Basic

Basic
The Basic Parts The Basic Parts There are just five basic parts in a radio frequency communication system. These are: * Antenna * Amplifier *
Filter * Mixer * Source These five parts are then put together to do one of two basic functions: transmit or receive. The name of the resulting device
is a radio. The radio also may go by many other names based on marketing considerations or its specific role in the wireless network. A radio is used
to send and receive a signal that flows through the air as a series of electromagnetic waves. Radios can take on many different forms. As such, it is not
always easy to identify them. When transmitting or receiving, the goal is to produce a perfect sine wave, of the exact... Show more content on
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Antenna Radiation Pattern When selecting an antenna, both the width of the area to be covered and the distance of each link must be considered.
These considerations will then determine the type of antenna to use, based on each antenna's signal pattern. Every antenna has a pattern to the
signal. This pattern applies both to sending and receiving. By convention, the radiation line used to draw this pattern is placed wherever the power
radiating out drops to one half of the power at the antenna surface. For example, for a dipole antenna:| | As opposed to a directional antenna:| | | Note
in the diagram above that the radiation pattern does not have an even outline; there is a large main lobe, which is desired, and one or more side lobes,
which are undesirable. These side lobes are also called the minor lobes. Antennas also have a front–to–back ratio that is measured in dBs. The forward
gain is the maximum gain at the end of the main lobe of the antenna. The rear gain is measured either at 180 degrees from the main lobe, or from 90
degrees to 270 degrees from the main lobe. Using the wider sector is the better way to measure this distance. These back lobes are also undesirable. A
front–to–back ratio of 10–15 dB is fair, 15–20 dB is good, 20–30 dB is very good, and above 30 dB is excellent. The regions in between the main and
minor lobes are areas of weak signals called nulls. All antennas have gain, but this may or may not be real
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Basic Fundamentals And Design Parameters Of Patch
CHAPTER 3
BASIC FUNDAMENTALS AND DESIGN PARAMETERS OF PATCH
3.1Introduction As we all know, Selection of antenna is very important in designing of successful rectenna because antenna is responsible for how
much power is received by the circuitry following after the antenna. This chapter describes the theory of antenna and its property, design process,
simulations and fabrication of an Microsrip antenna that operates within the microwave frequency range. First we start with a brief explanation of the
main design parameters of an antenna then we briefly explain the advantages of using microstrip antennas in these applications [4–18]. Also a brief
introduction of the software used for the design and simulations stages. Then we will explain how making some changes to the shape of the ground
plane and the radiating patch of the antenna can improve the performance. After all the parametric simulations a final antenna version was chosen and
subsequently built.
An antenna also known as midair is an electrical expedient which translates electric power into radio waves, and apposite to it. It is typically cast–off
with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In broadcast, a radio transmitter deliveries an electric current wavering at radio frequency (i.e. a high
frequency alternating current ) to the antenna 's terminuses, and the antenna produces the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna interrupts certain of the power of an

Advantages And Disadvantages Of An Antena
An Antenna is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves and radio waves into electric power. An antenna used with a radio
transmitter or radio receiver. During transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency to the terminals of
antenna, and the antenna radiates the energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. During reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an
electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. Communication is defined as the
transfer of information from one point to another point. Communication system is required to convey the information over a distance. The information
can be transfer by superimposing or modulating the information on to a carrier which is an electromagnetic wave. At the receiving side, the received
modulate carrier can be recovered by demodulation to get the original information. For this process complicated techniques have been developed using
electromagnetic carrier waves operating at radio frequencies as well as millimeter and microwave frequencies. In today's modern communication
industry antennas play an important role to create a communication link. Microstrip antennas... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Printed antennas enjoy many advantages over standard antennas, such as ease of integration with monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs),
low manufacturing costs, low profile and integrated passives, and the ability to be mounted on planar, nonplanar, and rigid exteriors. Although most
wireless local area network (WLAN) applications utilize omni–directional antennas, directional and quasi endfire antennas, such as Yagi–Uda antenna
has been employed to suppress unwanted radio frequency (RF) emissions as well as unwanted interference in other

Lab Report
Abstract– A compact frequency reconfigurable slot antenna containing A U
–shaped slot with short ends and an L–shaped slot with open ends are
engraved in the ground plane to realize dualband operation By implanting 2 PIN diodes in tothe slots,accesible reconfigurability of three frequency
bands over a frequency ratio of 2.62:1 can be achieved. For reducing the cross polarization of the antenna, one more L–shaped slot is introduced
proportionally. In this proposed method, less VSWR, optimum return loss and high efficient radiation pattern will be obtained.
Settled monopole bearing empty–headed regulations are achieved at all operating frequencies. From the simulated and measured results, we observe
that the antenna is switched between 2 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The reconfigurable
E.Kirubasankari is with the Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur, India.; e–mail: spacegirlkiruba@gmail.com
M.Jenath, and V.Nagarajan are with the Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Adhiparasakthi Engineering College,
Melmaruvathur, India. slot antenna with three switchable frequencies is presented and three PIN diodes, the antenna can switch between three
single–band modes, three dual–band modes and a triple–band
In this letter, a frequency tunable reconfigurable slot antenna is presented. capacitor (trimmer) is used to control the frequency of the antenna.
Therefore, in this paper, a frequency reconfigurable micro strip patch switchable to slot antennawith 2.62:1 frequency ratio is introduced. The size of
the antenna is reduced by etching slots with open ends in the ground plane.The simulated and measured results are presented and the performances of
the antenna are investigated. II. ANTENNA DESIGN
The configuration of the antenna is shown in Fig.1. On one side of the substrate is the ground plane and on the other side of the substrate is the
stepped feed line. A U–shaped slot with short ends and an L–shaped slot with open ends are used to realize dual–band operation (2.3 and 4.5 GHz). By
inserting two PIN diodes (D1 and D2) inside the slots, the antenna can
switch

The Neural Network Model
In the present chapter determining the radius for a given resonant frequency of centre feed circular microstrip antenna has been estimated using the
FFBP ANN
In the present chapter the radius for a given resonant frequency of a centre feed circular microstrip patch antenna has been analysed using two layer
neural network structures FFBP ANN model. The Levenberg– Marquardt training algorithm and the transfer function tansig have been used to
implement the neural network model. The simulated values for training and testing the neural network model are obtained by analysing the circular
microstrip patch antenna using CST Microwave Studio Software (CST–MWS). The results obtained using ANNs are compared with the simulation
findings and found ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Figure 3.1 shows the training performance graph that indicates the best validation performance and number of epochs required to achieve the
minimum mean square error level. The number of epochs required for training the aforesaid neural network to achieve mean square error (MSE) is
668. The training time is 3 seconds and the training algorithm used in the analysis model is Levenberg – Marquardt training algorithm.
Figure 3.2 shows the training state of the FFBP ANN model, the training state condition is shown by 3 different graphs in the first graph gradient value
is shown at different epochs, in the next graph Mu which indicates the error values at different epochs are shown and the third figure shows the
validation check points at different epochs. All the three graphs are showing the values at epoch 674.
The network is tested for 10 patterns and the table 3.1 shows the comparison of results of CST and FFBP–ANN with 5 neurons for radius with the
variation of the resonant frequency of the circular patch microstrip antenna computing MSE function with constant substrate height and dielectric
constant.
The network is realized using FFBP architecture. In the model, developed for the analysis of radius there are 10

Communication Between Aliens And Human Beings
Yue Zhang
02/04/2015
Space Communication
In every space mission, communication is one of the most important part but there is not so many people put their focus on it. I would like to write
my fiction depend on the communication between people on the Earth and people in the space. My story is happened in 22nd century and people
have a developed technology to send the robots to the very far planets. At a different galaxy, aliens find our robots are sending signal back to thesatellite
around the Earth. They change the signal and begin to communicate with the people on the Earth by our space communication function of the robots or
the satellite. The difference of hopes between the aliens and the human beings can be shown during the communication. The war is about starting.
Since my story is mainly depend on the communication between aliens and human beings, my research paper will focus on the different ways and the
basic principles about aliens and human beings used to communicate.
At first, I would like to talk about DSN which is a basic telecommunication systems in the world. According to the NASA DSN official website, the full
name of DSN is Deep Space Network, which is famous as the system used to do the two–way communication between the Earth and the spacecraft or
satellite in the space. (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory)Two–way communication, contains the uplink and downlink, means it can send information to
the space and collect information from

Nt1310 Unit 5 Project Report
This antenna is designed on FR–4 substrate. It has dielectric constant 4.4 and thickness 1.6 mm. copper material is used for ground plane and patch. We
provided microstrip line feeding to this antenna.
2.1 Simple microstrip patch antenna
Here first we design a simple rectangular shaped microstrip patch antenna with dimension 14 X 14 X 1.60 mm^3 shown in Fig.1. In this antenna the
dimension of patch is 10 X 13 mm^2. We are using microstrip line feed to this rectangular patch with length 4mm and width 1.6mm. By simulating this
simple patch antenna we were getting only two frequency bands as shown in Fig2. Fig.1. Simple microstrip patch antenna Fig.2. Return loss of simple
MSP Antenna
2.2 Microstrip patch antenna with four rectangular slots ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For improving results we cut four rectangular slots S1, S2, S3 and S4 in which two horizontal slots S1 and S2 are of same dimensions with length
L1 and width W1 and the vertical slots S3 and S4 are of same dimensions with length L2 and width W2 as shown in Fig.3. With these four slots we
are getting good return loss for the above resonant frequencies as shown in Fig.4 but the return loss and bandwidth at all resonant frequencies can be
improved by using cylindrical slot. Fig.3. MSP with four rectangular slots Fig.4. Return loss of MSP with four slots
2.3 Microstrip patch antenna with cylindrical slot
Here we cut a cylindrical slot in the patch with outer radius R1 and inner radius R2 (R1>R2) as shown in Fig.5. By using cylindrical slot in the
above rectangular slot antenna we get all three bands as with improved return loss and bandwidth as shown in Figure 6. The three bands which we are
getting are better as compared to previous result of microstrip patch antenna with four rectangular slots. Fig.5. MSP with four rectangular slots and one
cylindrical

The Communication System Of A Radio
As most are bound to know, a majority of the modern society is heavily dependent on the capacity of being able to converse large amounts of data
across various distances. Nowadays the ways in which important data is shared may be complex, but during the advent of radio and the early stages of
wireless communication, most communication systems were both linear and basic in essence. A fundamental communication system is composed of a
transmitter, a channel, and a receiver; akin to casual conversations, the transmitter can be regarded as the source of information (ie. The person
speaking), the channel as the medium for the sound to travel through (ie. The air), and finally the receiver as the acceptor of the spoken information (ie.
The person listening). In a radio system, the aforementioned sub–systems of a communication system execute more definite functions, but the crux of
their purpose is the same. The transmitter in a radio communication act as the sub–system which processes the information signal prior to its
transmission, and then modulates the information onto a carrier signal. The information is then usually amplified, then broadcasted over the channel.
The channel acts a medium in which the modulated signal can be transported to the receiver; for radio broadcasts, air is most commonly used as the
channel. The receiver then finally processes the retrieved information signal so that it may be interpreted; for the case of radio, the receiver must be
able to

Essay On Patch Antenna
2 2 Microstrip Patch Antenna Array Fed by Substrate Integrated Waveguide
for Radar Applications
Chandan Baranwal, ME, BIT Mesra
Abstract–A 2 2 microstrip patch antenna array fed by a sub–strate integrated waveguide (SIW) feeding network for 24–GHz radar applications is
suggested in this paper. The microstrip patches are aperture–coupled with the feeding network comprising of a perpendicular coax–to–SIW transition
and two Y–junction power dividers. The antenna design is performed in the ANSYS HFSS using finite element method for EM solutions and the
procured results have been verified by measurement in Lab. At the frequency 24.4 GHz, the prototype has a gain of 9.28 dBi.
Index Terms–Antenna array, microstrip patch, power ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this paper, an AC–MPA element fed by an SIW is used as a building block for the design of a small antenna array. The proposed antenna combines
the benefits of microstrip patch antennas with the advantages of SIW technology. SIW is utilized in order to minimize transmission losses in the
feeding part. In addition, an SIW– based feeding network does not radiate any spurious radiation that could affect the radiation pattern of the antenna
array. Therefore, any additional shielding of the feeding part or the reflector is not required in comparison to the microstrip line feeding technique for
AC–MPAs. The antenna array design is carried out for a 24–GHz radar system. The paper presents the simulated and experimental results of the
proposed antenna array.
II.ANTENNA ARRAY CONFIGURATION
The structure of the proposed antenna array is shown in Fig. 1. The antenna consists of 2 2 aperture–coupled microstrip patch antennas fed by an
SIW–based feeding network. The in –phase uniform feeding for the array consists of three SIW–based power dividers. The antenna array is fed by a
coaxial connector.
The configuration of a single AC– MPA element used for the antenna array design is shown in Fig. 2. The rectangular microstrip patch of width and
length is placed on

Using Compact And High Performance Wireless Communication...
Chapter 1
Introduction
The patch antenna plays a very important role in today's world of wireless communication systems .There is always a large demand for high
performance ,small size and low cost wireless communication systems .in order to get these requirements ,planar patch antenna is preferred because of
their various advantages such as light weight ,low volume ,low cost and ease for fabrication .although the microstrip patch antenna has various
advantages it has various disadvantages which are low gain ,narrow bandwidth and low efficiency .These disadvantages can be overcome by
constructing many patch antennas in array configuration. Recently there has been increasing demand in the use of DGSs for performance
enhancement of microstrip patch antennas and planar array antennas .there are basically two types of structures which are used for the design of
compact and high performance wireless communication systems named as defected ground structures (DGS) and electromagnetic band–gap structures
(EBG) which is also known as photonic band–gap structure(PBG). These structures have been used to obtain the functions such as unwanted frequency
rejection and circuit size reduction. Recently defected ground structures have been introduced; DGSs are realized by simply etching off simple shape
(called as defect) from the ground plane .Depending upon the shape and the dimensions of the defects ,the current distribution in the ground plane is
disturbed and resulting in a controlled

Design of a Rectangular Patch Antenna Using Computer...
(
Design of A Rectangular Patch Antenna using Computer Simulation Technology (CST)
Nik Nurul Azuin Bt Nik Abdul Rahman, ID No.: 2010702499, GROUP: EE2405A
Abstract– A design of a microstrip rectangular patch antenna is presented in this paper. The proposed antenna was simulated using Computer
Simulation Technology (CST) CAD Package and design on a microstrip with relative permittivity of 4.6, and substrate and copper thickness of 0.5 mm
and 0.035 mm respectively with 4.5 GHz of frequency.
Keywords– CST Microwave Studio, circular array antenna, frequency, microstrip, permittivity, substrate thicknesses, copper thickness, RT/ Duroid
5880 result
INTRODUCTION
Microstip antenna which is also known as the printed antenna is very ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The patch antenna, microstrip transmission line and ground plane are made of high conductivity metal (typically copper). The patch is of length L,
width W, and sitting on top of a substrate (some dielectric circuit board) of thickness h with permittivity. The thickness of the ground plane or of the
microstrip is not critically important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of operation, but not much smaller than 0.05 of a
wavelength.
[pic] Figure 1: Top view of patch antenna
The strip (patch) and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric sheet as shown in Figure 2.
[pic]
Figure 2: Microstrip feed line
Typical variations, as a function of frequency, of the effective dielectric constant for a microstrip line with three different substrates as shown in Figure

3.
[pic]
Figure 3: Effective dielectric constant versus frequency for typical substrate
[pic]
Figure 4: Rectangular microstrip patch and its equivalent circuit transmission–line model
Each radiating slot is represented by the parallel equivalent admittance. This is shown in Figure 4.

Techniques Of Monopole Antenna
operation but also needs to have an appropriate proposed design. It employs two techniques to improve the radiation pattern. These techniques are the
use of an angled dipole and vertical copper plates arranged on the ground plane for improvement in the radiation pattern of lower and upper bands,
respectively radiation profile in both bands, namely similar gain, wide beamwidth. One of the popular techniques for broadening the patch antenna
bandwidth is to incorporate a U–slot on its surface. They have the ability to confine the power in certain directions instead of scattering the power
everywhere. As a result of less power loss toward unwanted directions, the multipath and interference effects are reduced.
Using wideband circularly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fundamental characteristics of this antenna such as the radiation directivity and the frequency response are measured.
Figure shows a picture of the proposed antenna that has a shape of вЂ•tears dropвЂ–. Using Novel Ultra Wideband Planar
Reflector Antenna a reflector antenna relies on reflection of energy from the reflector. Reflector antennas tend to be good directional and high gain
antennas [11]. There are some classes of ultra wideband reflector antennas, such as planar, corner, and parabolic cylinder reflector antennas. In these
reflector antennas, the planar reflector antenna is the simplest and yet most practical design. Principle of the planar reflector antenna is image theory.
As shown in figure according to antenna image theory, an image antenna can generate in the other side of the perfect electric conducting plane. Using
conducting plane as a back reflector, a more compact antenna structure may be feasible. The conducting planar reflector serves to concentrate the
radiation to the antenna side of the planar reflector [12].
Fig.
A dual spiral antenna for Ultra wideband capsule endoscope system a dual spiral antenna for ultra wideband capsule endoscope system is proposed.
Since a capsule endoscope system which transmits real time image data in the body should have ultra–wideband characteristic, an ultra wideband
antenna is suitable for this system. When an antenna is used as capsule endoscope system, a small sized antenna is

Modeling Of Fractal Antenna Using Artificial Neural Network
1. Title:– Modeling of fractal antenna using Artificial Neural Network.
2.Introduction:– In high–performance spacecraft, aircraft, missile and satellite applications, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation,
and aerodynamic profile are constraints, low profile antennas may be required. Presently, there are many other government and commercial
applications, such as mobile radio and wireless communications that have similar specifications. To meet these requirements, micro strip antennas can
be used [1,2].
The expensive growth of wireless system and booming demand for variety of new wireless application,it is important to design an antenna whose
size,shape,weight and cost will be less. If it is possible that a single antenna can work on more than one frequency then it is good for us. So generally
fractal antenna is used as multiband antenna.
The fractal geometry concept can be used to reduce antenna size. So fractal shaped antennas are good choice to reduce antenna size and get multiband
behavior.
The fractal antenna can be classified on the basis of iteration as 0 iteration,1st iteration,2nd iteration etc.
For fulfilling all the requirement introduced above fractal microstrip patch antennas are designed.As the number of iteration increases the time consume
for solving matrix generated in simulator based on method of moment(IE3D) increases. Due to this reason we are designing an artificial neural network
for microstrip fractal antenna.
2.1 Fractal

Modern Communication Devices, And Day
modern communication devices, and day–to–day communication is done through it. Study of literature of past few year shows that, the leading work
on Microstrip Patch
Antenna (MPA) is focused on designing for dual frequency and dual polarized operation on arbitrary shape of patch with commercially simulated
software. This review paper demonstrates some commonly engaged techniques to fabricate
Microstrip patch antenna with dual frequency and dual polarized operation since last few decades.
Index Terms– Patch Antenna, Simulator Software,
Frequency, Polarization, Gain. I. INTRODUCTION
Microstrip Patch Antenna (MPA) is commonly used because of its low profile, low cost and ease of manufacturing. A patch antenna is made by etching
metal on one side of dielectric substrate whereas on the opposite side there is continuous metal layer of the substrate which forms a ground plane. MPA
are inherently a narrowband antenna so; various bandwidth enhancement techniques are engaged while keeping its size as compact as possible with
that the wireless communication systems are often faced with many problems of multiple path fading. Recently, research work has focused on
frequency reuse and polarization diversity. A number to techniques available for analysing Microstrip patch antenna. The analytical techniques include
transmission line model and cavity model. The most common numerical techniques are moment method and the finite element method. The later
technique is time consuming while the

The Concept of MSA
LITERATURE SURVEY
The concept of MSAs was first proposed by Deschamps in 1953. A patent were issued in France in 1955 in the names of Gutton and Baissinor. After the
1970, the research publications started to flow within the appearances of the first design equation. Since the, different authors started investigation on
microstrip patch antennas like James hall, David M. Pozars and there are also some who contributed a lot. Throughout the years, the authors has
dedicated there investigations to create a new designs or variations to the original antenna that, to some extent; produce either the wider bandwidth or
the multiple frequency operation with in a single element. However most of these innovations bear some disadvantages related to size, height,width or
overall volume of the single element and the improvement in the bandwidth suffers usually from degradation the other characteristics. Line feeding
technique of microstrip antenna are also attracted researchers because of several advantages over other feeding techniques. Since the feed layout and
patches could be etched on one board, it could makes the fabrication easier. The level of the input impedance are easily controllable. Line patches of
microstrip had bandwidth and gain characteristics which is relatively narrow. These techniques are also suffers from poor surface wave efficiency and
the relatively high spurious feed radiation .
In 1987, the Rigorous Analysis of a Microstrip line Fed Patch Antenna are

Design Of An Antenna For Wireless Sensor Network
Design of an Antenna for Wireless sensor Network ZIA UDDIN Student ID: 1318104
BEng Telecommunications and Networks Engineering
Supervisor: Dr. Masood Ur Rehman
Undergraduate Project Final Report, Academic year 2014/2015 DISCLAIMER
This is the final report for the chosen undergraduate project in the area related to "BEng Telecommunications and Networks Engineering" taught at
University of Bedfordshire. It is hereby confirmed that the work done in the report is all owned by the author leaving which is referenced in text and
at the end of the report.
This report is submitted for examination to internal and external examiners. The content of the report is copyrighted and should not be used without
permission or correct ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Conclusions are drawn at the end and future work is discussed.
DEDICATION
I am dedicating this project to my parents whom I love very much. Thank you for all the encouragement, affection, prayers, and warmth, moral and
financial support which you have given me throughout my studies to make me overcome the challenges and achieve my target successfully.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge the support and guidance given by my supervisor Dr. Masood Ur Rehman throughout my whole final year project and am really
grateful to him for his thorough help in making my project success possible in reality. There was no possibility to complete the project without your
guidance and supervision. I will be thankful to you always for this support, guidance and knowledge that I gained from you throughout the project.
CONTENTS
DISCLAIMERiii
ABSTRACTiv
DEDICATIONv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTvi
CONTENTSvii
FIGURESx

ACRONYMS
TABLES
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION1–4
1.1Introduction1
1.2Motivation2
1.3Objectives2
1.4Challenges3
1.5Organization of the report3
Chapter 2: Literature Review5–21
2.1Introduction5
2.2Wireless Sensor Networks5
2.3Role of Antenna in WSNs6
2.4History of Antenna8
2.5Antenna11

ITU Frequency Designation
ITU Frequency Designation
The ITU radio bands are designations defined in the ITU Radio Regulations. Provision No. 2.1 states that "the radio spectrum shall be subdivided into
nine frequency bands, which shall be designated by progressive whole numbers" in accordance with the following table.
Table of ITU Radio Bands
Band NumberSymbolsFrequency RangeWavelength RangeTypical sources
1ELF3 to 30 Hz10,000 to 100,000 kmdeeply–submerged submarine communication
2SLF 30 to 300 Hz1000 to 10,000 kmsubmarine communication, ac power grids
3ULF 300 to 3000 Hz100 to 1000 kmearthquakes, earth mode communication
4VLF 3 to 30 kHz10 to 100 kmnear–surface submarine communication,
5LF 30 to 300 kHz1 to 10 kmAM broadcasting, aircraft beacons
6MF 300 to 3000 kHz100 to 1000 mAM broadcasting, aircraft beacons, amateur two–way radio
7HF 3 to 30 MHz10 to 100 mSky wave long range radio communication: shortwave broadcasting, military, maritime, diplomatic, amateur two–way
radio
8VHF 30 to 300 MHz1 to 10 mFM radio broadcast, television broadcast, PMR, DVB–T, MRI
9UHF 300 to 3000 MHz10 to 100 cmPMR, television broadcast, microwave oven, GPS, mobile phone communication (GSM, UMTS, 3G, HSDPA),
cordless phones (DECT), WLAN (Wi–Fi 802.11 b/g/n), Bluetooth
10SHF
3 to 30 GHz1 to 10 cmDBS satellite television broadcasting, WLAN (Wi–Fi 802.11 a/n), microwave relays, Wi MAX, radars
11EHF
30 to 300 GHz1 to 10 mmmicrowave relays, inter–satellite links, Wi MAX, high

Difference Between Matching And Radiation Properties Of...
SUBWAVELENGTH,RESONANT,COMPACT,RESONANT PATCH ANTENNA LOADED WITH METAMATERIALS
ANDREA ALU et al(2) The matching and radiation properties of subwavelength resonant patch antennas filled with double negative,double–positive
and/or single–negative metamaterials blocks.These configurations may exhibit in principle an arbitrarily low resonant frequency for a fixed
dimension,but they may not necessarily radiate efficiently when their size is electrically small.Realistic numerical simulation considering material
dispersion,losesand presence of antenna feed are presented.The demand for compact radiators with sufficiently high gain is rapidly increasing in many
application areas.Even through such antenna are very thin compared to operating ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
technique.
When the filling material is homogenous ieОµ1=Оµ2=2Оµ0 the patch has its resonance at f=w/2ПЂ=2.12GHz.However loading patch with an ENG
material can reduce the resonance frequency in principle without limits.When permittivity Оµ2=–2Оµ0,the rasonsnce frequency may be made
arbitrarily low.The value of plasma frequency

Design And Analysis Of Uwb Funnel Shape Monopole Antenna
Design and Analysis of UWB Funnel Shape Monopole Antenna
By
Dr. Muhammed N. , Dr. Jamal K. Al–Rudaini, Muhammed H.
Abstract: A Funnel Shape antenna for use in an ultra–wideband UWB media is proposed. The proposed antenna consists of Funnel antenna with
monopole bridge antenna and partial ground plane. The Funnel antenna with monopole bridge antenna are etched on the same sides of the antenna
substrate, a dielectric layer of FR4 microfiber. The overall dimension of the proposed antenna is 50 mm Г— 50 mm Г— 1.6 mm. The antenna operates
in the frequency range from 2–20 GHz covering UWB band. Moreover, the proposed antenna provides good radiation patterns across the whole
working bands and a relatively good gain over the entire frequency band.
RF and microwave inte– grated techniques and energy harvesting
RF and microwave inte– grated techniques and energy harvesting
1) INTRODUCTION
UWB antenna are used in a wide frequency range in on–air and ground telecommunication systems [1, 2]. RF and Microwave energy harvesting
techniques, UWB antenna design is attracted by Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Galileo satellite navigation systems [3, 4]. Micro strip
patch antenna has various applications in UWB due to its important behavior. Design and analysis of a model of square–shaped wideband monopole
antenna is proposed in the Reference [5]. Recently, flat monopoles are proposed and used for wideband schemes [6–9] but their radiation patternis not
wholly directional due to

Radar, Detection And Detection
INTRODUCTION: Radar is an acronym and is known as Radar Detection And Ranging. Radar system is used to detect the range or velocity of an
object by using radio waves. Radar is a detection system for an object which uses radio waves to detect range, angle and velocity of objects. Radar uses
radio waves or microwaves which reflects back from any object in their path. Radar transmitter and receiver typically has same system which
determines the object properties by receiving and processing these reflected waves.
Radar system was developed by several nations at the period of second world war. In 1940, by the united states navy the name RADAR is given.
HISTORY AND INVENTION:
In the early stages of radar 1886, a German physicist known as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He also got a patent for telemobiloscope in September 1904. This operates on 50cm wavelength and pulsed radar signal created using a spark gap.
The two researchers called A Hoyt Taylor and Leo C.Young in 1922,working in U.S. navy , had both transmitter and receiver for the Potomac river
on opposite sides and found that the ship passing through the beam path caused the receiver signal to fade in and fade out. So that, Taylor submitted
this report, specifying that this system can be used to detect the presence of objects in lower visibility but the navy did not continue the work
immediately. Lawrence A. Hyland at naval research laboratory after 8 years observed the same fading effects passing from an aircraft which led to
the patent and also for a serious proposal of work from moving targets on radio echo signals.
In December 1934, full radar evolved as a pulsed system and was demonstrated by the American Robert M. Page. Although many scientists tried to
develop RADAR but the best known was Robert Watson–wat, Scottish physicist. He worked for Britain's Meteorological office during first world war
helped them use the radio waves detecting storms which are approaching. During second world war along with watt his assistant Arnold wilkins
realized that they can use this technology and developed to detect approaching enemy aircrafts.
PRINCIPLE OF OPEATION:
Radar operates on the electronic principle which is very same as

Dgs Is More Advantageous Than Pbg Or Ebg Structures
DGS is more advantageous than PBG or EBG structures:
(1) For implementing EBG structures, a very large area is required to implement the periodic pattern and it is also very difficult to define the unit
element of EBG structure whereas DGS structures has properties similar to EBG and the geometry of DGS can be one or very few etched structures
which is very simpler and also does not require large area for implementation of it.
(2) DGS can be easily designed and implemented. It has higher precision with rectangular shaped defect structures. Therefore it is very good option to
extend its practical applications. In my project, I have designed and simulated microstrip patch antenna at operating frequency 2.4GHz using HFSS
software .It has Substrate (FR4) having dielectric constants of 4.4.I have designed single patch antenna without DGS, 2x1 array antenna and 4x1 array
antenna without DGS ,4x1 array antenna with DGS (Dumbbell shaped , Double Circular shaped, E–shaped) and analyze the results. I analyze that I
god improved results in 4x1 array antenna configuration with E–shaped DGS structure in terms of VoltageStanding Wave Ratioof 1.12, Return loss of
–22.12 dB, Bandwidth of 404 MHz, Gain of 7 dB etc.
1.1Problem Statement : Design Microstrip array antenna with Improved DGS structure for Performance Improvement.
1.2 Objectives
1)Design a single patch antenna at operating frequency 2.4 GHz.
2)Design Array antenna of two by one

Sr Lab Report
Design of Ground Station based on SDR
Abstract – In this paper, a ground station for receiving images from NOAA weather satellites designed with the help of the cheapest SDR option
Real Tech Software Defined Radio (RTL SDR), combined with an easy Homemade Quadrifilar Helix QFH antenna, . The software component of the
station is built with GNU Radio, an open source tool with a rich set of signal processing features, Gpredict, a satellites tracker and Wxtoimg, a free
weather satellite decoding program which can decode the APT signal
Keywords– RTL–SDR, GNU Radio Companion, Ground Station, NOAA.
I.INTRODUCTION
The techniques of weather satellites images reception has immediately advanced in the most recent decade. Satellite ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Software Defined Radio is a Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are software defined [3]
II.GROUND STATION SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Fig. 1 System design of the meteorological station. Figure 1 shows the ground station architecture. This station consist of two parts: hardware and
software. The Hardware part consists of; the Quadrifilar Helix Antenna for the reception of NOAA APT signal, and RTL
–SDR Dongle Receiver. The
Software part consists of ;GNU Radio, to create our application for NOAA Satellite image reception , Gpredict ; Software to predict the tracks of
meteorological satellites ,and WXTOIMG ,Software for decoding the APT signal Automatic Picture Transmission.
A.Hardware Configuration
The RTL–SDR is a small, compact, easy–to–use, and really low cost USB stick device that is capable of receiving RF radio signals [4].
Figure 2 shows the NESDR Smart dongle, it was designed, composed, created and fabricated by NooElec in the USA and Canada in order to

implement a large array of feature demands. The NESDR SMART key is the new improved version of the famous USB RTL–SDR with the
RTL2832U chipset and the R820T2 tuner, to receive all frequencies from 22 to 1700 MHz. [5] Fig. 2 The NESDR Smart dongle.
TABLE I: COMPARISONS WITH COMMON SDR [6]. Tune Low (MHz)Tune Max (MHz)Transmit?
(Yes/No)Price ($USD)
RTL–SDR (R820T)24 1766NO~20
HackRF306000YES299
USRP 1DC

Wireless Local Area Network Technology Project Analysis
This project aims to design, analyze, fabricate and testing of Air Filled Stacked Microstrip patch antenna with enhanced bandwidth and gain.
Bandwidth and gain enhancement technique takes the advantage of use of the air gap for the stacked antenna. This bandwidth and gain enhanced
Microstrip antenna can be deployed for the WLAN application operating at a 5GHz ISM frequency band.
1.2Wireless Local Area network :
Now a day's wireless communication is the basic part of our life because we are using various wireless devices in day to day life. Like Mobile phones,
Bluetooth, Wi–Fi system, GPS etc. These devices are based on Wireless communication which involves the transmission of information over a distance
without help of wires, cables or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"802.11 n" is becoming the new standard with faster speed, transfer rates and range of usage. Because of these advantages we have decided to go with
"IEEE 802.11 n" standard. Fig 1.2 shows "802.11 n" channels.
Channels: 802.11n (2.4GHz or 5GHz) When 802.11n was introduced in 2009 with the ability to communicate at speeds up to 600Mbps, 802.11n also
included the ability to work in either the 2.4GHz or 5Ghz spectrum. In this project we have used IEEE 802.11n standard, because our antenna is
designed for 5GHz ISM frequency band for Wi–Fi application. Bandwidth requirement for Wi–Fi is 100MHz for that operating frequency band shown
in table 1.1.
Figure 1.2: "802.11 n" channels.
Table 1.1 : Various types of wireless applications and its frequency band.
Wireless ApplicationsFrequency Band (MHz)Bandwidth (MHz)
GSMGSM 900890–96070 GSM 18001710–180595 GSM19001850–1990140
IMT 2300–2400100 2700–2900200 3400–4200800 4400–4900500
WLAN 2400–248484 5150–5350200 5725–5850100

Bluetooth2400–2500100
Wi–MAX2500–2690190 3400–3690290 5250–5850600 Table 1.1 shows various types of wireless applications and its frequency band. As of today,
Wi–Fi (also known as WLAN) has become a standard in most computers. Almost every modern mobile phone and other gadgets are being implemented
with Wi–Fi technology. Wi–Fi makes it possible for the user to connect to the internet or a

Designing A Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna And L...
By using the advantages of the microstrip patch antenna and L–probe feeding technique, hexagonal patch is etched on a square microstrip antenna to
achieve broad bandwidth and improved gain. In this Project, MSA is designed with dual substrates, one for L–probe & other for radiating patch.
4.1 Design Specifications
The three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna:
Frequency of operation (fo): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected appropriately. The WLAN band uses the frequency range from
2.4 GHz to 5.28 GHZ. Hence the antenna designed must be able to operate in this frequency range. The resonant frequency selected for design is 2.4
GHz.
Dielectric constant of the substrate (Оµr): The dielectric material selected for our design is FR4 which has a dielectric constant of 4.4. A substrate with
a high dielectric constant has been selected since it reduces the dimensions of the antenna. Table 4.1: Design parameters ofmicrostrip antenna Patch
ShapeSquare
Frequency2.4 GHz
Dielectric constant of substrate4.4
Height of substrate1.6 Mm
Feeding methodMicrostrip Line
PolarizationLinear
4.2 Theoretical design
4.2.1 Single element Antenna Design
Structure of single patch antenna with inset feed is shown in figure 1. The Antenna is composed of patch, substrate, ground and feeding network. The
performance of antenna generally depends on dimensions of above components

How Do Cell Phones Affect Dna
Cell phones operate with radio frequencies, the cell phones use a lot from the waves
and the waves help. Cell phones do not emit ionizing radiation, the type that damages DNA. The
celluar technology Does works on a system geographically its seperated zones are called cells.
Majority of the cells have its own base station that both and it receivs and it also emits the radio
waves. When the call is then placed from the cell phone and then the signal is sent from
the cell phones antenna to one of the cell's base station called the antenna. Once the base
station transfers the calls to the switiching center the call is then transferred to
another cell phone. Once one of the RF channel is modulated one of the radio signals are then

Electronic Product Code Upc And Optical Character...
With the passage of time and extreme advancement in the technology the field of automatic identification has come up with great potential. There are
different methods to do this. The most commonly used methods are Universal Product Code UPC and Optical Character Recognition OCR. OCR has
limited the use of UPC but Optical Character Recognition has also different deficiencies which ultimately lead towards another technique called as
Radio Frequency Identification also termed as RFID. RFID is the most modern technique. RFID tags are readily available in the market. As the name
RF suggests that RFID reader uses radio frequency for the identification of objects.
Chapter 2 of the book describes the general introduction of Radio Frequency ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No Battery.
Simple Circuitry.
The use of a microphone and speaker coil was the first example of using backscatter radio link to carry substantial amount of information. This was
done in 1948. The passive back scatter radio technique was used when the radar or reader is very far away from the object to be identified. But if
the object to be identified is very close to the reader i.e. in the range of few centimeters then there is no need for passive back scatter technique. In
this case we used a technique in which the receiver and the transmitter are inductively coupled. Such systems can operate at very low frequencies
i.e. few kilohertz to few megahertz. These are also called as low range transmitters and receivers because they operate in a very low range of
centimeters. Talking about the manufacturing of such cheap transponders these can be made by using a sensitive magnetic strip. When the reader
comes close to the strip it vibrates and takes the necessary information. They were developed in 1960's wildly used in retail stores and etc. Now if
we want more ID space we have to slightly change the circuitry of the transponder. Such circuitry can be composed with the help of a capacitor and
the inductor which operates at a resonant frequency. Such a system will provide much larger ID space than the previous ones. Then inventors thought
of a more sophisticated tag in which radio frequency can also be used as a power source for the tag. Such a tag can be made by

Network Synthesis Essay
Affordable mobile communication for civilian and military applications is greatly enhanced by the significant investments in infrastructures such as
cellphone towers and repeaters. However, such infrastructures cannot be provided for ad–hoc communication systems and the network connectivity for
such systems is greatly degraded by the adverse effects of the communication channel such as multi–path fading, attenuation, non–line–of–sight, etc. As
a result, operation at longer wavelengthes (UHF and VHF) is preferred for ground communication between army vehicles to decrease path–loss and
bypass obstacles. Also because of the issues related to near–earth wave propagation, vertical polarization is the preferred choice to achieve minimum
path–loss.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Window embedded wire antennas have been introduced at FM frequencies for low–power or receive–only applications. The power transmitted by the
army radios at VHF and UHF frequencies can exceed tens of watts. At these power levels, it is of crucial importance to isolate the interior of the
vehicle from the antenna radiation. In addition, this isolation eliminates the affects of the cabin interior and passengers on the antenna input impedance
and radiation pattern. Hence a transparent ground plane will be needed behind the radiating element to reduce the radiation inside the vehicle and at the
same time increase the directivity of the antenna. A wire–mesh or a more sophisticated band–selective ground plane can be used as the reflecting
element. A meshed patch antenna on a mesh ground plane can provide the required isolation with the cabin interior. However because of the
sub–wavelength dimensions of the armored windows at VHF and UHF frequencies a patch antenna, if feasible, cannot provide the one octave
bandwidth required by the army radios. In this paper a monopole bow–tie antenna backed by a cavity (armored window) is proposed. Because of the
limited thickness of the window glass, the radiation element and the transparent ground plane need to be placed very close to each other. Therefore the
gain and/or the

Path Loss Formula
If we set the receive antenna gain is G_R, and О»=c/f is the wavelength (in meters), c=3Г—гЂ–10гЂ—^8 m/s, the effective area A of the transmit
antenna is:
A=G_R О»^2/4ПЂ (2.2)
Then, the received power as a function of distance d can be calculated as:
P_R (d)=(wв€™A)/L=(P_T G_T G_R О»^2)/((4П
ЂгЂ–d)гЂ—^2 L) (2.3) where L (Lв‰Ґ1) is the system loss factor.
Commonly, we set G_T=G_R=L=1 in simulations for easier calculation.
From the formula 2.3, it is easy to see that the received signal power falls off inversely proportional to the square of the distance d between the transmit
antenna and receive antenna. Also, it is proportional to the square of the signal wavelength О», which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It only considers the wavelength of the carrier frequency and the distance between transmitter and receiver, which is usually used for estimate the
channel or system design.
In this model, the receive power at distance d can be expressed as:
P_R (d)=P_T K(d_0/d)^Оі (2.7) in term of dB:
P_R (dBm)=P_T (dBm)+K(dB)–10Оіlog_10 (d/d_0 ) (2.8) where d_0 is the reference distance and it is usually assumed to be 1 m to 10 m for indoor
environment and 10 m to 100 m for outdoor environment, Оі is the path loss exponent which depends on the surroundings. The value K is sometimes
set to be the free space path loss at distance d_0, which can be calculated as:
K(dB)= –20гЂ–logгЂ—_10 ((4ПЂd_0)/О») (2.9)
2.3.3. Atmosphere gaseous losses
Similar to other microwave wireless communication systems, millimeter wave communications also suffer from a large propagation loss. However,
compared with the one using lower carrier frequencies, millimeter wave propagation is facing more challenges. Two most severe attenuations for
millimeter wave propagation are atmosphere gaseous losses and precipitation attenuation, which are hardly ever occurring in low frequency wave bands
[17].
Figure 2.5. Specific attenuation due to atmospheric gases (Pressure: 1013 hPa, Temperature: 15 в„ѓ, Water Vapor Density: 7.5 g/m^2) [18]
According to the measurements show in Figure 2.5, both water vapour

Research Paper On Graphene
In this paper, the copper and п¬‚exible printed graphene with highly conductive are used as patches antennas for wideband applications. The copper
antenna has been designed to operate for a dual band from 2.65 to 3.2 GHz and from 4.59 to 5.34 GHz, with maximum gain 2 and 3.37, dBi for first
and second respectively. But the п¬‚exible graphene patch mounted on an elastic substrate introduces more wide impedance bandwidths, from 2.6 to
3.2 GHz and from 4.84 to 7 GHz with maximum gain 1.04 and 1.33 dBi for first and second respectively. The copper structure has been fabricated and
measured. The return loss, VSWR, radiation pattern and the gain of the structures are investigated. All the simulated results are analyzed, it is
concluded that graphene... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The graphene as a Patch Antenna is able to radiate electromagnetic waves in the terahertz band (0.1 –10.0 THz) [22]. It is utilized to construct antennas
and transmissions lines on elastic substrate, but the copper cannot. For the same geometry, the metal antennas working at the same frequencies are
narrowband but the graphene antenna is a wideband antenna[23].The conductivity of graphene is very frequency–dependent but has completely
different behavior at RF/microwave respect to THz and optics Properties of graphene depend on a a number of parameters including magnetic and
electrical field bias, electron velocity, temperature and scattering rate. The printed graphene can be mechanical п¬‚exibility, lightweight, low cost
consumable wearable electronics and environmental friendliness. Using the Kubo formula, [24] to calculat the conductivity of single layer graphene,
that can be reduced to a simple Drude model if uc >> Д§П‰, where Вµc is the Fermi level of graphene and П‰ is the frequency:
Пѓ=(2e^2 П„)/(ПЂД§^2 ) гЂ–k_B TlogгЂ—вЃЎгЂ–(coshгЂ—вЃЎгЂ–Ој_c/(гЂ–2kгЂ—_B T))1/(1+jП‰П„)гЂ— (1)
Where, П„ is a scattering time, T is a temperature, kB is a Boltzmann constant, and e is unit electron charge. The

Radio: a Form of Communication
Radio: A Form of Communication Physics Idoh Gersten Mr. Zambizi Physics March 12, 1995 Radio is a form of communication in which
intelligence is transmitted without wires from one point to another by means of electromagnetic waves. Early forms of communication over great
distances were the telephone and the telegraph. They required wires between the sender and receiver. Radio, on the other hand, requires no such
physical connection. It relies on the radiation of energy from a transmitting antenna in the form of radio waves. These radio waves, traveling at the
speed of light (300,000 km/sec; 186,000 mi/sec), carry the information. When the waves arrive at a receiving antenna, a small electrical... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Electron Tube Further advancement of radio was made possible by the development of the electron tube. The diode, or valve, produced by Sir
Ambrose Fleming in 1905, permitted the detection of high–frequency radio waves. In 1907, Lee De Forest invented the audion, or Triode, which was
able to amplify radio and sound waves. Radiotelephone and Radiotelegraph Up through this time, radio communication was in the form of radio
telegraphy; that is, individual letters in a message were sent by a dash–dot system called Morse Code. (The International Morse Code is still used to
send messages by shortwave radio.) Communication of human speech first took place in 1906. Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, a physicist, spoke by
radio from Brant Rock, Mass., to ships in the Atlantic Ocean. Armstrong's Contributions Much of the improvement of radio receivers is the result of
work done by the American inventor Edwin Armstrong. In 1918 he developed the superheterodyne circuit. Prior to this time, each stage of
amplification in the receiver had to be adjusted to the frequency of the desired broadcast station. This was an awkward operation, and it was difficult
to achieve perfect tuning over a wide range of frequencies. Using the heterodyne principal, the incoming signal is mixed with a frequency that varies
in such a way that a fixed frequency is always produced when the two signals are

A Study On Microstrip Antenna
Chapter 3
Overview of Microstrip Antenna
3.1 Microstrip Antenna A microstrip antenna consists of conducting patch and a ground plane separated by dielectric substrate. This concept was
undeveloped until the revolution in electronic circuit miniaturization and large–scale integration in 1970. The early work of Munson on microstrip
antennas for use as a low profile flush mounted antennas on rockets and missiles showed that this was a practical concept for use in many antenna
system problems. Various mathematical models were developed for this antenna and its applications were extended to many other fields. The number
of papers, articles published in the journals for the last ten years. The microstrip antennas are the present day antenna designer,s choice. Low dielectric
constant substrates are generally preferred for maximum radiation. The conducting patch can take any shape but rectangular and circular configurations
are the most commonly used configuration. Amicrostrip antenna is characterized by its length, width, input impedance, gain and radiation patterns.
Various parameters, related calculation and feeding technique will be discussed further through this chapter. The length of the antenna is about half
wavelength of its operational frequency. The length of the patch is very critical and important that result to the frequency radiated. Antennas are key
components of any wireless communication system and it

Radio Wave Propagation Around The Human Body Using Fabrics
Career Episode # 2 CE 2: Radio wave propagation around the human body using fabrics CE 2.1 Introduction This project was performed as part of
my Master of Electronics and Computer Engineering/Master of Electronics and Energy Engineering dissertation from Griffith University, School
of Engineering, Australia. For this project I worked under the direct supervision of Prof. David Thiel, who was a source of immense help and
motivation through the course of this entire project. In my project I also encountered problems with surface modelling in which I sought invaluable
assistance from Dr. Hugo Espinosa. This dissertation aimed to examine the effectiveness of wireless body area networks with respect to the
different electrical properties of the fabric. These fabrics are of the sort which are implemented in wearable electronics used for a variety of
applications and are becoming increasingly popular as they are capable of performing a lot of smart functions such as fitness tracking, health
monitoring and a lot of other imaginative utilizations. CE 2.2: Background CE 2.2.1 In the world, Australia alone accounts for 80,000 medical
negligence cases a year. This is mainly caused due to the doctor's misinterpretation of the medical data (Medneg.com.au). Due to this, not only is the
cost of diagnosis increasing but a study suggests that in 2008, 26% of indigenous people and 2.6% of general population in Australia had difficulty in
accessing medical care due to the unavailability of

The Technology Of Communication Systems
Abstract:
Technology is increasing rapidly. Various new technologies in various fields are emerging day by day. Among them Communication Systems is the
branch in which most part of the scientists are focused on. CDMA, GSM, 3G, 4G are examples of the technologies that are developed in this field.
Behind all the components included in the technology of communication system, Antennas take the most part. Smart antenna system received a greater
interest for its involvement in performance improvement of wireless radio systems. Many techniques are included in this system such as enhancing
received signal strength, reducing the interference and increasing capacity, etc. The main purpose of this paper is to provide how scientists approached
and achieved towards smart antenna. Thus, this paper includes problems in communication, how it is overcame by smart antenna, its working like
beamforming, adaptive system etc.
Introduction:
A decade ago, Communication systems haven't been able to properly exploit the spatial component of mobile radio channel. Communication systems
has been facing two main problems. One is using very small amount of energy and second is interference problem i.e., mixing of main signal with
signal from other communication links. Here, the solution is eliminating interference and collecting total radiated energy. It may sound simple, but yes
it is the solution. The system which can able to do these two works is smart antenna system.
Antennas have a long

Microstrip Antennas : An Analysis
The Microstrip patch antenna has a dielectric substrate with a radiating patch and the feed lines are etched on one side and a ground plane on the other
side. The shape of the patch is not constrained (could be square, rectangular, circular, triangular or elliptical) and it is generally made of conducting
material such as copper or gold. These antennas are mostly used at microwave frequencies, the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground
plane cause the microstrip patch antennas to radiate. An individual microstrip antenna consists of a patch of metal of various shapes on the surface of a
PCB, with a metal ground plane on the other side of the board. Most microstrip antennas consist of multiple patches in a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Further the consideration of space domain either with space diversity, smart antennas, and nowadays, MIMO systems has also pushed the evolution of
propagation modeling toward more complex spatio–temporal considerations [1].The MIMO antenna for wireless communications is required to have a
multiple bandwidth to cover the GSM, and ISM bands. On the other hand, it is said that about 70% of the user demands and mobile flow for
high–speed data services occur in indoor environments [2–3]. In modern antenna design multiple–input multiple–output are employed so that the
multipath effects is taken as advantage to transmit multiple data stream. Designing MIMO antennas have their own challenges such as mutual coupling
because of electromagnetic interaction between antenna elements [4–5].
2.1.2APPLICATIONS OF MICROSTRIPPATCH ANTENNA
Microstrip patch antenna can be used for Mobile and satellite communication, Global
Positioning System, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Radar, Telemedicine,
Rectenna and Medicinal.Mobile communication requires small, low profile and low–cost antennas. Microstrip patch antennas are meet all
requirements and various types of microstrip antennas have been designed for use in mobile communication systems.In the case of satellite

Wi Fi Coverage Area And Signal Strenth Improvement Using...
WI–FI COVERAGE AREA AND SIGNAL STRENTH IMPROVEMENT USING CANTENNA
S.Vanitha,P.Maheswaren,K.Prabu
UG student–final year
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
N.S.N College of Engineering and Technology, Karur–639 003
ABSTRACT
Wi–Fi Internet access is fast gaining popularity as we are entering the 'unplugged ' phase of communication technology. This journey towards an
unplugged world began with the first telegraph and first radio. Since then, telecommunication technology has not looked back and has shown its
versatility by contributing to every field of technology. Wi–Fi has developed from synergy of wireless communication, computer networking and
Internet technology. It has radically changed the way we connect and communicate.Wi–Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a generic term that refers to the IEEE
802.11 communications standard for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). Wi–Fi works on three modes namely Ad hoc, Infrastructure and
Extended modes.Ad hoc network is P2P mode. Ad hoc does not use any intermediary device such as Access Point. Infrastructure and Extended modes
use Access Point as interface between wireless clients.To create wireless networks with a range of about one hundred meters,802.11 technologyWith
proper planning and selection antennas, same equipment can be used to make point–to–multipoint links and point–to–point links of several hundred
meters.In this projectto enhance the coverage area of an access point to several hundred

Radio Waves and Electromagnetic Fields Essay examples
PHY112 – Lab 9 – Worksheet
Directions
When you go to the simulation you will have a choice to either run the simulation or download the simulation. Run may not work on all computers. If it
does not run, download the simulation and work from there.
When the simulation opens, play with the controls and buttons to become familiar with how the simulation works.
Note: A formal lab report is not required for this activity. You may cut and paste this worksheet to a new Word document and adjust the spacing to fit
your needs.
Procedures
Open the simulation.
Explain how the radiating electric field (or electromagnetic signal) is produced when radio stations broadcast.
A radio wave (radiating electric field) propagates out from the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
True or False: The electron in the receiving antenna oscillates at a lower frequency than the electron in the transmitting antenna because of the distance
between the two antennas.
False: when the transmitting antenna's electron oscillates, it sets up on an electromagnetic wave that oscillates at the same frequency. This wave
causes the electron in the receiver to oscillate at the same frequency. Electrons, therefore, in both the transmitter and receiver (antennas) oscillate at
identical frequencies.
True or False: If the frequency of oscillation increases but the amplitude of the electron oscillation remains the same, then the electron in the
transmitting antenna is experiencing larger accelerations (recall what you know about acceleration and motion).
True: electrons must move faster as they oscillate back and forth in order for the frequency to increase while the amplitude remains the same. Delta
velocity / time is a measure of the average acceleration. A larger change in velocity than at the old frequency if the electron is ovine faster towards its
peak height than away from its peak height at the new frequency. Moreover, the time for this change is velocity to be seen is less than for the old
frequency. These changes indicate acceleration is larger.
True or False: If the amplitude increases but frequency remains the same, the electron at the receiving antenna experiences larger peak forces but
oscillates at the same frequency as before.
True: the

Rpa Essay
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF COMPACT RMPA AT 0.56 GHz
3.1 Introduction Firstly, this chapter presents the design of a conventional RMPA at 5.8 GHz .Then at the same size, there is a discussion of the
proposed design of compact RMPA at 0.56 GHz. The compactness is achieved in this proposed design by using the combination of patch modification
and defected ground structures techniques. The both conventional and proposed RMPAs are designed with inset line feeding mechanism by using CST
microwave studio [21]. The relevant formulas and calculations are also described in this chapter. The comparison of simulated and measured result is
well discussed in this chapter.
3.4 Design of Proposed compact RMPA using patch modification and Defected... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No.NameTypeDimensions
1.ASquare8 mm
2.BTriangle6 mm
3.CTriangle4.5 mm
Figure 3.4 Simulated graph of the proposed RMPA after miniaturization effects
Figure 3.4 consists of the simulation result in frequency (GHz) v/s magnitude of S11 parameter of proposed compact RMPA. We can see from the
above graph that the proposed antenna is resonant at lowest frequency of 0.56 GHz after the use of patch modification and defected ground structures in
combination. The point should be noted here is that in order to achieve the desired result, the length and width of feed and cut is varied several times
by using hit and trial method.
3.5 Fabrication of Proposed Antenna The photographs of the fabricated patch and ground of the proposed compactmicrostrip antenna are shown in fig.
3.5 and in 3.6 respectively. Figure 3.5 Fabricated view of the patch of the proposed compact RMPA Figure 3.6 Fabricated view of the ground of the
proposed compact RMPA
3.6Result Comparison and Discussion The comparison graph of the simulated result in return loss (dB) versus frequency (GHz) between the
conventional rectangular microstrip patch antenna and proposed compact antenna is shown in of fig. 3.7 and the comparison graph of the measured and
simulated result of the compact antenna is shown in fig. 3.9.Antenna is fabricated and experimentally tested to valid the design of the antenna

Printed Microstrip Patches
The narrow bandwidth are available from the printed microstrip patches are the major handicap factor which limits the widespread application of these
classes of the antennas. Several techniques for the bandwidth widening of the microstrip antennas had been reported in the literature, such has the use
of the thick substrates and the multiple dielectric resonator. In all these cases the impedance bandwidth are found to be less than the 10%. The usage of
shorting pins and the high dielectric constant substrate and the superstrates could be used to reduce the antenna size, but in these cases the bandwidth
are found to be very narrow in the nature. Recently, the T–probe–fed patch antenna used to enhance the impedance bandwidth up to the 40% were
reported, however, it is the overall system that are highly complex and bulky. The rectangular microstrip patch antenna on the unity permittivity
substrate within the internal U–shaped slot. Recently, the researchers had proposed the similar design on the microwave substrate, that was better
preserve the thin profile characteristics. These researches had focused the almost entirely on the top plate of the antenna element, while the effect of the
size of the ground plane on which they are mounted had not been the fully studied. According to the published literature reducing the size of the ground
plane and the making of the ground plane resonate at the desired frequency, both the bandwidth enhancement and the size reduction could be

Design Challenges : The Desired Operating Frequency
4. Design Challenges:
The desired operating frequency are given by:
1.US FCC regulation as 3.1 to 10.6GHz
2.European regulation as 6.0 to 8.5GHz
A general definition of UWB is stated with the relative bandwidth
(fH–fL)/(fH+fL) >0.2
Where fh and fL are upper and lower band limits, respectively. Relative bandwidth in excess of 100% are possible for someantenna types.
A.Antenna Characterization Parameters:
In contrast to classic narrow–band antenna theory, where the antenna characteristics are regarded for only for a small bandwidth, for the
characterization of antennas over an ultra–wide frequency range new specific quantities and representations of antennas are required. For this both time
domain and frequency domain representations are considered which depends upon the application that either one of them is selected.
An impulse fed to antenna is subjected to
– Differentiation
– Dispersion
– Radiation
– Losses (Dielectric/Ohmic)
The antenna's complete behaviour, including frequency dependency, can be described by the antenna the linear system theory.
The characteristics are expressed either by time domain impulse response h(t,Пґtx,С°tx) or by the frequency domain transfer function H(f,Пґtx,С°tx) .
thye dispersion of an antenna can be analysed by regarding the analytic impulse response, which is calculated by Hilbert transform. h+(t)=h(t)+jH{h(t)}
the envelope |h+(t)| of the analytic impulse response gives direct measure for the dispersion of an antenna by localizing the

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