The document discusses pre-construction site works for building construction. It covers site survey including contouring and leveling the site. It also discusses setting the datum level, marking the ground floor plan, and installing profile boards. Further, it addresses excavation for foundations including timbering trenches, and removing top soil and ensuring site drainage. Preventative measures for dampness are also outlined such as selecting well-draining sites, surface treatments, and installing damp proof courses.

1. BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION

2. PRE-CONSTRUCTION SITE
WORKS

3. (1) SITE SURVEY
(1) First of all site is surveyed and
topographical details are drawn
on the site plan. Plane table,
Auto level and theodolite are
used for this purpose.
(2) Contouring is done by any
suitable method of contouring
and the contours are drawn on
the site plan.
(3) Following the contour map, site is
leveled doing necessary cuttings
and fillings with the help of any
suitable machinery.

4. (4) The datum level is set out.
 It is a level marked on the sections of the
drawings, from which all heights and depths
are marked in figures.
 The datum is usually taken as the surface of
the finished ground floor, abbreviated on the
working drawing as F.F.L.
 It is set out by a leveling instrument.
 A peg is driven into the ground such that its
top is at the F.F.L.
(1) SITE SURVEY

5. (5) The ground floor plan is marked
on the ground.
 First of all center lines of all walls are marked
on the ground.
 Right angles are taken by cross staff, optical
square or more precisely, by a Theodolite.
 The lines showing the intended lines of
foundation trenches are marked by driving
wooden pegs along these lines.
(1) SITE SURVEY

6. (2) PROFILE BOARDS
 These are horizontal wooden boards fixed on
edge, outside the foundation dig for a building.
 The level at which these are fixed is usually
basement or ground floor (or a convenient
place).

8. (3) REMOVAL OF TOP SOIL
 Before the foundation trenches are excavated, the
surface vegetation, roots, plants, shrubs and usually
all the top soil up to a depth of 150 mm to 300 mm will
have to be removed, from the area of the site to be
covered by the building.
 This is done to ensure that the ground, upon which the
structure is to be built, will be sterile (free from
decomposable material i.e., organic material).
 The removed top soil is valuable for subsequent use in
the garden lay-out.

9. (4) SITE DRAINAGE
 The building regulations also require that sub-
soil of any site to be used for building must be
effectively drained.
(5) EXCAVATION
 When the setting out is completed and the profiles
are in position, excavation of the trenches for the
foundation is started.
(As per design requirements)

10. EXCAVATION
 Machines: Hydraulic Diggers ,Tractor Shovel , Dumper
 When soil has been tipped by the Digger, it can be
lifted by the Tractor Shovel and put into the Dumper,
to be carried away and discharged, where ever it is
required for making up levels on the site.
 While Excavation, Safety should never be ignored.

11. Timbering of trenches in Hard Soil
(With a central strut to each pair of Poling Boards)

12. Timbering of trenches in Hard Soil
(With two struts to each pair of Poling Boards)

13. Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil
(With Walings strutted at alternate Poling Boards )

14. Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil
(With a central Waling strutted at every fourth Poling Board)

15. Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil
(With a simple Waling strutted at 2 m interval)

16. Timbering of trenches in Loose Soil
(With horizontal sheeting)

17. Timbering of trenches in Loose Soil
(With vertical sheeting)

18. Timbering of
trenches in
very loose
soil
(With Runners)

19. Details of Boards (Optional)
Slide 20-24

20. Timbering of Trenches
The various members used in timbering are:-
(I) POLING BOARDS
 The members placed vertically on the sides
of trenches directly or after providing sheeting
are known as Poling boards.
 The size of poling boards may vary from 1.75
cm x 32 cm. to 22.5 cm. x 4 cm.

21. (ii) WALING, WALES OR PLANKS
 The members placed horizontally on sides of
the trenches or against Poling boards are
known as Walings, wales or planks.
 The various sizes of Walings are 10 x 7.5, 10
x 10, 15 x 15, 17.5 x 5, 22.5 x 5, 22.5 x 7.5
cm.
 Their length may vary from 2.5 to 4.5 m.

22. (iii) STRUTS
 The horizontal members of timber driven across the
trenches between Poling boards or Walings are
known as Struts.
 The Struts are driven at a minimum distance of 2 m
center to center.
 The Struts may be circular , having diameter 7.5 m
to 12.5 cm. or square 7.5 cm. to 10 x 10 cm. in
section.

23. (iii) SHEETING
 The members which are placed horizontally or vertically
close to the sides of the trenches for supporting their
sides are called Sheeting.
 The length of sheeting may vary from 2.5 to 4.5 m.
 The horizontal sheeting is supported by Poling boards
and the vertical sheeting by Waling.

24. (iv) RUNNERS
 The members which are vertically placed behind the
Walings instead of the Poling boards are called Runners.
 The Runners are long planks about 7.5 cm. thick and 1.75
to 22.5 cm wide.
 They are pointed at their lower end and sometimes
provided with an iron shoe and iron cap.

25. DAMPNESS
The access or penetration of moisture
content inside a building through its walls,
floors, or roof is known as DAMPNESS.

26. SOURCES OF DAMPNESS
 Damp rising from the soil either through the bottom or
through the ground surface, adjacent to the walls.
 Moisture penetrating the walls as a result of rain beating
on them during continued wet weather.
 Moisture penetrating into the building through defective
construction, such as rain water pipes, leaking roofs,
leaking or choked gutters, etc.
 Damp rising from the ground either because there is no
damp proof course or because the existing D.P.C. has
been bridged by the earth outside, being banked up to
form a flower bed or another purpose.

27. ILL EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS
 It causes rots to the wooden members provided in the
building.
 It causes corrosion of the metals, used in the
construction of a building.
 It causes peeling off and removal of plaster.
 It causes paints to get blistered and bleached and the
surface thus gets disfigured.
 It causes floors of the building to remain ugly, since they
cannot be cleaned well.
Read yourself

28. ILL EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS
 Carpets if used on the floors of a damped building, gets
destroyed earlier.
 All electric installations get destroyed.
 It reduces the life of the structure as a whole.
 When dampness rises into brickwork, certain salts
dissolved in it also rise with it and appear in the form of
white deposit on the wall surface due to which brickwork
disintegrates and falls to powder.
 It causes unhygienic conditions for the occupants of the
building and affects adversely their health.
 Dampness produces unpleasant smell, foul air, mildew
fungus, which makes it impossible to store supplies of
household goods.
Read yourself

29. CAUSES OF DAMPNESS
 RAIN PENETRATION
Properly constructed walls offer considerable resistance
to rain penetration but its rapid penetration takes place
through the joints and porous bricks or stones. Rain
penetration is also possible through the roof
components, cracks, and joints b/w the walls and the
roof.
 LEVEL OF THE SITE
Structures built on a higher ground can be drained off
easily and hence they are less liable to dampness. But
low lying areas cannot be easily drained off and thus
causes dampness in the structure.
Read yourself

30. CAUSES OF DAMPNESS
 DRAINABILITY OF THE SITE
Gravel and sandy soil allow water to pass through
easily whereas clayey soils retain moisture and also
causes dampness due to capillary rise.
 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Dampness is also caused due to the condensation of
moisture present in the atmosphere under very cold
climate. Condensation of the atmospheric moisture
can be identified by the drops of moisture present on
the ceilings, walls, floors etc.
Read yourself

31. CAUSES OF DAMPNESS
 DEFECTIVE ORIENTATION
The building having its walls subjected to direct showers of rain or
getting less direct sun rays, due to defective orientation is liable to
dampness.
 MOISTURE ENTRAPPED DURING CONSTRUCTION
Walls while being constructed are in wet conditions. These may
persist moisture for a long period after the construction is over due to
the use of salty or alkaline water, which causes dampness in the
building.
 DEFECTIVE MATERIALS
Dampness is also caused due to soakage of moisture by the
defective materials like porous bricks, soft stones, etc. especially
when they are used in external walls.
 DEFECTIVE CONSTRUCTION
In case, there is any leakage in the sewers, down water pipes,
kitchens, bathrooms, etc., it will be causing dampness in the
building.
Read yourself

32. PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS
PRECAUTIONS
 Select a sit to make sure that the first point at which water
is struck in a pit is at least 10ft below the surface of the
ground even in the wet season.
 Make the ground surface surrounding the building slope
away from the house so that rain water drains away, before
it has time to collect.
 If the building is on a hill side, make sure that the land
above the house is adequately drained around the building
and not through it

33. METHODS
The following are the methods that can be adapted for the
prevention of dampness in the buildings:
(1) BY SURFACE TREATMENT
The surface treatment consists in filling or blinding the
pores of the material exposed to moisture by painting a
water-repellent material over the surface.
Some of the materials employed are:
Sodium or potassium silicate, aluminum or zinc
sulphates, barium hydroxide and magnesium sulphate
in alternate applications, soft soap and alum also in
alternate applications, lime and linseed oil, coal-tar,
bitumen, waxes and fats, shellacs, resins and gums
etc.

34. (2) BY INTEGRAL TREATMENT
 The integral treatment consists in adding certain
components to the concrete or mortar during the
process of mixing, to make it more dense by filling the
pores through chemical action or mechanical effect.
 For example, compounds like chalk, talc, fuller’s earth
etc. act mechanically and compounds like alkaline
silicates, aluminum or zinc sulphates, calcium,
aluminum or ammonium chlorides, iron fillings etc. act
chemically.
 If 5% soap is added in the water to be used for
preparing the mortar, the pores get clogged and
coating of water repellent substance stick to the wall
surface which makes it sufficiently damp proof.

35. (3) BY SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES
 By constructing the external walls of sufficient thickness.
 By using the bricks of good quality for constructing the
external walls.
 By building the walls in rich cement mortar.
 By providing string courses and cornices.
 By fixing down water pipes sufficiently so that water may
not leak through the junction of walls and roof.
 By constructing hollow brick walls.

36. (4) BY PROVIDING A DAMP PROOF COURSE
The continuous layer of an impervious
material, which is provided in between the
source of dampness and part of the
structure is called a Damp Proof Course.

37. BY PROVIDING A DAMP PROOF COURSE
Damp proof course is of two types:
(1) HORIZONTAL DPC
 It is provided in the walls at plinth level in the form of 1.5
to 3 in. thick layer of 1:2:4 cement concrete covered with
two coat of hot bitumen or a polythene sheet or metal
sheets of lead, copper or aluminum.
 It is also provided in the roofs in the form of two coats of
hot bitumen, bitumen felt, mastic asphalt or sheets of
polythene, lead, copper, or aluminum over the R.C.C.
slab.
 Horizontal D.P.C. is also provided in floors if the sub-soil
water table is high and moisture is likely to rise in the
floors by seepage, added by the capillary action of the
soil.

39. BY PROVIDING A DAMP PROOF COURSE
(2) VERTICAL DPC
 Vertical D.P.C. is mostly provided in the external
walls in the form of ¾ in. thick 1:3 cement sand
plaster, coated with two washings of hot bitumen.
 It is also provided to prevent the dampness into the
walls of the basements from the adjacent soils.

40. D.P.C. IN BASEMENTS (- ctd -)
 As basements are built below ground level, these are
most likely to be attacked by dampness from the soil
below as well as from outside the walls.
 A typical basement section showing the damp proof
courses is shown in fig-119.
 If the head of the water below the level of the floor is
high, a layer of gravel 4 ½ in. thick, is laid under the
bottom of concrete of floor as shown in fig-120.
 Also, gravel is filed between the walls of the basement
and adjacent soil.

41. D.P.C. IN BASEMENTS
 The gravel under the floor collects the seepage water and delivers it
to the gravel outside the external walls, through the communicating
pipes, buried horizontally through the concrete foundation walls.
 Drain pipes or footing drains are laid around the footing buried
inside the gravel.
 These footing drains lead the seepage water to a natural drain, if
nearby, or to a dry well.
 A dry well is a pit excavated in permeable soil or one having its
bottom in such soil and filled with gravel or crushed rock.
 If permeable soil is not present nearby, the water is pumped out of
dry wells by hand pumps or other techniques.

44. DOORS
The arrangements made to provide free and
easy access inside and outside the rooms of a
building are called Doors.
Whereas, the opening provided in the boundary
wall of a building for entrance and exist is
known as Gate.

45. DOORS (-ctd-)
• Doors are generally made of timber or steel etc. They
may also be consisting of plywood, wire gauge, frame
work of steel etc.
• The doors with one shutter are known as single
leafed doors. Such doors are used for small
openings.
• The doors having double leaves or shutters are called
double leafed doors. Such doors are used for large
openings.

46. LOCATION OF DOORS
• Doors should be located in such a way that free
movement in and out of the rooms of a building is
ensured. Doors should be properly placed in the corner
of a room.
• In case the room is to be provided with more than one
door, they should be located in the opposite walls to
have a good ventilation in that room.

48. Detail of door (Optional)
Slide 49-54

49. IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS
• Frame:- An enclosure to provide support for door or window
shutter is called frame. It is made from the well-seasoned wood.
Head and sill are morticed to take the Tenon formed at the ends
of vertical posts. Bamboo pins are used to hold shoulders and
the tendons tightly.
• Head:-The top horizontal member of a door or window frame is
called head.
• Sill:- The bottom horizontal member of a door or window frame
is called sill.
• Posts:- The vertical side members of a door or window frame are
called posts.

50. IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
• Shutters:- The planks, framed, paneled or otherwise which fit
in a door or window frame are known as shutters. They are
hung to the frame by means of hinges.
• Styles or stiles:- The vertical side members of frame-work of a
shutter are called styles. The style which is hung or hinged to
the frame is called a hanging or hinged style. Whereas the
style which is not hung or hinged to the frame is called a
meeting style.
• Top rail:- The topmost horizontal member of the frame-work
of a shutter is known as top rail.
• Lock rail:- The middle horizontal member of the frame-work of
a shutter where lock sliding bolt is fixed is called lock rail.

51. IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
• Bottom rail:- The lower most horizontal piece or member of
the frame-work of a shutter is known as bottom rail.
• Mullion:- The vertical member running through the middle of
frame-work of a shutter is called mullion or mounting.
• Jambs:- The vertical faces of a door or window opening which
support the frame of a door or window are called jambs.
• Reveal:- The portions of a door or window opening extending
beyond the frame towards the face of a wall are called reveals.
• Sash bars:- The light members of the frame-work which carry
the glass panes within a shutter or frame work are known as
sash bars.

52. IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
• Panels:- The small wooden members which are
provided between the rails of a shutter or frame-
work are called Panels.
• Rebate:- Depression or cut in the frame of a door or
window to receive the shutters is called rebate.
• Horns:- The projections of head or sill of a door or
window frame are known as Horns. These are
generally embedded in the masonry to increase their
fixing strength.
• Louver:- The inclined boards fixed in a frame-work
are called Louvers.

53. IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS (-ctd-)
• Transom:- The horizontal dividing member in a window or
door frame provided with fan light is called Transom. It acts
a head of the door or window frame and sill of the fan light.
• Stops:- The timber pieces fixed to the door or window
frame on inside to prevent the shutters from damaging the
plaster of jambs when fully opened are called stops.
• Chocks:- The timber pieces hinged to the window or door
frame on outside to prevent the shutters from closing under
the effect of heavy wind are called chocks.

54. FIXING OF A DOOR FRAME IN A WALL
• A door frame is fixed in the masonry by hold fasts built into the walls with
cement mortar (1: 5).
• The hold fasts are made from 3.7 cm x 0.6 cm flat, bent at both ends One end
of each hold fast is fixed on the side of the door frame and its other end is
built into the masonry.
• The horns provided at the head and sill or in between, are also built into the
walls.
• Now-a-days, sill is not provided in case of a door frame since it causes
obstruction to the free movement and does not permit easy cleaning and
washing of floors.
• Before fixing a door frame, its sides coming in contact with masonry, are
painted with two coats of a wooden-preservative (generally coal tar). The
other sides of the frame are generally given a priming coat.

55. TYPES OF DOORS

56. 1- Ledged and Battened 2- Battened and Braced Door

57. 3- Framed, Ledged, Battened 4- Framed and Paneled Door
and Braced Door

58. 5- Paneled and glazed Door.

59. (a) Framed Flush Door (b) Solid Laminated Flush Door.

60. 7- Louvered Door 8- Revolving Door

61. 9- Sliding Door

62. 10- Collapsible Door.

63. 11- Rolling Steel Door 12- Wire-gauged Door

64. Detail of doors (Optional)
Slide 65-76

65. 1. Ledged and battened doors
• These are the simplest type of doors.
• They consist of battens (each 15 cm wide and 0.8 to 1.8 cm
thick) which are screwed to three horizontal members called
ledges.
• Top ledge is 10 cm x 3.2 cm in cross-section, middle and bottom
ledges have section of 17.5 to 20 cm x 3.2 cm.
• Battens are generally tongued and grooved.
• These doors are mostly used for narrow openings in temporary
houses where appearance is not the main consideration.

66. 2. Ledged, battened and braced doors
• This type of door is similar to a ledged and battened door except
that they consist of ledges and battens which are strengthened
with the help of diagonal members known as braces.
• The width of braces varies from 10 to 15 cm and thickness is 3.2
cm.
• The inclination of the braces should be kept towards the side of
the shutter to be hinged to the frame as shown in fig. 10-3.
• These doors can be used for comparatively large openings in
ordinary houses and in places where appearance is not so
important.

67. 3. Framed, ledged, battened and braced doors
• This is a better and strong type of door.
• They consist of two stiles, three rails and two braces forming the frame-work
of each leaf (shutter) to which he battens are fixed.
• The frame-work is made with mortice and Tenon joints.
• The top and bottom rails and the stiles have full thickness while the middle
(lock) rail and braces are thinner in section to allow the battens to pass over
them and finish flush with the top and bottom rails.
• The battens should butt into the rebate in the top and bottom rails.
• These shutters are hung to the frame by means of butt hinges.
• These doors are mostly used as external doors in ordinary residential
buildings, shops etc.

68. 4. Framed and paneled doors
• This is the most common type of door.
• They are made in different designs but their principle for construction is same
as in other doors.
• They consist of frame-work of styles, rails and mentions or mullions of same
thickness.
• The space between them is filed with panels. The vertical styles are
continuous from top to bottom and rails are jointed to the styles.
• On inside of the styles and rails, grooves are made to receive the panels
which may be of raised or flush type.
• These shutters are hung to the frame by means of butt hinges.
• These doors are mostly used in residential and other buildings as internal
and external doors.

69. 5. Paneled and glazed doors
• The construction of this type of door is similar to a framed and paneled door
but in such doors glass panes are fixed.
• In these doors, instead of wooden panels in their top portions, sash bars to
receive the glass panes are used.
• Sash bars are equal in thickness to the full thickness of the shutter, with 2.5
cm with and having 1 to 3 cm rebate according to the size of the doors.
• The size of the rebate is generally 1.6 cm x 0.6 cm. Each glass pane is secured
in position by small nails and is bedded with the help of lime-putty.
• It may be either 1/3rd glazed at top and2/3 paneled at bottom, or 2/3 glazed
at top or 1/3 paneled at bottom.
• These doors are mostly used in public buildings, hospitals, colleges, offices
and also in residential buildings.

70. 6. Flush doors
• These doors are made with plywood and give better appearance.
• They are solid and semi-solid door and are constructed and finished in many
ways.
• The inner core is either framed or laminated. The later makes a more solid
and lasting door.
• These doors do not catch dust and are easy to clean.
• With the production of plywood in large quantities, flush doors are becoming
more and more popular these days.
• These doors are mainly used as internal doors in residential buildings,
restaurants, public and other important buildings.

71. 7. Louvered doors
• These doors are similar to glazed and paneled doors. But in
these doors, the spaces between the rails and stiles are filled
with series of wooden members called louvers.
• The louvers are fixed into the stiles or made movable.
• In order that they may be effective and economical, are fixed at
an angle of 45 degree.
• These doors allow free passage of light air and secure privacy
and safety. But they collect dust easily and are difficult to clean.
• These doors are mostly used in school, workshops or at place
where sufficient privacy is required besides admitting air and
light freely.

72. 8- Revolving doors
• These doors consist of four shutters, arranged diagonally,
revolving on a common vertical axis.
• Paneled, glazed or both types of shutters may be used for these
doors. They allow entrance on one side and exit on the other
side.
• These doors are used where there is constant foot traffic of
people coming in and going out of an entrance in public
buildings such as offices, banks, restaurants, hotels, theatres,
and other public buildings.
• They are also used in hill stations to prevent strong wind blowing
inside the building directly.

73. 9- Sliding Doors
• These doors consist of single or double steel
or wooden shutters.
• They slide into the pockets provided in the
masonry wall.
• These doors are commonly used for
workshops, garages and on windows in shops
etc.

74. 10- Collapsible Doors
• These doors consist of frame work of rolled steel sections and
are provided with rollers at bottom which roll on rails.
• These doors are rolled when they are to be opened or collapsed.
• Flat iron pieces are used cross wise and are fixed to vertical flat
iron pieces at 12 to 15 cm center to center so as to form
parallelograms. When pushed, the parallelograms get collapsed.
• These doors are used in public buildings such as banks, railway
stations, sheds, workshops etc.

75. 11- Rolling Steel Doors
• These doors are generally made of thin corrugated steel plates (
or sheets) which roll up on a roller or drum.
• The shutter slides in grooves in the side walls.
• The shutter may be counter balanced by sprigs so that it can be
easily raised on lowered by hand.
• These doors are sufficiently strong and may be safely used in
exposed places.
• These doors are mostly used for main entrance of shops,
showrooms, and garages

76. 12- Wire-gauged doors
• These doors are normally hung on the same chowkhat (frame)
as other door and window shutters of the frame.
• The thickness of the frame is increased suitably to cut the rebate
for the wire gauged shutters.
• These doors allow free passage of the air and light and at the
same time do not allow entrance of flies and mosquitoes inside
the rooms of a building.
• These doors are mostly used in kitchens and dining rooms of
residential buildings