The Use Of Gamma-Ray Coputed Tomography

The Use Of Gamma-Ray Coputed Tomography
A single gamma–ray computed tomography (CT) technique, which is a part of unique dual–source
gamma–ray computed tomography (DSCT) scanner, was used in this study. This DSCT was
originally developed in–house and designed by Varma [49] and the team of Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL) to allow researchers to image and quantify the internal distributions of two– or
three–phase flow, which is encountered in different multiphase reactors or flow systems at different
operating conditions in a noninvasive way. This technique has been applied successfully to different
multiphase flow systems in our laboratory (mReal) at the Chemical and Biochemical Engineering
Department at Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T). Examples ... Show
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These dimensions of collimators for the Cs–137 source and their detectors were designed to provide
enough open area to acquire counts (photons) with sufficient statistics (high signal–to–noise ratio)
on the selected frequency and sampling rate [59–61]. Both gamma–ray sources and their arrays of
the detectors were mounted and installed on a motorized rotatable circular plate. This circular plate
was attached to a lift unit (square plate), which allows for the whole system (circular plate, gamma–
sources, and their detectors) to perform CT scans in different selected axial planes automatically.
Together the circular and square plates have a central opening space, which is dedicated to the
objects to be examined. During the scanning of the investigated bubble column that was well
balanced and centered inside the circular opening area of the CT technique, the Cs–137 source and
its detectors were rotated around the column by rotating the circular plate in a stepwise movement
(approximately 1.83° for each step) that was controlled by utilizing a programmed automated step
motor. For a given step of rotation (each source view), the array of the Cs–137 source detectors was
moved automatically 21 times in an arc of 0.13°/step that was achieved by another independent
automated
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Treating Brain Disorders: A Case Study
To continue, gold has other uses in the medical field along with treating brain disorders. This is
because gold is able to absorb radiation. Radioactivity occurs when unstable atomic nuclei
decompose to form nuclei with a higher stability. Energy and particles are released during the
decomposition process causes radiation. There are three different types of radiation; alpha, beta and
gamma. Alpha radiation is when an alpha particle, or helium nucleus, decays into an atom with a
mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. Idaho State
University (2011) explained that beta radiation is when an electron is released from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom, along with a particle called an antineutrino (para.

The Effects Of Soil Radioactivity On The Levels Of The...
The concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are measured in the material collected from two
locations .The collected materials are analyzed using gamma ray spectrometry. The activity
concentration of the naturally occurring radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in building material it
varies from 12.6 to 121.4, 13.6 to 142 and 69.5 to 620.6 Bqkg_1, respectively. The radium
equivalent activity, absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose and hazard index are also calculated.
Keywords Radionuclides, radiological hazard, building material radioactive 1. Introduction Natural
sources exists in several geological formations such as soils, rocks, sediments, vegetation, water and
air emit radiation. While 4% is of artificial origin (Chougan–kar et ... Show more content on
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Currently, a world wide effort is underway to measure the activity concentrations in building
materials (Tufail et al., 1992 [3]. A range of radionalytical methods can be used for determination of
activity concentrations in naturally occurring materials. Gamma–ray spectrometers are widely used
for this purpose. These are typically based on either germanium semiconductor or Na I(Tl)
scintillator detectors. They are the preferred choice in cases where the photo–peaks of concern are
well separated (IAEA, 1992) [4]. Some radioactivity studies have been previously carried out in soil
and sediment samples in some parts of the world (Beaza et al., 1992 [5]; Kannan et al. [6], 2002;
Kirchner et al., 2002 [7]; Mehra et al., 2007 [8]; Noordin, 1999 [9]; Patra et al., 2006 [10];
Selvasekarapandian et al., 2000 [11]; Senthilkumar et al., 2010) [12]. The materials used in building
collected from soil, sand and byproduct of industry, which contain varying amounts of natural
radionuclides. The knowledge of the natural radioactivity level of building materials is important for
determination of population exposure to radiation, the affection of this exposure almost occur
indoors .radioactivity statistics is useful for understanding and monitoring the radiation hazard to
human. Building materials contribute to

Taking a Look at Radiation Safety
Radiation safety RADIATION SAFETY Introduction No radiation in every part of our lives. The
radiation may occur naturally in the ground and can reach us from the radiation coming from the
space around us . As well as the radiation can occur naturally in the water we drink , or in the soil ,
and construction materials ( radon from the ground and radioactive elements in the earth ) . He
spoke of radiation as a result of its industry by humans, such as X–ray X–Rays, power plants,
atomic energy is also in smoke detectors Ionization Smoke Detector. Radiation is known as the
process that results in a starting capacity in the form of particles (Particles) or waves (Waves) The
estimated scientific bodies in the United States that the average person receives the amount of
radiation doses of 360 ms RIM in the year and is considered the proportion of natural radiation
exposure of 80% and 20% of the second industrial radiation . How arise radiation : Atom consists of
a central core element (Nucleus) contain positively charged protons and neutral neutrons and
revolves around this core number of negatively charged electrons . And called on the number of
protons in the nucleus name atomic number (Atomic Number) called while the total number of
protons + neutrons total name atomic weight (Atomic Weight) In most nuclei of chemical elements
is the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of neutrons in the nuclei of some
elements , the number of neutrons is

Is There Any Risk Using Technetium 99m?
Issues Investigation
Technetium 99m
Is there any Risk using technetium 99m (Radioisotope) in medical procedures??
In this investigation i will endeavour to find out whether there is any risk using Technetium 99m in
medicine and keep a balanced point of view for and against.
Scintigraphy is a form of diagnostic test used in nuclear medicine, wherein radioisotopes are taken
internally (via radiopharmaceuticals) and the emitted radiation is captured by external detectors
(gamma cameras) to form two–dimensional images.
What is Technetium–99m?
Technetium–99m is a widely used radioactive tracer isotope in Nuclear Medicine. Its gamma ray
energy of about 140 keV is convenient for detection. The fact that both its physical half–life and its
biological half–life are very short leads to very fast clearing from the body after an imaging process.
A further advantage is that the gamma is a single energy, not accompanied by beta emission, and
that permits more precise alignment of imaging detectors.
Isotope Half–lives in days TPhysical TBiological TEffective
99mTc 0.25 1 0.20
Technetium –99m is produced by bombarding molybdenum 98Mo with neutrons. The resultant
99Mo decays with a half–life of 66 hours to the metastable state of Tc. This process permits the
production of 99mTc for medical purposes. Since 99Mo is a fission product of 235U fission, it can
be separated from the other fission products and used to generate 99mTc. For medical purposes, the
99mTc is used in the form of

Positron Emission Tomography Report
Introduction
Positron emission tomography is used for research and medical diagnosis of soft tissue in humans
and animals. It uses radioactive drug tracers that are swallowed, injected, or inhaled into the body, to
produce radioactive emissions that are then detected with a computer tomographer (Mayo Clinic
2013). This computer tomographer creates an image much like a camera makes an image on film,
when exposed to light (Denniston 2014). The scans are then used to produce three dimensional
images that provide information on a targeted body system. When interpreting the images, diseased
areas of an organ, are identified by dense regions of the radioactive drug tracer. Some of the area's of
the body commonly scanned are blood, bone, brain, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The radioactive isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and electrons, but a different
number of neutrons and atomic weight, and are described as have an unstable nucleus. The
radioactive isotope produces gamma rays when it undergoes beta plus decay, also know as positron
emission, occurring after the radioactive isotope undergoes change inside the nucleus. This change
starts when an atom's proton is converted into a neutron inside the nucleus resulting in the loss of a
positive charge, and a small amount of mass being lost. This mass is referred to as a positron. Then
the positron after release collides with an electron and annihilation of the particles occur, producing
two gamma rays. These gamma rays are the radioactive emissions that are then detected by the
imaging machine. Isotopes with a short half life are selected for positron emission topography, and
generally take around 18– 20 min to decay inside the body. Some of the common isotopes that are
used in the radioactive drug tracers are chromium–51, technetium–99m, thallium–201, xenon–133,
barium–313, strontium–87 (Denniston

The Effects Of Food Irradiation Practices On The United...
Overview of the history of food irradiation practices in the United States from World War II era to
the end of the 20th century, and speculation about its future commercial prospects. Researchers in
the United States and Great Britain filed patents in 1905 for using ionizing radiation to kill food–
borne bacteria (Spiller, J. (2004)). Therefore, food irradiation has over 100 years of history.
Food irradiation (the application of ionizing radiation to food) is a technology that improves the
safety and extends the shelf life of foods by reducing or eliminating microorganisms and insects
("U.S. Food and Drug Administration" 1). If food is not irradiated correctly, there may potentially be
health hazards.
The process where food is exposed from nuclear sources consists of food irradiation, which is
limited to high–energy gamma rays, X–rays and accelerated electrons. Ionizing is source of
radiation because of the high–energy free electrons from atoms and molecules. The electrically
charged particles are converted to ions. Microwaves are example of gamma rays. Accelerated
electrons can transfuse to treat the food only to a depth of three centimeters. Due to thickness of x–
rays may pass through the food.
Radiation dose is the quantity of radiation energy bored by the food as it passes through the
radiation field during processing. Needless to say the radiation for
poultry and meat were approximately 800–1400 times that dose, of fruits and vegetables. A radiation
dose of about

Gastric Emptying Studies
What is a gastric emptying study? The definition of a gastric emptying study is "a procedure that is
done by nuclear medicine physicians using radioactive chemicals that measures the speed with
which food empties from the stomach and enters the small intestine". What does it have to do with
nuclear medicine and radioactive elements? That's a good question. It has to do with radioactive
elements because the meal, liquid, or both are mixed with a little bit of radioactive material, than
gamma rays are placed over the subjects stomach to track the amount of radioactivity that decreases
in the stomach. Gastric emptying studies use radioactive elements by using radioactive material.
What is a radioactive tracer? Another good question. That "is

Nuclear Energy And Its Effects
1. Background
Nuclear energy can be produced by fission, by splitting a nucleus into smaller products, (precisely
equal parts). These products are equal to half of the original mass. In the process of nuclear fission,
energy and neutrons will be emitted. Along with the emission of neutrons, also during the process of
fission, a large amount of a product's energy is released.
Every day we are surrounded by so much radiation however, only some radiation can be harmful to
us. Radiation such as microwaves, radio waves, and infrared are classes as 'non–ionizing' and are
not a threat to humans. Radiation classed as 'Ionizing' radiation is most definitely harmful to us
because it has the capability of removing electrons from other atoms and then ... Show more content
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They also have a less powerful ionizing rate compared to alpha particles.
Gamma rays are energy, also known as electromagnetic radiation. They have no charge or mass.
They move through the air extremely quickly (at the speed of light) and to ionize them, they need to
directly hit the nucleus of an atom. This suggests that gamma rays have a very low ionizing rate and
can travel much t=further through the air compared to alpha and beta particles.
Nuclear–fuelled power plants are very similar to fossil fuelled power pants, in which they both turn
water into steam in order to control the turbine generators that produce energy; the only difference is
the source of heat. At nuclear power plants, a nuclear reactor produces and controls the amount of
energy that is released when atoms of Uranium split, which is called fission. The heat that is used to
make this steam is created by this form of fission. Uranium fuelled nuclear power plants are a clean
and efficient way of boiling water to produce the steam that is used to operate the turbine generators
within the power plant.
Figure 1 shows the equation for the nuclear fission of uranium–235.
2. Discussion
Even though we use Nuclear energy to give places electricity, Nuclear energy is used in many more
things than just in the production of electricity. Such as; Hospitals, schools, households or business',
Nuclear Radiation can be used to treat heavy medical

Nuclear Medicine: Compare And Contrast Radiography And...
Nuclear medicine is a certain branch of medicine that uses a specific type of radiation to give out
important information about how a person's specific organs work. As well as, showing the organ and
treating a disease that is inside of it. When information gets viewed by special physicians, they make
sure to get a quick, accurate diagnosis of what the patient's illness is right away. The main organs
that can be easily imaged by the nuclear medicine is the thyroid, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and the
gallbladder. There are many hospitals that use the radiation; called radioisotope, in medicines. The
most common one is named Technetium–99, which is used in medical diagnostic procedures
annually. Nuclear medicine was created in the 1950s by physicians ... Show more content on
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A heterogeneous beam of X–rays is produced by an X–ray generator and then it is projected toward
the object. A certain amount of X–ray is absorbed by the object, which depends on the particular
density and composition the object has. The
X–rays that pass through the object, are captured behind the object by a detector. This detector can
capture a 2D representation of all the object's internal structures. Contrast radiography is a type of
contrast medium, that makes the structures of interest stand out visually from their background. So it
gets rid of the blurs in the photo.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in the 1970s to 1980s to present day. Has served as a medical
imaging technique used in radiology to form detailed pictures of the body for both health and
disease. In the MRI scanners, there are strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and field gradients in
order to generate images of the inside of the body and appear on a screen. MRI and X–rays are not
the same. MRI scans take more time, are louder, and usually require that the body goes into a
narrow tube. While X–ray scans take less time, aren't really loud, and don't involve a narrow

Electron Radiation
Atoms are the microscopic building blocks of all matter in the universe. Everything around us are
made of atoms, including radiation. The centre of an atom is called the nucleus, it is made of two
particles: protons, which carry a positive charge and neutrons, which have no charge. Electron carry
a negative charge and it is outside of a nucleus. The attraction of these negative electrons to the
positive nucleus is what keep the atom together. All the atom of the given elements has a specific
number of protons and neutrons, but sometimes it will have too many of those and become
radioactive and an unstable atom is called a radioisotope. When radioactive want to be stable again,
they must release energy until they get back to a balanced state. ... Show more content on
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Firstly, the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant leaks radioactive water into underground and to
sea. The effect cause earthquake in 2011. After the earth quake on June 2011, scientists measured
that 5,000 to 15,000 terabecquerels of radioactive material was reaching the ocean. Since the
incident in 2011, scientists measured levels of radioactivity in fish and other sea life. Several species
of fish from this area had caesium levels that exceeded Japan's regulatory limit for seafood.
Scientists say the groundwater leaks could become worse, but warn against drawing conclusions
about the impacts on sea life before peer–reviewed studies are completed. Secondly, gamma rays
can be used in medical treatment to kill cancer cell. However gamma can be extremely dangerous
because they are a very powerful source of power, if they delivered in an unmonitored and
uncontrolled way they can kill humans, animals and plants. Gamma rays however can also disrupt
the physical properties of materials. They can cause plastics and steel to become brittle and to
eventually break.
In conclusion, radioactivity has both negative and positive aspects. Negative impacts include the
radiation leaking and damage healthy organism or cell during treatment while positive aspects
consist of many different uses in medical science, security and daily life items. I support the uses of
radioactivity because the positive aspects outweigh the negative aspects and I believe that in the
future the radioactivity can be used positively in many other

Radiation Quantity And Units Essay
Radiation quantity and units Most scientists in the international community measure radiation using
the System International (SI), a uniform system of weights and measures that evolved from the
metric system. In the United States, however, the conventional system of measurement is still
widely used.
2.2.1) Units of Radioactivity:
The original unit for measuring the amount of radioactivity was the curie (Ci)–first defined to
correspond to one gram of radium–226 and more recently defined as: 1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive
decays per second. In the International System of Units (SI) the curie has been replaced by the
Becquerel (Bq), where One Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109) Bq.
Ci or Bq may be used to refer to the amount of radioactive materials released into the environment.
2.2.2) Radiation exposure unit:
The exposure rate defined as the exposure per unit time. The special unit of exposure is the roentgen
(R) defined as the amount of gamma ray and X– ray radiation that produced a charge of 1
electrostatic unit (esu) of charge per 0.001293 g (1cm3) of dry air at standard temperature and
pressure (IAEA, 1989). The SI (stander international) units of exposure are coulomb/Kg of dry air.
1R = 2.58 × 10–4 C/Kg in air
2.2.3) Absorbed dose unit:
Sometimes also known as the physical dose, defined by the amount of energy deposited in a unit
mass in human tissue or other media. The original unit is the rad [100 erg/g]; it is now being widely

Optical Fiber Sensors Essay
Optical fiber sensors are very important devices to detect and monitor ionizing radiation in nuclear
based technologies such as industrial radiography, nuclear medicine, spacecraft and satellite
instrumentation, and also in nuclear power facilities. Reliability of other conventional radiation
detectors in space and terrestrial application is much affected by electromagnetic interference and
exposure to fire and explosion potential hazards. However the functionality of optical fiber at
extremely high dose radiation still a challenge where radiation induced attenuation can be increased
for permanent damage of the sensor. There is a need to develop a new sensing material with small
dimension and low mass such as single mode silica optical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
2013). There is a need to replace 3H–based sensor to detect neutron in context of nuclear
nonproliferation(Runkle 2011) and silica optical fiber with better resistant to radiation damage (Xue
et al. 2012) is the other very close a safe cheaper possible neutron sensor to be considered. In
addition, its other characteristic of having low attenuation losses provides a wide bandwidth for
long–distance wireless communication so that the exposure of radiation to workers can be avoided
during radiation detection and monitoring operation.
Ionizing radiation such as x–ray, gamma, alpha, beta and neutron radiations, are not only harmful to
human health(Azzam et al. 2012) and environment(Mothersill&Seymour 2014), but also can
damage the electronic devices(Wang et al. 2014). The source of these ionizing radiations are from
radioactive materials, x–ray tubes, particle accelerators such as ion beams, nuclear weapons and
reactors, cosmic rays from space and from natural rocks and minerals. Exposure of extremely high
energy electromagnetic radiation such as x–ray can lead to failure in silicon sensors(Klanner et al.
2013). The increasing radiation induced attenuation can lead to permanent damage of optical
fiber(Kovačević et al. 2013). So there is a need to develop better sensors with good radiation
resistance such as Ge doped optical fiber sensors in radiant environment.
SiO2 and plastic type optical fiber are two types of material used in any research and development
of

Radioactivity Lab Report
Objective
Radioactivity is present all throughout the environments on earth, which relates to the unstable
atomic nuclei. Going into detail, radioactivity occurs in unstable atomic nuclei and is caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei. Radiation is used in numerous ways that are used in
experiments and medical procedures. In this article, radioactivity will be defined, the three types of
radioactivity will be explained, and the different methods of radiation will be illustrated.
Introduction Nuclei are formed with a higher stability after unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously
decompose, and this process is called radioactivity. Therefore, radioactivity refers to the particles
that are released from nuclei due to nuclear ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The alpha particles have an atomic mass of 4 and a charge of +2. When an alpha particle is released
from the nucleus, the mass number of the particle decreases by four units and the atomic number
decreases by two units. An example of this would be where the helium nucleus is the alpha particle.
The energy is a collection of stable nucleons, and those heavier nuclei that can be perceived as
collections of alpha particles, such as carbon–12.01 or oxygen–16.00 are also stable. Beta radiation
is a stream of electrons that are called beta particles. When the beta particle is released, a neutron is
transformed to a proton in the nucleus, thus maintaining the mass number of the nucleus. Although,
the atomic number increases by one unit. An example of this occurring is when the electron is the
beta particle. Pursuing this further, gamma rays are high–energy photons with a very short
wavelength of 0.0005 to 0.1 nm. The emission of gamma radiation results from an energy change
within the atomic nucleus. Gamma emission changes neither the atomic number nor the atomic
mass. Alpha and beta emission are often accompanied by gamma emission, as an excited nucleus
drops to a lower and more stable energy

Description Of The Hpge Gamma Ray Spectrometer
) Description of the HPGe gamma–ray spectrometer
A high resolution gamma detection system was used for gamma analysis. This system consist of an
ORTEC hyper pure germanium detector (HPGe), model number GEM– 15190, coaxial type detector
with a serial number 27–P–1876A recommended operating bias, negative 3 Kv. The detector used
has crystal diameter 49.3 mm, and crystal length 47.1 mm. The HPGe detector has a full width at
half maximum (FWHM) 0.9 keV at the 122 keV gamma transition of Co–57 and 1.9 keV at the
1332.5 keV of Co–60 gamma transition (Knoll, 2000). The detector has peak to Compton ratio
about 44 keV. Compton ratio is the number of net counts in the 1.33 MeV peak channels divided by
the average number of net counts in the channels representing the range from l.040 through 1.096
MeV which is part of the Compton region associated with the 1.33 MeV peak. Figure (2.5) show the
block diagram of gamma ray spectrometer.
The range of the multi channels analyzer (MCA) was adjusted to include the peak channel and the
range of interest in the Compton plateau (Madelung, 1991), (EML, 1990). High purity germanium
(HPGe) coaxial detector uses p–type material with lithium diffused outer contact. The inner contact
is ion implanted for the ultimate in reliability. Because of the small band gap (0.7eV) room
temperature operation of germanium detector of any type is impossible because of the large
thermally induced impossible because of the large thermally induced leakage current

Y9 Radioactivity Research Assessment
Medicine
Y9 Radioactivity Research Assessment
Diagnosis– Radiation in medicine helps medical tests allow doctors to see inside the body, so
doctors can diagnose, and treat conditions for humans and animals. Some tests expose ionizing
radiation which put patients at risk, could cause death.
Sterilising– Gamma rays which are high energy electromagnetic waves that can only be stopped by
thick lead, this means they can pass through medical equipment because they aren't made of lead,
such as syringes. When gamma rays pass through packaging they inactivate viruses and kill bacteria.
If the equipment stays in a sealed plastic bag it will remain sterile.
Treatment– Radiation treatment is the most common therapy/treatment for cancer. Its users high
energy particles such as X–rays to destroy cancer cells. Killing the cancer cell, radiation treatment is
also called radiotherapy, irradiation, or X–ray therapy. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This can be used by performing X–rays or Gamma rays. Both are electrostatic radiations.
Tracing– a tracer is a chemical compound, where more atoms have been replaced by a radioisotope
so by its virtue radioactive decay it can be used to explore mechanisms of chemical reactions by
following the path that the radioisotope follows from reacted products
Gauging– This is a tool used in petroleum (petrol) industry, also mining also archeology purpose. It
consists of radiation which emits a cloud of particles and a sensor that counts received particles that
are reflected by the test material or pass through the middle of it.
Radioactive dating
Radioactive dating is a technique used to work out the date of materials like rock and other objects
based on their decay rate. In which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when
they were formed. Currently over 300 natural isotopes are

Radioactive Sickness
Causative Agent: A total body exposure of one hundred roentgens of radiation will cause radiation
sickness. Although certain medical devices will give you exposure to radiation, the grays of
radiation are miniscule and will not cause radiation sickness. There are a few sources that can lead
to a high enough exposure of roentgens of radiation. One of these sources involves accidents or
attacks involving nuclear facilities. The other has to do with accidents or being the target of
radioactive or nuclear weapons and devices, this includes the use of a conventional explosive device
that disperses radioactive material, known as a dirty bomb. Historical Information: Back in 1902
when Marie & Pierre Curie were isolating radium, a radioactive ... Show more content on
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Radiation in the body is measured by total body exposure; that being the total combine radiation
source of outside and inside the body. Radiation sickness occurs when ionized radiation damages or
destroys cells in your body. The areas of the body most susceptible to radiation are cells in the lining
of your intestinal tract which include your stomach, and the hematopoietic cells in bone marrow.
There are two main types of radiation sickness acute and chronic. Symptoms/ Diagnosis: The
symptoms of acute radiation sickness vary based on the exposure. A mild exposure is one to two
grays, the symptoms of this included nausea and vomiting within six hours. A moderate exposure of
two to six grays, the symptom of a mild exposure will be increased to within two hours with the
added symptoms of diarrhea, headache, and fever. All of the symptoms of mild exposure will
happen with twenty–four hours. Severe exposure of six to eight grays will increase the onset of
moderate exposure symptoms to within four hours. A very severe exposure, which is eight to ten
grays and higher will result in the symptoms occurring within two hours, with the beginning
symptoms in about 10 minutes, as well as new symptoms which include dizziness, disorientation,
and fatigue. With the later symptoms of the sickness most exposures will led to dizziness,
disorientation, and fatigue ranging from 1 to 4 weeks. Chronic is usually

Persuasive Essay On Nuclear Technology
The meaning of irradiation is the process of exposure to radiation, such as using gamma rays for
sterilization. There have been many controversies about food irradiation. Some people say that using
nuclear technology on food can cause harm to the body. But I believe that using nuclear technology
is the best way to remove any diseases on food to cause less harm to the human body. Irradiation can
also be used to preserve nutrients in food and kill microbes that destroy them. Using preservation
procedures exposes food to gamma radiation, a high–energy light that eliminates microorganism and
insects. We should be using technology to irradiate food because it allows us to kill pathogens that
cause fewer infliction to our human bodies. So I want to increase funding for nuclear technology
because we are able to use the technology to improve our safety, preservation, and sterilization.
Nuclear technology is able to improve our safety by eliminating pathogens, which are bacterias,
viruses or any other microorganisms that cause diseases. Nuclear technology is a benefit for our
advancement for human safety. We are able to use technology to kill any pathogens on our foods,
thus making food safer for human consumption. Not only is it safe, but most officials for food safety
has approved for the use of nuclear technology to improve human safety as the "Preventing
pathologic food poisoning sanitation not irradiation," article says, "The Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) found the

Nuclear Medicine Research Paper
Nuclear medicine examinations involve the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis
and treatment of disease, by giving a patient a small amount of radioactive medication, called a
radiopharmaceutical. (A radiopharmaceutical is a medication used in nuclear medicine that has a
radioactive part and a pharmaceutical radiation, CT (Computed tomography), MRI (magnetic
resonance imaging), SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) and PET (Positron
emission tomography).
Nuclear medicine is being used to treat certain diseases or conditions. Only a very small amount of
radiopharmaceutical is given to keep the radiation dose to a minimum. The radioactive substance
accumulates in the target area of interest. To find out how the inside of the body is working, we
examine under a gamma ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As an example: patient can be given a dye injection to detect arthritis or other conditions.
Depending on the chemical substance used, the radiopharmaceutical concentrates in the part of the
body being investigated, for example the skeleton, lungs, heart or liver, and gives off gamma rays.
Bone scanning technique is being used to detect radiation from a radioactive substance (technetium–
pp methyldiphosphate). When injected into the body, it collects in the bone tissue, as the bone tissue
is good at accumulating phosphorus compounds. The substance accumulates in areas of high
metabolic activity, and so the image produced shows "bright spots" of high activity and "dark spots"
of low activity. Bone scanning with nuclear medicine can be an important step in diagnosing and
assessing treatment of various kinds of cancer, including breast cancer. On an x–ray, one might see
that the bone is not broken, but on a bone scan, physicians can see metabolic changes caused by fine
fractures, small tumors, or degenerative diseases such as

Polymer Coatings With Radiation Detection Functionality
Polymer Coatings with radiation detection functionality.
Mritunjay Sharma
Zhuo Yang
Supervised by Professor Steve Yeates & Prof. Francis Livens
1. Introduction
Nuclear conversion of an atomic nucleus from one form to another is known as radioactivity. These
conversions are accompanied by nuclear radiations, major nuclear radiations are alpha, beta and
gamma radiations these are ionisations radiations and hence are dangerous to living beings these
radiations can cause radiation sickness and sometimes can even lead to death. However these
nuclear radiations can be detected and measured and considerable research is also being done on
eradicating these nuclear radiations. [1] Molecules and ions ... Show more content on
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Fig: 1 – Types of contaminated areas. [1]
1.1 Types of nuclear radiations.
There are primarily three different types of nuclear radiations α, β and γ radiation.Figure 2 shows
different types of radiation and their penetration capability.
Fig: 2 – Penetrating capabilities of α, β and γ particles.
Alpha radiations consist of two protons and two neutrons, these mainly occur at the time of alpha
decay , Since alpha radiation travel a very short distance hence they can be easily stopped by paper
or normal clothes, Alpha radiations are harmful when in contact directly with the skin or the source
being swallowed.
Beta radiations are high speed and high energy electrons and positrons which occur are produced at
the time beta decay, beta radiation may travel meters in air and is moderately penetrating, these
radiations can penetrate up to germinal layer of the skin where new skin cells are produced and
hence can harm the skin quite effectively.
Gamma rays are high frequency electromagnetic radiations and contain high energy per photon;
these are produced by the decay of higher energy atomic nuclei. These rays can travel many meters
in the air and can penetrate the skin up to centimetres. Dense materials are needed to shield from
gamma radiation.
1.2Radiation Detection
In the process of decontamination radiation detection is the most important process, A

The Natural Radioactivity Of Soil Samples
Abstract The concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K are measured in the material collected from
two locations. The collected materials are tested using gamma ray spectrometry. The activity
concentration of the naturally occurring radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th and 40K in building material it
varies from 12.6 to 121.4, 13.6 to 142 and from 69.5 to 620.6 Bqkg_1, respectively. The radium
equivalent activity, the absorbed dose rate, annual effective dose and hazard index is also calculated
Keywords Radionuclides, radiological hazard, building material radioactive 1. Introduction Natural
sources exist in several geological formations such as soils, rocks, sediments, vegetation, water and
air emit radiation. While 4% is of artificial origin (Chougan–kar et al., 2003; El–Daly and Hussein,
2008) [1]. The natural radioactivity of soil samples determined from the 226Ra, 232Th and40K
contents. Rocks and soils contribute considerably to indoor and outdoor exposure to the
environmental radioactivity by gamma radiation emitting mainly from 226Ra, 232Th and 40K
contents, and beta radiation. The soil radioactivity is a good indicator of the distribution and
accumulation of radioactivity in the environment and knowledge of these concentrations provides
useful information in the monitoring of environment radioactivity (kessaratikoon and Awaekechi,
2008) [2]. Even though these radionuclides are extensively distributed, their concentrations have
been proven to depend on the local geological

The Discovery of Radioactivity and its Effects Essay
During the 1800's, the late 1800's, scientist discovered radioactivity. The study of radio activity
became a phenomenon amongst scientist during this time period. With the discovery of new
elements polonium and radium by Marie and Pierre Curie, the use of radioactivity to probe the
center of an atom, provided the instructions of a nuclear weapon that will kill innocent Japanese,
leaving there face disfigured, and permanently changed. The majority of people know of the effect
of radioactivity but not how it was discovered and its close relation to physics.
The discovery of radioactivity can also be referred to the dawn of the nuclear age. Many scientist,
were interested in satisfying their curiosity and began to explore nature and the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Just like the other scientist before him, he performed experiments to satisfy his curiosity about
radioactivity. Rutherford first, bombarded gold foil in particles from a radioactive source.
Rutherford saw that some of the particles seeming through the gold foil. Rutherford concluded that
matter was made up of empty space, but there was also a small dense portion of matter that
deflected the particles. He defined this dense area as being a nucleus. Through this finding, we were
able to find discoveries that lead to the discovery of radioactivity. Some people argue that
radioactivity should not be used at all mainly because it harms people and fatal, while others say that
it should be used for weapons in a war. From the two atomic bombs dropped on Japan in 1945 the
effect of radioactivity waves are clear. The effects of radioactivity are not always through a nuclear
bomb. Radioactive waves are transmitted through the sun and cosmic radiation. This simply means
that people at higher elevations such as the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado mountains are more
expose to radioactive waves compared to people that live on or at sea level. Radioactive waves are
also transmitted through some fabricated technology, soil, and rocks. The majority of people pose
the question why do doctors or nurses where aprons when giving an x–ray. This is to protect them
from radioactive waves. Nurses give countless numbers of x–rays a day. While you

Technetium-99m Research Paper
Technetium –99m is the workhorse radioisotope used in 80% of nuclear medicine worldwide. It can
help diagnose many diseases such as heart, kidney, lung, liver, thyroid and bone cancer. Uses: 1.
Technetium –99m is used to image the skeleton, heart muscles, brain, thyroid, lungs, and bone
marrow. Technitium–99, is used as radioactive tracer which can be detected in the body by gamma
cameras. Computers process the image when the gamma camera is rotated around the patient. It
takes 15–20 seconds for each projection which are collected every three to six degrees and takes a
total of 15–20 min for a total scan (Uses of Technetium–99m). 2. Myocardial perfusion imaging is a
typical diagnostic application of technetium–99, that is used to determine the flow of blood to
myocardium or heart muscle. It can diagnose heart wall motion or heart tissue damage after a heart
attack (Uses of Technetium–99m). 3. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The technetium–99m radioisotope is used in brain and bone scans. In brain scanning, it can detect
strokes and illness and bone scans it is used directly as it heals skeletal injury (Uses of Technetium–
99m). 4. Technetium–99's radioactive properties can be used to identify lymph nodes in patients
with breast cancer. Through an immunoscintigraphy procedure in an immune system protein is
capable of binding to cancer cells. After injection, medical equipment is used to detect gamma rays
emitted by the Technetium–99m. Tumor is detected where the concentration is high. This technique
is very helpful when finding cancer cell are hard to detect (Uses of

The Ability Of Pleurotus Citrinopleatus And Aspergillus...
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The ability of Pleurotus citrinopleatus and Aspergillus niger exposed to two doses of gamma
irradiation (1 and 2 KGy) and immobilized on wheat straw to decolorize the dyes had been studied.
Table 2 shows peaks of wavelengths of different types of dyes before and after decolorization. Peaks
of reactive red 6 BX, direct brown BN, direct yellow 5 G, disperse orange 2RLS, disperse violet
3RS, sulpher black Br and sulpher brown SG were at 295, 240, 400, 444, 499, 220 and 250nm were
disappeared respectively after decolorization with tested fungi.
Table 2: Wave lengths (λ) of different tested dyes
Dyes
λ max (nm)
Bofore decolorization
After decolorization
Reactive red 6 BX
295, 545
545
Direct Brown BN
390, 240
390
Direct Yellow 5G
400, 250
250
Disperse Orange 2 RLS
444, 288
288
Disperse Violet 3 RS
499, 281
281
Sulpher Black Br
220, 290
290
Sulpher Brown SG
278, 250
278
Awan et al., (2011) reported that Aspergillus niger is a potent producer of many industrially
important enzymes and may genetically be improved by exposure to gamma rays. The mutants

recovered after treatment by gamma rays were found to be effective producers of enzymes (Awan et
al., 2011). Mutagenesis of Aspergillus niger by using chemicals has been reported earlier to improve
many industrially important enzymes and other products. The cells of Aspergillus niger were
subjected to mutagenesis by ultraviolet irradiation, resulting in 45.4% activity of cellulase (Junwei
and Shuyun, 1988). Non

Hydrogen Concentration And Radioactive Isotopes
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; BUT they have the same
number of protons.
In nuclear chemistry, isotopes are shown in the following form:
Chlorine–35 is written as 35Cl and Rubidium–85 is written as 85Rb
Isotopes can be divided in two categories, radioactive and stable.
Stable Isotopes are isotopes that are not radioactive. They have stable nuclei and pose no known
physiological skills
Radioactive Isotopes is when the atom is unstable, it will attempt to gain stability by emitting
radiation in one of the three main forms. A substance is radioactive when it emits this radiation.
There are three types of radiation: α (alpha), β (beta) and γ (gamma) radiation:
Alpha Decay: is made of 'helium nucleus' (2 protons and 2 neutrons) that are ejected from unstable
large nuclei. Alpha radiation usually results when there are too many protons and neutrons in the
nucleus for it to be stable. For example, the decay of uranium–238: Beta Decay: is made up of
electrons ejected from an unstable nucleus (too may neutrons); but nuclei do not contain electrons.
Hence, the underlying reaction is the decomposition of a neutron: When neutron decomposes, it
forms an electron, which is immediately ejected as beta radiation, and a proton ('hydrogen nucleus'),
which is captured by the nucleus. Thus, the beta decay results in an

Nuclear Force Research Papers
Nuclear forces have been around the human race since the beginning of time, though it was not until
recently that people began to understand it. Nuclear decay has helped scientists discover how long
unstable isotopes maintain their unstable state before becoming a more stable isotope. The study of
nuclear chemistry has given people in the medical field powerful tools to combat feared illnesses
such as cancer. Nuclear forces have also provided an alternative energy source to coal and natural
gas. The field of nuclear chemistry encompasses many aspects including nuclear decay, radioactive
elements in medicine, and nuclear energy. Alpha, beta, gamma – to many people those three words
are the first three letters of the Greek alphabet, though ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nuclear medicine however has made it possible to treat cancer. One of the forms of cancer
treatments that involve radioactive materials is radiation therapy. Radiation therapy utilizes X and
gamma rays to target and kill the cancer cells. "Radiation therapy kills cancer cells by damaging
their DNA. Radiation can either damage the DNA directly or create charged particles in cells that in
turn damage the DNA." ("Radiation Therapy for Cancer") Radiation therapy affects only the
selected area of treatment, whereas other treatments such as chemo therapy affects the entire body.
Radiation therapy can be administered two different ways. The first method of administration is
internally. Radiation is injected directly into the blood stream where it travels to the cancerous area.
The other method of administering radiation therapy is externally. "Many types of external–beam
radiation therapy are delivered using a machine called a linear accelerator (also called a LINAC). A
LINAC uses electricity to form a stream of fast–moving subatomic particles. This creates high–
energy radiation that may be used to treat cancer." ("Radiation Therapy for

Nuclear Medicine And Its Effects
Nuclear medicine refers to the use of radioactivity to diagnose and treat diseases. Nuclear medicine
is a rapidly expanding branch of chemistry that uses short–lived radioisotopes to seek out specific
organs. Nuclear medicine can detect radiation coming from inside a patient's body and as a result
nuclear medicine can determine the cause of the medical problems based on organ's function. The
use of nuclear medicine techniques have increased due to its' use of biological chemistry to target
specific cells more precisely than traditional radiation. Traditional radiation applies radiation from
an external source to kill target cells, but can also kill non–targeted cells in the process.
Nuclear medicine tests primarily focus on organ–specific illnesses, as opposed to traditional
radiology, in which particular segments of the body are the focal point. A nuclear medicine that is
attached to a small amount of radioactive material, or radioisotope, is called a pharmaceutical.
Together, a radioisotope and pharmaceutical create a radiopharmaceutical. A small quantity of the
radiopharmaceutical is administered into the body by means of indigestion, injection, or inhalation.
The pharmaceutical part of the radiopharmaceutical localizes in the area in which the disease or
abnormality might be. The body tissues affected by certain diseases may absorb more of the tracer
than other tissues. The radioactive part of the radiopharmaceutical begins to decay and as a result, it
gives off energy.

Gamma Rays Are The Most Interesting Wave Of The...
Gamma rays are the most interesting wave in the electromagnetic spectrum. In 1900, Paul Villard
discovered Gamma rays unexpectedly while he was conducting a radioactivity experiment
(ARPANSA). He differentiated gamma rays from x–rays because he realized that gamma rays had a
greater penetration power depth through his further study and research (ARPANSA). Gamma
radiation studies revealed that they are very dangerous, but scientist also found a way to protect
against gamma radiation and many beneficial usages.
Gamma radiation is in the highest energy level of the electromagnetic spectrum (Electromagnetic
Spectrum). And the electromagnetic spectrum reveals the different types and range of radiation as
well as their wavelengths, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The research logically proved that if a person was farther away from the radiation, they would be
affected less by the bombing. The research clearly revealed why a high dose of gamma radiation
was dangerous because the bombs and explosions immediately killed people, and had many ways to
destroy person's health.
Unlike high dose of gamma radiation, a small dose of radiation had a significant and negative effects
on the victims in China. This study strongly proved that gamma radiation negatively affected the
health because the accidental Ir–192 gamma radiation caused a variety of cancer even with small
doses of radiation: .05 – .65 Gy (Li). Iridium 192 is a radioactive isotope that has a half–life of
73.82 days which means that these radiations may occur rapidly. Also, the victims who were
exposed to this radiation had limited knowledge that certain machinery expelled the gamma
radiation (Li). 54 people were conducted on a 10–year test to check their health. The method was
very simple because the researchers gathered and then studied blood samples, bone marrow, and
their T cell subsets (Li). The results revealed basic clinical symptoms such as an increase in
dizziness, fatigue, memory loss, insomnia for 90.7 % of the people in the first month, but as time
passed by, the study

Effects Of Radiation Safety On The Health Risk Dealing...
Radiation Safety
By Sean Trosper
In requirements for
AVIA 5103
Aviation Safety Program Development
Michelle Crom, M.S. Table of Contents
1. Abstract
2. Discovery of Radiation
3. Health Effects of Radiation
4. Fukushima
5. Radiation Sources
6. Aircrew Radiation Exposure
7. Natural Ways to Reduce Radiation in Your Body
8. Conclusion
Abstract
This paper goes over radiation safety precautions and all the health risk dealing with radiation. I will
discuss the discovery of radiation, non–iodizing and iodizing radiation, natural exposure to
radiation, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma radiation and how they affect us. Also the paper will be going
over radiation from human activities: underground miners, radiologists, medical ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
For some reason, Becquerel decided to develop his photographic plates anyway. To his surprise, the
images were strong and clear, proving that the uranium emitted radiation without an external source
of energy such as the sun. Becquerel had discovered radioactivity.
Becquerel used an apparatus similar to that displayed below to show that the radiation he discovered
could not be x–rays. X–rays are neutral and cannot be bent in a magnetic field. The new radiation
was bent by the magnetic field so that the radiation must be charged and different than x–rays. When
different radioactive substances were put in the magnetic field, they deflected in different directions
or not at all, showing that there were three classes of radioactivity: negative, positive, and
electrically neutral.
The term radioactivity was actually named by Marie Curie, who together with her husband Pierre,
began investigating the phenomenon recently discovered by Becquerel. The Curies extracted
uranium from ore and to their surprise, found that the leftover ore showed more activity than the
pure uranium. They concluded that the ore contained other radioactive elements. This led to the

discoveries of the elements polonium and radium. It took four more years of processing tons of ore
to isolate enough of each element to determine their chemical properties.
Ernest Rutherford, who did many experiments studying the properties of radioactive decay, named

Natural Radiation Research Paper
Natural radiation is the radiation provided from natural occurring substances such as the sun's UV
rays and the earth's crust. Natural radiation includes elements such as Uranium and Radium.
Artificial radiation is synthesised (man–made) in ways such as bombarding a stable nucleus of an
element with energy to create radioisotopes. This man–made radiation includes substances such as
nuclear power.
Electromagnetic radiation which includes waves such as radio waves, microwaves and visible light.
Theses waves all fall under the same spectrum known as the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves occur when orbital transitions take place such as ionization and excitation
and can produce radiation such as characteristic x–rays and Auger electrons. Particulate radiation is
radiation that is made from fast moving particles also known as a particle beams. Some examples of
particulate radiation are alpha and beta particles. Particles have mass unlike photons in
electromagnetic radiation. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The relationship between gamma photon energy and frequency is that gamma photon energy is
directly proportionate to frequency. B) The relationship between wavelength and frequency is that
when wavelength increases, frequency decreases. Frequency measure how many waves pass in one
second, if the wavelength is larger, than the number of waves passing per second would be less due
to longer amount of time one wave takes to pass completely. Wavelength is inversely proportionate
to frequency.
The difference between x–ray and gamma rays are their wavelength. X–rays have a wavelength of
10–9 m – 10–11 m while gamma ray's wavelengths vary from 10–12 m – 10–14m. Gamma and x–
rays also have different origins. Gamma rays originate in the nucleus while x–rays come from the
electromagnetic field surrounding the

Nuclear Radiation Research Paper
Discuss medical applications of nuclear radiation and their effects on society. Explain briefly how
the applications work. Include some of the scientists involved in their discovery and development.
Simply put radiation is energy or particles flying through space. Radiation comes in three forms
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation, all three types have vastly different applications and levels of
strength. The most common type of electromagnetic radiation used in the medical is known as
ionising radiation, that form of radiation is far more powerful than non–ionising radiation because it
cannot break molecular bonds or ionise atoms. Nuclear radiation can both be exceptionally useful
and ridiculously dangerous if the proper measures are not put in place. Radiation is used most
predominantly in the medical field where patients receive controlled doses, the expositor to radiation
is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nuclear medicine is a specific branch of medicine that uses tiny amounts of radiation to measure the
severity or even treat many different disorders and diseases like heart disease, gastrointestinal
(stomach), endocrine (gland) and neurological disorders. Radiation is also successful in identifying
molecular irregularities in the body allowing for the doctors to treat the illness before it progresses
to an irreparable or fatal stage. Nuclear medical procedures are non–invasive and, in much of the
cases, painless. There is a range of types of nuclear medical exams where a radiotracer injected,
inhaled as gas, or swallowed, radiotracers act as a contrast for the machine to show the body as the
clear image. Nuclear radiation offers procedures like radioactive iodine (I–131) therapy where a
small amount of I–131 is absorbed into the bloodstream to treat conditions affecting the thyroid

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Cesium 137
Introduction:
Humankind in the modern world is strife with daily battles ranging from treating cancerous tumours
to finding out if oil is flowing in a trans–siberian oil pipeline. Radioisotopes seem to hold a solution
to these and many more serious and challenging issues.
Global Issue:
Being able to survive is the key to the existence of the Human race. In our endeavour to survive, we
now need to tackle Cancer; the untamed monster of the modern era. Radioisotopes can be crucial to
this survival. Very simply said; they can destroy any tumor. The isotopes are used as a source of a
specific type of radiation, which is delivered to the target tissue by suitable means, destroying the
tumor. The challenge in this kind of treatment would be not to destroy the organ itself in the bargain.
Cesium 137:
Cesium 137 is one such isotope which holds a lot of promise in the area of Cancer therapy. Caesium
is a soft silvery–gold metal; Naturally occurring Cs–133 is a stable isotope, while other Cs ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Firstly,the advantage of using Cesium 137 of its long half life of 30 years, the source can give out
radiation for a very long time until its quantum of radiation decreases by half of its original amount
(Gould 156). Since cesium has a half life of 30 years the radiation source which is implanted next to
the tumour would not need to be changed repeatedly and repeated surgery would not be required.
Secondly, cesium also has a low range. This means that to affect the tumour and kill it, the source
would have to be placed near the tumour tumour to kill it. This acts as an advantage since when
dealing with radiation , it is vital to be aware of the negative consequences radiation can have on
other tissues and muscles of the human body. Hence having less range is an advantage since it can
affect the tumour only when placed next to it. This will be helpful since it will only affect the
tumour when placed next to

Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear medicine has been around for more than 50 years now and stems from the discovery of x–
rays and artificial radioactivity. In 1946, nuclear medicine made a monumental breakthrough when
radioactive iodine led to the complete disappearance of cancer in a patient's thyroid. Nuclear
medicine became widely used in the 1950's to measure the function of the thyroid, to diagnose
thyroid disease, and for the treatment of patients with hyperthyroidism. By the 1970's nuclear
medicine was used to visualize other organs of the body other than the thyroid such as scanning of
the liver and spleen, localizing brain tumors, and images of the gastrointestinal track. The use of
digital computers and detection of heart disease arose in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This table shows the common risks that people face in everyday life compared to that individual
dying from taking that risk. These figures were taken from "Living with Risk", published by the
British Medical Association, 1987.
ACTIVITY RISK OF AN INDIVIDUAL DYING IN ANY ONE YEAR
Smoking 10 cigarettes a day 1 in 200
Influenza 1 in 500
Natural causes, 40 years old 1 in 850
Road Accident 1 in 8,000
Playing Soccer 1 in 25,000
Accident at Home 1 in 26,000
Accident at Work 1 in 43,500
Hit by Lightning 1 in 10,000,000
Release of radiation from a nearby Power Station 1 in 10,000,000
Radiation Exposure at the rate of: * Theoretical worst case figures *
5 mSv per year 1 in 16,000
50 mSv per year 1 in 1,600
OCCUPATION
Deep Sea Fishing (sea accidents before 1970) 1 in 360
Offshore Oil and Gas Industry 1 in 600
Quarrying 1 in 3,000
Coal Mining 1 in 5,000
Railways 1 in 6,000
Construction Industry 1 in 7,000
Agriculture 1 in 9,000
Chemical and Allied Industries 1 in 12,000

Motor Vehicle manufacture 1 in 70,000
Clothing and Footwear manufacture 1 in 200,000
Timber and Furniture manufacture 1 in 250,000
(http://www.petnm.unimelb.edu.au/nucmed/detail/risks.html) "A millisievert (mSV) is a unit of
measure that allows for some comparison between radiation sources that expose the entire body
(such as natural background radiation) and those that only expose a portion of the body (such as
radiographs)."

The Effect Of Gamma Rays On Man
In The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man–in–the–Moon Marigolds, Paul Zindel depicts a world startled
by the precarious nature of life. Consequentially, the play focuses intently on the human struggle for
acceptance and self worth, and how each individual conforms and reacts to uncertainties. Tillie, the
protagonist in the play, struggles to preserve order in her imprisoned life. Her mother Beatrice,
discouraged by her own life, controls and restricts Tillie from achieving her full potential. The
perplexing relationship between Tillie and her mother serves to highlight the unfathomable struggle
for self efficacy and finding ways to cope amidst the stark instabilities of life. Beatrice serves as an
obstacle and an unpredictable force in life which Tillie must overcome in order to find self value. On
the other hand, Tillie creates an obstacle for Beatrice, which Beatrice also must tackle to preserve
her diminishing pride. The relationship between Tillie and Beatrice not only highlights the struggle
to find pride in a fickle world, but it also evaluates how some fail and others prosper based on how
one responds to life's capriciousness. The play centers around Beatrice's relationship with her
children, Ruth and Tillie, however, her relationship with Tillie is more meaningful for the
development of the plot. Beatrice, the antagonist of the play, is a single mother who was left
unexpectedly by two central male figures in her life, her husband and her father. These events
nursed a

The Birth Of Nuclear Medicine
Introduction It is difficult to determine the birth of nuclear medicine due to the many contributions
made my scientists of carious fields. However, most notably, during bla blah Understanding the
uses, benefits and side effect of nuclear medicine is crucial due to its significant and ongoing
contribution to the medical field. Throughout this paper focus will be placed on how radioactivity
has benefited the detection, control and at times, complete elimination of cancer. Background
Nuclear medicine is a medical speciality whereby radiopharmaceuticals – drugs containing
radioactive materials called radioisotopes – are given to a patient in order to determine the severity
of or treat a variety of diseases. However, to understand this and the impact that different physics
principles have on the function of nuclear medicine, these principles must first be explained. Atoms;
the building blocks of matter, contain a centrally located nucleus inside of which there are positively
and neutrally charged subatomic particles known respectively as protons and neutrons. Electrons
orbit around them and have a negative charge. The name isotope is given to atoms with the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons. When isotopes occur, they serve to stabilise
the proceeding atom, however, if there are too many or too few neutrons, then they become unstable
and are known as radioisotopes. Radioisotopes are often artificially created through irradiation,
which is where an

Nuclear Medicine: Nuclear Imaging
Nuclear imaging (also known as nuclear medicine) is an imaging modality that involves injection,
inhalation or injection of radioactive radiopharmaceuticals to visualize various organs and tissues.
However, not only organs and tissues can be monitored, but also particular cells that are directly (for
example with F–FDG tracer) or genetically (for example with HSV1–tk reporter gene) labeled . In
order to use this nuclear imaging modality radiopharmaceuticals (also called tracers) are given
internally (i.V. or orally). The Radiopharmaceuticals emitting penetrating gamma rays are used for
imaging, where the radiation has to escape the body before being detected by special scans. The two
major nuclear imaging modalities used in pre–clinical

Taking a Look at Cobalt 60
Cobalt 60 Cobalt 60 is one of many radioactive isotopes. It contains 33 neutrons and 27 protons.
Most people have not heard of Cobalt–60 unless they are involved in chemistry or the medial field.
This isotope is more common than a person thinks. It is an isotope that is useful in the medical field
and other places. This paper is all about Cobalt–60 and the history behind it as well as some other
useful information. Cobalt was discovered by a Swedish chemist by the name of Georg Brandt. In
1735, Georg was trying to prove that certain minerals had the ability to color glass blue and was not
due to bismuth but due to an unknown element (1). Since then, it has developed into a highly useful
isotope.
When people hear about radioactive isotopes, they wonder where the isotopes come from. The non–
radioactive version of cobalt (Cobalt–59) occurs naturally in various minerals (2). It also occurs
naturally in the air, water, soil, rocks, plants, and animals (6). Humans even have cobalt in their
body, but this is a very small amount. The body contains 1.5 mg of Cobalt–60 and the liver is the
principal organ of where a person can find it (1). Some isotopes are made naturally and some are
made unnaturally. Radioactive Cobalt–60 is not naturally made. It is formed when cobalt–59 is
collided by a neutron making it the radioactive isotope (3).
Cobalt decays to form Nickel–60. As it decomposes, it releases gamma radiation. Beta particles also
occur when Carbon–60 decays (4). The nuclear

The Safety Of A Food Supply
The stability of a food supply is often the most important thing a society can offer to its people.
However, in a changing global environment filled with bacteria, viruses, and disease, scientists and
farmers have continually tried to find ways to make food safer for consumers. The normal way
currently is to use pesticides and preservatives to keep diseases at bay and keep food from going bad
and possibly causing harm to those who eat it. Some researchers, however, are still looking for safer
and more effective ways to preserve food, and the idea of food irradiation has been around since the
early 1900's. Anything involving radiation often scared consumers and makes them not trust the
quality of the food, because they do not believe that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The FDA greatly expanded the use of food irradiation in the year 1986, even though it was already
used for things such as wheat, flour, and potatoes. Before this time, radiation was thought of in food
terms as an additive, not a process the food must go through. In fact, by 1988, some nineteen major
countries had laws in place that allowed for certain foods to be irradiated to help better preserve
them. The world is beginning to realize this form of preservation as a viable option, and the only
thing left is for the consumer and the government to decide whether or not this should be a
commonly used method.
Food irradiation has many variables that make it exactly what it is. There are different types of
irradiation that work on different types of food, and accomplish different tasks such as sterilization,
disease prevention, or even acting as an insect repellent. The thing that truly defines the different
types, however, is the type of radiation used. The most effective types include electron beam
radiation, gamma ray radiation, and x–ray radiation. Electron beam radiation is the shortest in terms
of time needed to irradiate the food, but it also does not penetrate very deep, only about half a
centimeter. This type of ray radiation is used to merely disinfect things like wheat and some grains.
Gamma ray radiation is the use of Cobalt–60 in most places to irradiate the food. In fact, this type of
radiation can penetrate up to six inches.

The Effect of Radiation in Inducing Mutation on the Growth...
The Effect of Radiation in Inducing Mutation
On the Growth of Zea mays1
Milanie Joy S. Baradi
BIO 30 Section S–1L
October 10, 2011
____________________ 1A scientific paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in
Biology 30 laboratory under Professor Neilyn O. Villa, 1st semester, 2011–2012. ABSTRACT To
determine the effects of gamma radiation in inducing mutation on the growth of corn (Zea mays), an
experiment using corn seeds exposed in to different rate of radiation (0kr, 10 kr, 30 kr, and 50 kr)
was done. Four treatments were prepared using 10 seeds from each of the following different
radiation rates. The seeds were planted and were observed for seven weeks. The percent germination
and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Theoretically, the control should have the highest percent germination rate, but since errors which
can be attributed from the environment as well as from other physical factors are present, results
obtained cannot be avoided. The treatment with the highest irradiation rate (50 kr) has the lowest
rate of seed germination. However, in Table 2, results indicated that treatment under the former has
the highest percent mortality rate (100 %) while the lowest obtained by the control treatment (40%).
In Figure 1, results obtained showed that the treatment with highest average plant height was under
Treatment 10 kr. The final average plant height under this treatment was 28.58 cm compared to the
25.98 cm of control, 20.87 of 30 kr and 6.04 of 50 kr. Again, theoretically, the control should have
the highest average plant height but results showed otherwise.
Through the obtained data, it can be concluded that exposing seeds to radiation can induce mutation
which in the end could affect the growth rate, germination rate as well as the mortality rate of the
plant. Observations and data obtained showed that the rate of radiation is inversely proportional to
the percent germination and height of corn plants thus proving that percent germination and height
decreases as amount or

The Use Of Gamma-Ray Coputed Tomography

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