Sustainable utilization of rivers for domestic water needs in towns and cities requires continuous assessment of the effects of human activities on the quality of the rivers. The objectives of this study were to identify the sources of pollution in River Kaduna and to examine the implications of pollution in water quality of the river on human health. Data required for the study were land use types, Government documents and Hospital records. Data were obtained through field observation and administration of questionnaire. The study adopted the survey design while Purposive sampling technique was used in administration of questionnaire. Descriptive Statistics were shown in tables in unit of percentages. Likert scale data analysis was employed in measuring respondents’ perception on the effects of pollution in the water quality of River Kaduna. The major sources of pollution in River Kaduna are agricultural run-off, industrial effluents and discharges liquid wastes. Results showed that human activities have effects on the quality of River Kaduna. The results also showed that cases of water related diseases are high in the study area. The findings revealed that the variety and level of pollution in River Kaduna is related to the size of population and land use activities on the various parts of the Metropolis from where it receives run-off and pollutants. The research drew attention of the authorities on the urgent need to regulate human activities along the river and encourage low cost technology for the treatment of well water and polluted rivers in the metropolis. These actions will guarantee sustainable utilization of River Kaduna as a potable source of water supply.

1. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and
the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
1Shenpam, Godwin Daniel, *2Danjuma, Andembutop Kwesaba, 3Umaru Benjamin
1,2,3Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Federal University Wukari, Nigeria
Sustainable utilization of rivers for domestic water needs in towns and cities requires continuous
assessment of the effects of human activities on the quality of the rivers. The objectives of this
study were to identify the sources of pollution in River Kaduna and to examine the implications
of pollution in water quality of the river on human health. Data required for the study were land
use types, Government documents and Hospital records. Data were obtained through field
observation and administration of questionnaire. The study adopted the survey design while
Purposive sampling technique was used in administration of questionnaire. Descriptive Statistics
were shown in tables in unit of percentages. Likert scale data analysis was employed in
measuring respondents’ perception on the effects of pollution in the water quality of River
Kaduna. The major sources of pollution in River Kaduna are agricultural run-off, industrial
effluents and discharges liquid wastes. Results showed that human activities have effects on the
quality of River Kaduna. The results also showed that cases of water related diseases are high in
the study area. The findings revealed that the variety and level of pollution in River Kaduna is
related to the size of population and land use activities on the various parts of the Metropolis from
where it receives run-off and pollutants. The research drew attention of the authorities on the
urgent need to regulate human activities along the river and encourage low cost technology for
the treatment of well water and polluted rivers in the metropolis. These actions will guarantee
sustainable utilization of River Kaduna as a potable source of water supply.
Key words: River Kaduna, Sustainable utilization, Pollutants, Water born and water related diseases.
INTRODUCTION
As a result of rapid population growth and increase in
standard of living/industrial activities, every corner of the
globe is however making increasing demands upon water
resource in its surrounding, thereby altering its quality and
quantity. For land-based forms of life, however, about 97%
of water is not available for consumption because of its
salinity (David, 1990). Even the 3% that is fresh water often
is not readily available for human use, as much of it is
either locked in glacial ice or is stored underground. It is
also important to point out that water as a geographical
entity is not distributed uniformly over the surface of the
earth, yet pollutants are being discharged into surface
water bodies that run through urban areas thereby leading
to the deterioration of its quality (Cooper, Hewitt and
Cooke, 1987).In Nigeria, urban population growth and
industrial demands on water have been on the increase,
and water quality has experienced remarkable changes.
Rapid population growth, industrialization and urban
development with their attendant environmental problems
have continued in Kaduna state and have created stress
on water quality of Kaduna River (Kaduna State
Environmental Protection Authority (KEPA, 1996).
*Corresponding Author: Danjuma, Andembutop
Kwesaba, Department of Hospitality and Tourism
Management, Federal University Wukari, Nigeria.
E-mail: andedanjuma99@gmail.com;
Co-Authors 1
Email: shenpamgodwin@yahoo.com;
3
Email: umarubenjamin@gmail.com
Case Study
Vol. 5(2), pp. 115-121, October, 2019. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 2021-6009
International Journal of Geography and Regional Planning

2. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Shenpam et al. 116
A healthy environment is one in which the water quality
supports and protects health. Ensuring adequate
protection of surface water of River Kaduna will
necessitate continuous monitoring of the water quality as
population grows and industrialization increases. Poor
water quality usually becomes a major constraint on
development, if not adequately considered within a given
development programme (Shenpam, 2016). This is
because water resource conditions are complementary to
many other development inputs. However, water for
domestic use, agricultural production, industrial activities
and other factors can alter the chemical, biological and
physical characteristics of water in ways that can threaten
ecosystem integrity and human health (Anyadike and
Obeta, 2013). The major sources of water quality problems
are from human settlements, industrial and agricultural
activities which are the predominant land use zones in
Kaduna metropolis. Negative factors related to these
activities include unhygienic disposal and inadequate
treatment of human and livestock wastes, deficient
management and treatment of industrial residues,
inappropriate agricultural practices and unsafe solid waste
discharge. For example, reports show over 80% of sewage
in developing countries is discharged untreated directly
into water bodies, (United Nations Water, 2011). Industries
are responsible for dumping an estimated 300-400 million
tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge and other
wastes into water each year (Obasi and Balogun, 2001).
Rapid urban industrialization, socio-economic
development, population growth and increase in industrial
activities in Kaduna metropolis appear to cause both water
pollution and water resources depletion of Kaduna River
(Essoka and Umaru, 2006). The river cuts across the city,
dividing it into northern and southern halves. The southern
part of the city is widely known as the industrial belt of the
city. It accomondates three industrial layouts namely
Kakuri, Makera and Kudenda (KEPA, 1996). The northern
part of the city consists of commercial centres, high and
low income residential houses, millitary barracks and
educational institutions. This river also serves as the main
source of water for Kaduna metropolis, and its industries
and irrigation agriculture that take place within and near
the channel of the river (KEPA, 1996). It is also used for
drinking, bathing, swimming and fishing by the rural
population living down stream of the river. Therefore,
considering the roles that rivers and streams play in water
supply to the inhabitants of their immediate environments
and the increasing human activities around them, the
neeed for constant monitoring and assessment of the
quality of such water bodies becomes highly imperative
(Shenpam, 2016).
STUDY AREA
Kaduna metropolis occupies a total land area of 260 km2
and is located at latitudes 80581N-110301N and at
longitudes6031-E-80481E. It is located in the central area of
what used to be called the Northern Region of Nigeria
(Jehu, 2002).Kaduna derived its name from a Hausa plural
word “Kadduna” meaning crocodiles. This name was given
to the town because of the presence of crocodiles in the
river in the past that now divides the town into two, also
called Kaduna River. During the colonial era, Kaduna grew
both as a garrison town and an administrative centre. With
the creation of states by the Federal Government in 1967,
Kaduna ceased to be the capital of Northern Nigeria. It
became the capital of Kaduna State and has emerged as
a strategic centre for industries, defence, commerce and
educational institutions.Kaduna today ranks second only
to Kano in Northern Nigeria in terms of population,
industrialand commercial activities.
Fig. 1: Map of Kaduna State.
Source: Department of Geography, Kaduna State
University, 2016
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted a survey design and data were
collected from both primary and secondary sources. Data
were obtained through direct field observation and
questionnaire to the respondents. Sources of data for this
study included; Government agencies, documentaries and
literature review. Hospital records were obtained from
Kaduna State Ministry of Health and Dr. Gwamna Awan
General Hospital, Kakuri in Kaduna Metropolis. Purposive
and Random sampling techniques were used in data
collection. Descriptive Statistics in the form of mean,
percentages, frequencies were used in the analysis of the
data collected and illustrated in tabular forms. Equally,
Likert 4 type scale was employed in assessing the effects
of human activities on water quality of River Kaduna in
relation to human health.

3. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Int. J. Geogr. Reg. Plan. 117
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
From Table 1, 15% and 38.1% of the sampled population
‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ that, Kaduna River water is
used for drinking, while 40% and 6.9% ‘Disagreed and
‘Strongly disagreed’ with the opinion. Further, 32.9% and
45.2% ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ that Kaduna River is
use for domestic purposes like cooking and washing
among others. Also, 49.6% and 29.5% of the respondents
‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ that Kaduna River is use
for industrial purposes. Some people such as water vendor
use the water of the river as their source of income. Face
to face interview with some of the respondents showed
that a jerry-can of water goes for Ten Naira. 32.4% and
29.5% ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ with the opinion.
Some also use the river for irrigation farming, while 35.4%
and 43.7% of the sampled population ‘Strongly Agreed’
and ‘Agreed’ with the opinion. This may tend to suggest
that River Kaduna is used by the residents for various
purposes as seen from Table 1. The data on above Table
1 also shows whether or not patronage of hospitals and
health care facilities in Kaduna metropolis is on the
increase as a result of intake of polluted water. The result
indicates that 36.6% of the sampled population ‘Strongly
Agreed’ that patronage of hospitals and other health care
facilities is on the increase in the study area. 142
respondents representing 34.9% agreed with the opinion;
while 83 respondents (20.4%) and 33 respondents (8.1%)
‘Disagreed’ and ‘Strongly Disagreed’ with the opinion.
Based on this and the computed mean score of 3, it might
tend to suggest that patronage of hospitals and other
health care facilities in the Kaduna metropolis is on the
increase.
Result on high incidence of typhoid as a result of intake of
poor water quality shows that, 205 (50.4%) and 133
(32.7%) ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ with the opinion.
However, 38 respondents representing 9.3% ‘Strongly
Agreed’ with the opinion. This goes to show that high
incidence of typhoid in the study area may be as a result
of their intake of poor water quality. This was further
supported by the factual information obtained from Kaduna
State Ministry of Health and Dr. Gwamna Awan General
Hospital; Kakuri-Kaduna (Table 2). The research went
further to show whether incidence of cholera is related to
poor quality drinking water. Result shows that 49.6% and
34.2% of the sampled population ‘Strongly Agreed’ and
‘Agreed’ with the view, while 10.6% and 5.7% strongly
disagreed and disagreed with the opinion (Table 1). This
tends to suggest that incidence of cholera in the study area
may be related to poor quality drinking water as seen from
the result on Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
On whether the intake of polluted water leads to dysentery
in Kaduna metropolis, 45.2% and 37.1% of the
respondents ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ with the view.
This shows that incidence of dysentery may be related to
intake of polluted water (Tables 1 and 2). On whether
Infectious hepatitis is as a result of intake of poor water
quality, 23.6% and 34.9% strongly agreed and agreed with
the opinion; while 25.3% and 16.2% ‘disagreed’ and
‘strongly disagreed’ with the opinion. From the result, it
tends to suggest that infectious hepatitis may be caused
by intake of poor water quality. This is further seen from
the high incidence of the disease recorded in 2013 in
Kaduna metropolis (Table 2). Other waterborne diseases
such as guinea worm, diarrhea, calibacillosis,
salmonellusis, brucellosis and helminthosis all recorded
high cases in the study area as shown from the result. For
example, in the case of diarrhea; result shows that 114
respondents representing 28% and 168 respondents
(41.3%) ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ that incidence of
diarrhea was in the increase in Kaduna metropolis.
Hospital records also confirmed that as shown in Table 2.
Research also shows that intake of polluted water may
lead to weakness in human systems and loss of man
power and absenteeism from work as seen from the
response of the sampled population (Table 1). Intake of
polluted water may also lead to high morbidity and
mortality rate as shown from the result.
Impact of industrial and other wastes effluents and
discharges into Kaduna River could result to water quality
impairment, which may lead to degradation of aquatic
ecosystem like fish on which human health depends as a
source of protein. This may also limit the recreational use
of the river. Results for these items showed high record as
seen on Table 1. This may tend to suggest that
degradation of water quality of River Kaduna has effects
on the residents of the metropolis as seen from the
empirical research result on Table 1 and the hospital
record on Table 2. The findings of the study further shows
that, water quality pollutants such as pesticides and
chemical fertilizers are on the increase in River Kaduna as
a result of agricultural practices along its bank. 147
respondents representing 36.1% and 156 respondents
(38.3%) ‘Strongly Agreed’ and ‘Agreed’ to the opinion
(Table 1). This may lead to high incidence of water borne
and water related diseases and may lead to high cost of
treatment which may increase poverty among the people
of the metropolis. Therefore, we may tend to conclude that
poor water quality of River Kaduna has effects on the
residents of Kaduna metropolis which may directly or
indirectly depend on the water resources of Kaduna River
for drinking and other domestic uses. Twenty seven
percent of Nigerians depended absolutely on streams,
ponds, rivers, and rainwater for their drinking water
sources (Obasi and Balogun, 2001). Research has shown
high prevalence of water borne diseases such as cholera,
diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis, etc among Nigerians. The
need for water quality monitoring is paramount to
safeguard public health and also to protect the water
resources in Kaduna Metropolis.

4. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Shenpam et al. 118
Table 1: Uses and Consequences of pollution of River Kaduna
Uses and Consequences of pollution in water quality of River Kaduna 4 3 2 1
S/N Items Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
TotalMean
22
Kaduna river is used for drinking
61
15%
155
38.1%
163
40%
28
6.9%
407
3.11
23
Kaduna river is used for domestic uses (cooking, washing of plates)
134
32.9%
184
45.2%
57
14%
32
7.9%
407
3.03
24
Kaduna river is used for industrial purposes
202
49.6%
139
34.2%
23
5.7%
43
10.6%
407
3.23
25
Kaduna river is a source of income (water vendor)
132
32.4%
120
29.5%
99
24.3%
56
13.8%
407
2.81
26
Kaduna river is good for irrigation farming
144
35.4%
178
43.7%
48
11.8%
37
9.1%
407
3.05
27 Patronage of hospitals and other health care facilities in Kaduna metropolis
is on the increase
149
36.6%
142
34.9%
83
20.4%
33
8.1%
407
3.00
28
High incidence of typhoid is as a result of intake of poor water quality
205
50.4%
133
32.7%
31
7.6%
38
9.3%
407
3.24
29
Incidence of cholera is related to poor quality drinking water
202
49.6%
139
34.2%
23
5.7%
43
10.6%
407
3.23
30
Intake of polluted water leads to dysentery
184
45.2%
151
37.1%
36
8.8%
36
8.8%
407
3.19
31 Infectious hepatitis is as a result of intake of poor water quality from
Kaduna River
96
23.6%
142
34.9%
103
25.3%
66
16.2%
407
2.66
32 Guinea worm prevalence in Kaduna metropolis is as a result of intake of
polluted water from Kaduna River
132
32.4%
139
34.2%
107
26.3%
29
7.1%
407
2.92
33 Costs of health treatment as a result of intake of polluted Kaduna River
water is on the increase
115
28.3%
145
35.6%
119
29.2%
28
6.9%
407
2.85
34 Water related diseases such as diarrhea, is on the increase in Kaduna
metropolis
114
28%
168
41.3%
94
23.1%
31
7.6%
407
2.90
35
Intake of polluted water can lead to weakness in human systems
163
40%
155
38.1%
61
15%
28
6.9%
407
3.11
36 Diseases such as colibacillosis, salmonellosis, brucellosis, and
helminthosis are contacted as a result of contact with polluted water
92
22.6%
125
30.7%
102
25.1%
88
21.6%
407
2.54
37
Intake of polluted water may lead to high mortality rate
155
38.1%
171
42%
54
13.3%
27
6.6%
407
3.12
38 Polluted water may lead to high morbidity rate when used for domestic
and other related needs
136
33.4%
167
41%
81
19.9%
23
5.7%
407
3.02
39
It may lead to loss of man power and absenteeism from work
134
32.9%
184
45.2%
57
14%
32
7.9%
407
3.03
40 Impacts of industrial and other wastes effluent into Kaduna River could
result to water quality impairment
174
42.8%
165
40.5%
36
8.8%
32
7.9%
407
3.18
41 Reduction in fish abundance which is a source of protein to man is
attributed to pollution of Kaduna River
169
41.5%
145
35.6%
55
13.5%
38
9.3%
407
3.09
42
Pollution of Kaduna River limits its use for recreation
152
37.3%
153
37.6%
72
17.7%
30
7.4%
407
3.05
43 Water pollution may lead to degradation of aquatic ecosystem on which
human health depends
174
42.8%
162
39.8%
43
10.6%
28
6.9%
407
3.18
44 High expenditure on treatment of water related diseases may increase
poverty among the people
147
36.1%
157
38.6%
76
18.7%
27
6.6%
407
3.04
45
It may lead to degradation of water quality of Kaduna River
151
37.1%
183
45%
45
11.1%
28
6.9%
407
3.12
46 Surface water pollution is one of environmental challenges in Kaduna
metropolis
144
35.4%
178
43.7%
48
11.8%
37
9.1%
407
3.05
47 Water quality pollutants such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers are on
the increase in Kaduna River as a result of agricultural practices along the
river bank.
147
36.1%
156
38.3%
57
14%
47
11.5%
407
2.99
48
Water pollution is unstoppable and human is to blame
132
32.4%
120
29.5%
99
24.3%
56
13.8%
407
2.81
Source: Field survey, 2016

5. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Int. J. Geogr. Reg. Plan. 119
Table 2: Trend of Some Water Borne/Water Related Diseases in Kaduna Metropolis (2003-2013)
Year Typhoid Cholera Dysentery Hepatitis Malaria Diarrhea
2003 817 32 15 19 10,906 50
2004 1,538 40 50 134 2,040 164
2005 3,097 22 34 37 3,575 380
2006 7,366 61 26 158 9,079 641
2007 529 40 200 94 4,668 2,407
2008 1000 30 152 105 20,315 6,371
2009 809 18 500 84 23,758 7,528
2010 608 13 460 11 11,086 3,146
2011 1,024 843 76 10 3,113 1,999
2012 60 165 550 782 30,855 5,788
2013 251 136 743 1,058 70,918 6,238
Sources: Kaduna State Ministry of Health and DR. Gwamna Awan General Hospital, Kakuri, Kaduna, 2014
As seen on Table 2, the trend of the prevalence of water
borne/related diseases in Kaduna metropolis in 2003 to
2013 showed that malaria was the most prevalent. This
was because the number of malaria cases recorded
(10,906) was higher than the other diseases. Typhoid was
next with 817 cases, followed by diarrhea (50 cases),
cholera (32 cases), hepatitis (19 cases) and dysentery (15
cases). This shows that water related disease (malaria)
was the most highly recorded case, followed by typhoid
(water born) disease. Malaria cases in 2004 dropped from
10,906 to 2,040 cases, but this could not be said about
others. For instance, typhoid (which recorded the next
highest case) increased from 817 to 1,538. In the order of
most recorded cases, diarrhea had the next case of 164.
Hepatitis was next with 134 cases followed by dysentery
(50) and cholera (40 cases) was the least.
Contrastingly, malaria cases increased from 2,040 to
3,575. Similarly, typhoid with next highest case also
increased from 1,538 in 2004 to 3,097. Diarrhea (380
cases) followed, and in that order by hepatitis (37 cases),
dysentery (34 cases) and least cases was cholera (22
cases). In 2006, malaria cases continued its dominant and
increasing rate with a sharp increase to 9,079. Malaria is
followed in this order by typhoid (7,366 cases), diarrhea
(641 cases), hepatitis (158 cases), cholera (61 cases) and
dysentery (26 cases). There were drops in the number of
cases of these diseases in 2007 except in dysentery which
increased from 26 in 2006 to 200 in 2007. Despite this
increase, the incidence of malaria was still more than that
of other disease (4,668 cases). Malaria is followed at a
distance by diarrhea (2,407 cases), typhoid (529 cases),
dysentery (200 cases), hepatitis (94 cases) and lastly by
cholera (40 cases). The reported cases of these diseases
increased in 2008 except for dysentery and cholera which
decreased. Specifically, the cases were still most in
malaria (20,315 cases) followed by diarrhea (6,371),
typhoid (1000), dysentery (152), hepatitis was (105) and
least was cholera (30). Malaria continued its increasing
trend in 2009 by rising to 23,758 and it was followed by
diarrhea (7,528), typhoid (809), dysentery (500 cases),
hepatitis was (84 cases) and least was cholera (18 cases).
Year 2010 recorded a drop-in trend for all the cases.
Specifically, malaria still dominated with 11,068 cases and
was followed in that order by diarrhea (3,146 cases),
typhoid (608 cases), dysentery (460 cases), cholera (13
cases) and hepatitis (11 cases). In 2011, malaria
continued its domination of the recorded cases of 3,113
and is followed at a distance by diarrhea (1,999 cases),
typhoid (1,024 cases), cholera (843 cases), dysentery (76
cases) and the hepatitis (10 cases).
Meanwhile, 2012 recorded a drastic fall in the number of
cases of typhoid from 1,024 in 2011 to only 60 cases in
2012. But cases of other diseases increased noticeably
with malaria increasing from 3,113 cases in 2011 to 30,855
in 2012. On the other hand, the number of cases of malaria
remained the highest and is followed by diarrhea (5,788
cases), hepatitis (782 cases), dysentery (550 cases),
cholera (165 cases) and the least typhoid (60 cases).
Lastly, 2013 recorded a small decrease only in the cases
of cholera from 165 cases in 2012 to 136 cases in 2013.
The same could not be said about other diseases as they
moved up greatly. Precisely, malaria increased from
30,855 in 2012 to 70,918 in 2013, while, typhoid and
hepatitis increased to 251 and 1,058 from 60 and 782 in
2012 respectively. Malaria dominated the number of
recorded cases in 2013 with 70,918 and is followed in that
order by diarrhea (6,238 cases), hepatitis had (1,058
cases), dysentery had (743 cases), typhoid had (251
cases) and lastly cholera had (136 cases).
In general, the trend of these diseases was such that it
moved up quickly and at sometimes fell easily.
Specifically, malaria had the highest movement because it
started with 10,906 in 2003 drop to 2,040 in 2004 and
continued in that trend until 2012 when it increased from
3,113 in 2011 to 30,855 and increased higher to 70,918 in
2013. From the above, it tends to suggest that incidence
of some water borne/ water related diseases are on the
increase in the study area. For example, cases of malaria
which is water related disease and diarrhea and hepatitis
are on the increase in Kaduna metropolis most especially
in the year 2013. This may be as a result of persistent
crises in the study area which rendered many people
homeless exposing them to mosquito bites and intake of
any available water whose sources and quality are not
known and River Kaduna may be their last resort.

6. Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria
Shenpam et al. 120
On all, the costs of urban environmental degradation,
damage to human health is by far the highest. There is a
direct link between urban environment degradation and
mobile health in terms of water related diseases such as
diarrhea, dysentery, cholera and typhoid. The rapid growth
of urban centers coupled with the development of
unstructured infrastructural and social services have
created an environmental situation in many parts of the
world which has effects on healthy living. Studies have
shown that zonotic diseases (diseases of animals
transmitted to human) are yet to be eliminated or fully
controlled in about 80% of the public abattoir in Nigeria
(WHO, 2011) thus, this may pose environmental health
risk to the people.
CONCLUSION
The study looked at the various ‘Land Use Zones’ along
the stretch of River Kaduna and achieved both ‘good
ecological and chemical’ status. Surface water as an
environmental resource is regenerative in the sense that it
could absorb pollution loads up to certain levels without
affecting its quality. The control of surface water pollution
is therefore needed to reduce the pollution loads from
anthropogenic activities which may have effects on human
health in particular. Moreover, the aquatic environment
may be affected in general, and to the natural regenerative
capacity of the resource. Hence the need for constant
monitoring is a vital issue.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Given the complexity and magnitude of the challenges
outlined above, an effective response to surface water
pollution will involve intensive action by all stakeholders,
including the public and private sectors and civil society to
combat water pollution problems that can form the basis of
policy solutions for improving water quality (UN Water,
2011). Hence, prevention of pollution from the source;
treatment of polluted water; safe use of wastewater; and
restoration and protection of ecosystems are the most
important initiatives for water resource management in this
21st century.
In industries, solutions with reformulating products to
produce lesser pollution, as well as, requires lesser
resources (including water) during their manufacture;
reduce use of toxic materials for pest control, nutrient
application and overall water usage in agricultural activities
might reduce pollution.
In cases where contaminants result from domestic,
industrial or agricultural activities, wastewater must be
treated before discharging. Treatment strategies for
contaminated water range along a continuum from high-
technology, energy-intensive approaches to low-
technology, low-energy, biologically and ecologically
focused approaches.
Wastewater is usually disposed off into water bodies,
ideally following treatment to render it environmentally
safe. However, it can be safely used, sometimes even
untreated, in circumstances where impacts on human
health and the environment are well understood and all
possible actions are taken to eliminate risks. If well
regulated, safe use of wastewater, for example in
agriculture, can reduce the pressure exerted by human
activities on existing freshwater resources and augment
water supply in water-scarce and semi-arid zones and in
rapidly growing peri-urban settings. Other strategies
include:
i. Better understanding of water quality and its impacts
through improved monitoring, data collection and
analysis, and scenario building,
ii. More effective communication, education and
advocacy,
iii. Improved financial and economic approaches,
iv. Improved legal and institutional arrangements,
v. Improved technology and infrastructure.
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Accepted 28 September 2019
Citation: Shenpam GD, Danjuma AK, Umaru B (2019).
Assessment of Human Activities on River Kaduna and the
Health Implications in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria.
International Journal of Geography and Regional Planning
5(2): 115-121.
Copyright: © 2019: Shenpam et al. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.