considers personally as a
certain style peculiar to the individual. This style is
determined by the characteristic organisation of mental
trends, complexes, emotions and sentiments.The
psychological approach enables us to understand the
phenomena of personally disorganisation and the role of
wishes, of mental conflict, and of repression and
sublimation in the growth of personality.
• The sociological approach considers personality in terms of
the status of the individual in the group, in terms of his own
conception of his role in the group of which he is a
member. What others think of us plays a large part in the
formation of our personality.

6. To sum up we would say that
• Personality is not related to bodily structure alone. It
includes both structure and dynamics
• Personality is an indivisible unit.
• Personality is neither good nor bad.
• Personality is not a mysterious phenomenon.
• Every personality is unique.
• Personality refers to persistent qualities of the
individual. It expresses consistency and regularly.
• Personality is acquired.
• Personality is influenced by social interaction. It is
defined in terms of behaviour.

7. Determinants of Personality
• Personality and Environment- Man comes to form ideas
and attitudes according to the physical environment he
lives in.To the extent that the physical environment
determines cultural development and to the extent, that
culture in turn determines personality, a relationship
between personality and environment becomes clear.
Some two thousand years ago, Aristotle claimed that
people living in Northern Europe were owing to a cold
climate, full of spirit but lacking in intelligence and skill.
The natives of Asia, on the other hand, are intelligent and
inventive but lack in spirit, and are, therefore, slaves.

8. • Thus, climate and topography determine to a
great extent the physical and mental traits of a
people, but it cannot be said that they alone
determine human behaviour. Most kinds of
personality are found in every kind of culture.
The fact remains that civilizations have
appeared in regions of widely different climate
and topography. Christianity knows no climate
belts.

9. • Heredity and Personality:Heredity is another factor
determining human personality. Some of the
similarities in man’s personality are said to be due to
his common heredity. Every human group inherits
the same general set of biological needs and
capacities. These common needs and capacities
explain some of our similarities in personality. He
tends to resemble his parents in physical appearance
and intelligence. The nervous system, the organic
drives and the duchess glands have a great bearing
upon personality.

10. • Personality and Culture- There can be little doubt
that culture largely determines the types of
personality that will predominate in the particular
group. According to some thinkers, personality is the
subjective aspect of culture. They regard personality
and culture as two sides of the same coin. The
Eskimos are dirty because they have to hang a bag of
snow down their backs to melt it in order to get
water. A man who has just to turn on a tap of water
will naturally be more clean than an Eskimo.
Cleanliness, therefore, is a matter not of heredity but
of the type of culture. As for the connection between

11. • Personality and Particular Experiences- Personality
is also determined by another factor, namely, the
particular and unique experiences. There are two
types of experiences one, those that stem from
continuous association with one’s group, second,
those that arise suddenly and are not likely to recur.
The type of people who meet the child daily has a
major influence on his personality. The personality of
parents does more to affect a child’s personality.

12. Theories of Personality- Trait and Type
Theories
• Like other theories in personality psychology, these
two approaches attempt to systematically categorize
people, but go about this goal in different ways. The
essential difference between the trait theory and
type theory is this: type theory views characteristics
of people as discrete categories whereas trait theory
views these same characteristics as part of a larger
continuum. For example, where a type theorist
would claim that introverts and extroverts are two
types of people, a trait theorist would claim there is
a gradient leading from introversion to extroversion
and it is possible for individuals to fall somewhere in

13. • Personality traits are broad categories that
are enduring, stable, and can be
observed. Personality types are groups of
traits that are thought to always occur
together. Type theory, then, is the belief that
an individual's personality can be quantified
into a few unique categories. It's a theory that
has been around a long time and continues to
have a great many followers today.

14. Types of ‘Personality type’ theory
• The Four Humors
• Carl Jung: Eight Personality Types
Two of the noblest ancient Greek philosophers, Hippocrates
(400 BC) and Galen (140 AD) were among the first ones to
logically classify the personality types of people, which they
called “humors". The ancient Greek believed that each of the
4 humors was a result of an excess of one of the 4 bodily
fluids. For them, the excess amount of fluids determined a
person’s character. The 4 humors included choleric (yellow
bile), melancholic (black bile), sanguine (blood) and
phlegmatic (phlegm)

15. Carl Jung: Eight Personality Types
• The Personality Type Theory of Carl Jung was founded in his ideas
on what attitude means. For Jung, attitude is a person’s
predisposition to act in a certain manner. He said that there are two
contrasting attitudes- extroversion and introversion. The introvert
person is one that is more conscious of his inner world than his
environment. Although he still perceives the things going on around
him, he is more concerned of what’s going on inside himself. He
focuses on his own fantasies, ambitions, feelings and actions.
Subjectivity for this kind of person is greater than objectivity.
Typically, the “shy" personality is under the introvert type of
attitude. On the other hand, the extrovert person gives more
attention of what’s happening outside his inner world. His inner
cognitive processes are often set aside as he gets influenced by his
environment. Objectivity for this kind of person is greater than
subjectivity. In layman’s term, the “outgoing" personality is

16. • Another important concept in Jung’s theory is the four
functions of personality. The first function is “feeling",
which is when a person recognizes the worth of conscious
activities. The second one is “thinking", which makes a
person learn the meaning of something. The third one is
“sensation", which allows the person to know that a
particular thing exists. The last one is “intuition", which
gives him knowledge about something without having a
conscious understanding of where that knowledge
originated. When these 4 functions are combined with one
of the two types of attitudes, the result would be eight
varying types of personality

17. Five-Factor Model of Personality
These five factors include:
• Openness to experience
• Conscientiousness
• Extraversion
• Agreeableness
• Neuroticism

18. • Openness to Experience-The openness to
experience dimension of personality is characterised by a
willingness to try new activities. People with higher levels
of openness are amenable to unconventional ideas and
beliefs, including those which challenge their existing
assumptions.They enjoy artistic and cultural experiences,
visiting art galleries, museums, theatres, listening to music
and travelling to new destinations. They are more open to
unfamiliar cultures and customs.

19. • People with low levels of openness - those who
are closed to experience - are wary of uncertainty
and the unknown. They are more suspicious of
beliefs and ideas which challenge their status
quo.They feel uncomfortable in unfamiliar situations
and prefer familiar environments. Less open
individuals value the safety of predictability, and like
to adhere to well-known traditions and routines.
• Openness to experience is often associated with
intelligence when measuring personality factors.

20. • https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence
-personality/five-factor-test/openness-
experience-test

21. • Conscientiousness-People who are
conscientious are more aware of their actions
and the consequences of their behavior than
people who are unconscientious. They feel a
sense of responsibility towards other and are
generally careful to carry out the duties
assigned to them.Conscientious individuals
like to keep a tidy environment and are well-
organized. They are keen to maintain good
timekeeping.

22. • People with high conscientious levels also exhibit
more goal-oriented behavior. They set ambitious goals
and are motivated to achieve them. Undeterred by hard
work, they are keen to driven to succeed in every aspect
of their lives, including academic achievements and in
furthering their careers.
• Low levels of conscientiousness are reflected in less
motivated behavior. Unconscientious individuals are less
concerned by tidiness and punctuality. This may result in
them arriving late to appointments and meetings, and
being more relaxed in setting life goals.

23. • Unconscientious people tend to engage in
more impulsive behavior. They will act on a last-minute
whim rather than considering the consequences of their
choices.
• Research suggests that both environmental factors and
heritability may influence in conscientiousness.
• One survey found that participants whose parents had
displayed affectionate behavior towards them as
children were likely to report higher levels of
conscientiousness in adulthood (McCrae and Costa,
1988).

24. • https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence
-personality/five-factor-
test/conscientiousness-test

25. • Extraversion-Extraversion is characterised
by outgoing, socially confident behavior. Extraverts
are sociable, talkative and often forward in social
situations. They enjoy being the center of a group
and will often seek the attention of others. Extraverts
enjoy meeting new people and are happy to
introduce themselves to strangers, thriving in
company of others.This personality trait is measured
on a introversion-extraversion continuum.
Individuals who fit in the middle of the two traits are
described as ambiverts.

26. • Introverts - people with low levels of
extraversion, display contrasting behavior.
They are quieter and often feel shy around
other people. They may feel intimidated being
in large groups such as parties, and will often
try to avoid demanding social gatherings.
• Introverts enjoy being a part of smaller social
groups, preferably with familiar people.
• Such behavior results in introverts tending to
enjoy smaller social networks, but instead

27. • https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence
-personality/five-factor-test/extraversion-test

28. • Agreeableness-Individuals who score highly on
agreeableness measures are friendly and co-
operative. Often considered more likeable by their
peers and colleagues, agreeable people are trusting
of others and are more altruistic, willing to help
others during times of need.
• Their ability to work with others means that they
often work well as members of a team.
• Agreeable people dislike being involved in
arguments, conflict with others and other forms of
confrontation. They seek to pacify and appease
others, acting as the mediating ‘peace-maker’ of

29. • Individuals who are disagreeable score lower
on this dimension of personality. They are less
concerned with pleasing other people and
making friends. Disagreeable individuals are
more suspicious of other people’s intentions
and are less charitable.
• Instead, they are motivated to act in
accordance with their self-interest, showing
less regard for the needs of others. As a result,
they are perceived by others as being more

30. • https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence
-personality/five-factor-test/agreeableness-
test

31. • Neuroticism-This personality dimension is
measured on a continuum ranging
from emotional stability to emotional
instability, or neuroticism. People with high
neuroticism scores are often persistent
worriers. They are more fearful and often feel
anxious, over-thinking their problems and
exaggerating their significance. Rather than
seeing the positive in a situation, they may
dwell on its negative aspects.

32. • Neuroticism can result in a person coping less
successfully with common stressors in their day-to-day
lives. Instead, they will often become frustrated with
others and may feel angry if events do not occur as they
wish.
• People with low neuroticism scores are less preoccupied
by these negative concerns. They are able to remain
more calm in response to stressful situations, and view
problems in proportion to their importance. As a result,
they tend to worry about such problems to a lesser
extent.

33. • https://www.psychologistworld.com/influence
-personality/five-factor-test/neuroticism-quiz

34. Type A and Type B Personality
Types

35. • Type A and Type B personality characteristics
are two contrasting descriptions of traits. In
organizations, it is important to identify
individuals with these traits and understand
the best scenario for employee motivation,
output, and job accomplishment for both
types.

36. • Understanding personality traits is important in the
workplace. Type A and Type B are two contrasting
personality theories that explain how certain employee
characteristics can affect workplace behavior.
• People with Type A personality traits are aggressive,
ambitious, controlling, highly competitive, preoccupied
with status, workaholics, hostile, and lack patience.
People with Type B personality traits are relaxed, less
stressed, flexible, emotional and expressive, and have a
laid-back attitude.

38. Research Background
• Friedman and Rosenman (both cardiologists) actually
discovered the Type A behaviour by accident after they
realized that their waiting-room chairs needed to be
reupholstered much sooner than anticipated.
• When the upholsterer arrived to do the work, he carefully
inspected the chairs and noted that the upholstery had worn
in an unusual way: "there's something different about your
patients, I've never seen anyone wear out chairs like this."
• Unlike most patients, who wait patiently, the cardiac patients
seemed unable to sit in their seats for long and wore out the
arms of the chairs. They tended to sit on the edge of the seat
and leaped up frequently.

39. • However, the doctors initially dismissed this remark,
and it was only five years later that they began their
formal research.
• Friedman and Rosenman (1976) labeled this
behaviour Type A personality. They subsequently
conduced research to show that people with type A
personality run a higher risk of heart disease and
high blood pressure than type Bs.
• Although originally called 'Type A personality' by
Friedman and Rosenman it has now been
conceptualized as a set of behavioural responses
collectively known as Type A Behaviour Pattern.

40. Type A Behaviour Pattern
• CompetitivenessType A individuals tend to be very
competitive and self-critical. They strive toward goals
without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or
accomplishments.
• Interrelated with this is the presence of a significant
life imbalance. This is characterized by a high work
involvement. Type A individuals are easily ‘wound
up’ and tend to overreact. They also tend to have
high blood pressure (hypertension).

41. • Time Urgency-Type A personalities experience
a constant sense of urgency: Type A people
seem to be in a constant struggle against the
clock.
• Often, they quickly become impatient with
delays and unproductive time, schedule
commitments too tightly, and try to do more
than one thing at a time, such as reading
while eating or watching television.

42. • Hostility- Type A individuals tend to be easily aroused
to anger or hostility, which they may or may not
express overtly. Such individuals tend to see the
worse in others, displaying anger, envy and a lack of
compassion.
• When this behaviour is expressed overtly (i.e.,
physical behaviour) it generally involves aggression
and possible bullying (Forshaw, 2012). Hostility
appears to be the main factor linked to heart disease
and is a better predictor than the TAPB as a whole.

43. Type B Behaviour Pattern
• They work in a steady pace towards their goals. And
when they achieve their goals, they take time to
enjoy those achievements rather than just setting
new boundaries for themselves.
• They are not completely devastated when they fail to
meet their goals. Sure, they can be disappointed but
they are much more accepting of failures than the
Type A people.

44. • Because they are more accepting to failure, they even allow
themselves to experiment and fail, just for the sake of
experience. They are innovative and love exploring ideas
and concepts.
• They are reflective, often thinking about the inner and
outer worlds.
• They don’t always play to win. They like the idea of “love
for the game”.
• Their stress levels are lower and they are found to be even
tempered.
• They might even get too relaxed and laid-back, which could
prevent them from reaching the uppermost heights of their
careers.

45. Locus of Control
• Locus of control is a psychological concept that refers to how
strongly people believe they have control over the situations and
experiences that affect their lives. In education, locus of control
typically refers to how students perceive the causes of their
academic success or failure in school. Students with an “internal
locus of control” generally believe that their success or failure is a
result of the effort and hard work they invest in their education.
Students with an “external locus of control” generally believe that
their successes or failures result from external factors beyond their
control, such as luck, fate, circumstance, injustice, bias, or teachers
who are unfair, prejudiced, or unskilled. For example, students with
an internal locus of control might blame poor grades on their failure
to study, whereas students with an external locus of control may
blame an unfair teacher or test for their poor performance.

46. Internal vs. External Locus of Control
• People who base their success on their own work and
believe they control their life have an internal locus of
control. In contrast, people who attribute their success
or failure to outside influences have an external locus of
control.For example, let's say you're a person with an
internal locus of control and you get a promotion at work
or achieve some other type of success. You will probably
attribute that positive end result to the work you put in.
In other words, your success was a direct result of your
hard work.If, on the other hand, you have an external
locus of control, you might attribute that promotion or
success to external or environmental factors, such as
luck, fate, timing, other people or some type of divine

47. The Relationship Between Locus of Control and
Work Behavior
• Internal Locus of Control- People with an internal locus of
control perform well in school, are less vulnerable to
depression; they deal better with stress, are more satisfied
with their jobs and actively find solutions to their problems.
People with an internal locus of control are more determined
towards achieving their goals.
• The Impact on Employee Performance- External or internal
locus of control plays a very important role for people to
sustain usefulness and learning performance. The experiences
and knowledge gained by an individual through organizational
learning are crucial in increasing the performance of that
individual. It is, therefore, necessary for businesses to fulfill
learning in an arrangement and use it to improve employee
performance.

48. What Effects does the Locus of Control have on
your Health?
• Locus of control affects our health either directly
or indirectly. The feeling of control over what we
do can help us to reduce stress. It also affects our
physical health. People with an internal locus of
control relate their actions to their health. This
makes them more likely to get involved in
activities that are likely to keep them healthy
such as doing exercises, eating a balanced diet
and making appointments with their doctor on
regular occasions.

49. Myers-briggs Type Indicator
• The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a
self-help assessment test which helps people
gain insights about how they work and learn.
It is a framework for relationship-building,
developing positivism, and achieving
excellence.

50. The Development of the Myers-Briggs Test
• Both Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine
were fascinated by Jung's theory of psychological
types and recognized that the theory could have
real-world applications. During World War II,
Myers and Briggs began researching and
developing an indicator that could be utilized to
help understand individual differences. By helping
people understand themselves, Myers and Briggs
believed that they could help people select
occupations that were best suited to their
personality types and lead healthier, happier

51. • Based on the answers to the questions on the
inventory, people are identified as having one
of 16 personality types. The goal of the MBTI
is to allow respondents to further explore and
understand their own personalities including
their likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses,
possible career preferences, and compatibility
with other people.

52. Extraversion (E) - Introversion (I)
• The extraversion-introversion dichotomy was first explored
by Jung in his theory of personality types as a way to
describe how people respond and interact with the world
around them. While these terms are familiar to most
people, the way in which they are used here differs
somewhat from their popular usage.
• Extraverts are "outward-turning" and tend to be action-
oriented, enjoy more frequent social interaction, and feel
energized after spending time with other people. Introverts
are "inward-turning" and tend to be thought-oriented,
enjoy deep and meaningful social interactions, and feel
recharged after spending time alone. We all exhibit
extraversion and introversion to some degree, but most of

53. Sensing (S) - Intuition (N)
• This scale involves looking at how people gather
information from the world around them. Just like with
extraversion and introversion, all people spend some time
sensing and intuiting depending on the situation. According
to the MBTI, people tend be dominant in one area or the
other. People who prefer sensing tend to pay a great deal of
attention to reality, particularly to what they can learn from
their own senses. They tend to focus on facts and details
and enjoy getting hands-on experience. Those who prefer
intuition pay more attention to things like patterns and
impressions. They enjoy thinking about possibilities,
imagining the future, and abstract theories.

54. Thinking (T) - Feeling (F)
• This scale focuses on how people make
decisions based on the information that they
gathered from their sensing or intuition
functions. People who prefer thinking place a
greater emphasis on facts and objective data.
They tend to be consistent, logical, and
impersonal when weighing a decision. Those
to prefer feeling are more likely to consider
people and emotions when arriving at a
conclusion.

55. Judging (J) - Perceiving (P)
• The final scale involves how people tend to
deal with the outside world. Those who lean
toward judging prefer structure and firm
decisions. People who lean toward perceiving
are more open, flexible, and adaptable. These
two tendencies interact with the other scales.
Remember, all people at least spend some
time extraverting. The judging-perceiving scale
helps describe whether you extravert when
you are taking in new information (sensing