Evolution of Animal Organ Systems & Their Development

Evolution of Animals and Their Organ Systems
Organ Systems Project
(Digestive, Excretory, Circulatory, Reproductive, Nervous) There is an enormous variety of life on
our planet Earth ranging from simple cell bacteria to complex multicellular animals. Animals are
creatures in the kingdom Animilia, one of the kingdoms in Whitakers 5 kingdom system. Their
bodies consist of 555tanimal eukaryotic cells. Meaning their cell or cells contain a nucleus, are
surrounded by a cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) and can self–reproduce in a free medium.
However, not all animals are anatomically the same. They have evolutionized, inside and out, from
the ancestral protozoa all the way to the most complex animals chordates. As the animals evolved,
cells became tissue, tissues became organs, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Micronuclei are very carefully copied and moved so that each daughter cell gets one, but once
division is complete usually new macronuclei will be produced from each cell's micronucleus, so
careful shepherding of the macronucleus is not necessary. Sexual reproduction in ciliates is called
conjugation. During conjugation, there is a transfer of genetic material via cell–to–cell contact by a
bridge–like connection. The last system, which can be replaced by an organelle in the protozoa, is
the nervous system. The function of the nervous system is to regulate and correlate body activities
through conduction within and between individual cells or neurons, which eventually cause a
response in some other system. In the paramecium, the macro and micronuclei are responsible for
the functions of the nervous system. The nucleus is the control center of the cell and it contains the
genetic info needed to copy to make new cells. Just as the brain, nerves and spinal cord would work;
the micronucleus and macronucleus control the activities of the cell. The next phylum of animals,
more complex than protozoa, is phylum Porifera (also known as sponges). Sponges are multicellular
filter feeding marine animals that have cell/tissue level of organization. They are sessile, meaning
they cannot move from the substratum and they have a water filled central cavity.
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Larvae Of Ochrogaster Lunifer Herrich Schaeffer
Larvae of Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich–Schaeffer (Lepidopetera: Thaumetopoeidae), or as it has
previously been known, Ochrogaster contraria Walker or Teara contraria Walker, are widely
distributed throughout coastal and inland regions of Australia (Turner 1921; Froggatt 1923; Mills
1951; McFarland 1979). Inhabiting mainly acacia and eucalypt vegetation (Van Schagen et al.
1992), larval populations of O. lunifer display a distinctive processionary behaviour by crawling
head to tail in single–file to the canopy of its host tree to feed before returning to their nests in much
the same way (Floater 1996a; Maier et al. 2003). Previous studies conducted on O. lunifer have
focused on the species life history (Floater 1996a), biology (Van Schagen, ... Show more content on
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1992; Floater 1996a). Second through to eighth instar emerge from the egg mass between December
and May; ascending the host plant in a single–file procession to feed (Floater 1996a). First instar
larvae have been observed to remain within the egg mass not feeding (Floater 1996a; Floater &
Zalucki 1999). Final instars leave the host plant during May in larval processions before splitting
into subgroups and then later individuals to pupate (Floater 1996a). Individual larvae form an
underground cocoon of silk, soil and setae where they will diapause over winter; pupation and
emergence does not take place until September or October (Van Schagen et al. 1992; Floater 1996a).
The larval integument of O. lunifer is covered with a multitude of hair types (Floater 1996a; Floater
& Zalucki 1999). A typical arthropod hair is embedded in epidermal cells; developed by a trichogen
and a tormogen or auxiliary cell, and is connected to neurons for the transmission of sensorial
information (Battisti et al. 2011). Urticating hairs, and in particular those classified as true setae, are
derived from arthropod hairs (Battisti et al. 2011).
True setae are a distinguishing characteristic of the larval stage of many processionary Lepidoptera
(Battisti et al. 2011; Cawdell–Smith et al. 2013; Petrucco Toffolo et al. 2014). They are small,
approximately 100–500µm long and 3–7µm in diameter, and barbed (Fenk et al. 2007; Battisti et al.
2011). The cellular

The Similarities Between Earthworm And Crayfish
In my comparative anatomy class I was able to distinguish the difference and the similarities
between a earthworm, crayfish, and a chordate. The earthworm and the crayfish are both divided
into parts. The earthworm is divided internally and externally into defined segments. These
segments may also be divided as well. The crayfish is divided into two main parts. One of the parts
that they are divided into is called the cephalothorax which consists of the head region and the
thoracic region. The second part is called the abdomen. The abdomen consists of six clearly divided
segments. The chordate is not divided into parts. They all belong to the animal kingdom. The
crayfish differs from the earthworm and the chordate because it has a hard exoskeleton that covers
its body. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They all have different ways of how they taste their food. The crayfish taste its food by two ways
which is antennules and the long antennae. The only difference between the two is that the
antennules helps with balance, touch, and taste, and the long antennae are organs for touch, taste,
and smell. The chrodate taste its food by the pharynx. They are able to do this because the pharynx
is consisted of 100 pharyngeal slits that are called "gill slits". These gill slits are what is used to
strain food particles out of the water. The earthworm obtains its food by extending its body from
surfaces and opening a small tunnel which it makes by "eating" its way through the soil. So
basically this is saying that earthworms eat

Leeches Research Paper
Leeches are found all over the world and are found in freshwater. The closest worm to a leech is an
earthworm. Certain types can grow up to 16 inches in length. Leeches have suckers on both parts of
their body and when you are bitten by a leech, their saliva causes blood to increase and it prevents
blood clots. They have very sharp teeth, but small jaws. A leech has 32 brains and most of them
sucks blood. Not just humans get bit by leeches, but also animals. A leech can take in the amount of
blood 5 times more than they weigh. Since leeches eat so much, they can go without food for a
whole year. Digestion in a leech is very slow because it gives room for the leech to live and can last
up to several months. Leeches have saved several lives

Nightcrawler Earthworm Research Paper
The Scientific name of the Nightcrawler Earthworm is Lumbricus terrestris. The Kingdom of the
Nightcrawler is Animalia and the phylum is annelida. The class, order, suborder, and family in that
order is Oligochaeta, Haplotaxida, Lumbricina, and Lumbricidae. Lastly, the phylum and genus is
Lumbricus terrestris, like the scientific name states. The origins of the Nightcrawler worm was
originally thought to be Manitoba or North America but is actually said to be Europe. However,
though it originates in Europe it is most prevalent in Manitoba. The habitat of the worm is most
preferably moist soil that are rich in organic matter. As for the ecological habitat, I would say
underground insects, dirt, organic matter, and other underground species. ... Show more content on
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They promote the activities of those organisms "shedding and increasing the surface area of organic
matter and making it more available to small organisms". The Nightcrawler is consumed by snakes,
birds, moles, toads and even sometimes foxes. Other notorious beings known to eat the worm are
beetles, slugs, leeches, flatworms, other types of parasitized earthworms. The Nightcrawler worm is,
like other species of worms, a hermaphrodite. Although the worm contains the sexual organs of both
the genders, they still need to mate to reproduce. The two worms lie alongside each other and
transfer sperm to the both of them. Each worm will lay capsules to be used as a cocoon for the egg.
When the capsules break fully formed tiny worms will emerge. It is said that they prefer to mate
during the spring and fall time. It takes a year for the tiny worms to fully grow, and it is also said
worms live for 3–8 years, although that isn't

Animal Welfare Act 1986: A Case Study
Methodology Under the Animal Welfare Act 1986, it should be noted that all animals were not
harmed unethically during the assessment. Collection methods The equipment for the collection
comprises of entomology nets, plastic jars, entomology pins, microscopic slides, glass vials, a slab
of polystyrene, a 'shadow box' for display, forceps, demineralised water, and methylated spirits
(70%). The equipment used was purchased or borrowed from the laboratory in Basil–Hetzel
Building at University of South Australia City East campus. The locations visited mainly comprised
of northern and western suburbs, except for an eastern suburb. Most arthropods were terrestrial
(with a few marine), and the other phylum were marine. Specimens were collected from habitats
such as domestic (household), wetlands, ocean, and grasslands. ... Show more content on
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All specimens were frozen immediately after collection to prevent rigor mortis. The Echinoderms
were cleaned to remove living or dead matter attached to the body by using water. They were then
placed in methylated spirits (70%) for 48 hours, completely submerged. Each arm was weighed
down to prevent them from curling up (particularly on Southern sand star). After the 48 hours, it was
dried in direct sunlight for dry preservation. The Molluscs were first placed in a jar of water from
their natural habitat (if applicable), as I had concerns they would dissolve immediately, if I had
skipped this step. After a few days, they were transferred into separate plastic jars of methylated
spirits (70%), where most lost their colouring. The Nematode was placed on a microscopic slide
under a dissection microscope. The Annelids were washed in water first, then placed in methylated
spirits (70%), however, the aquatic worm had shrunk anyway. They were displayed in glass vials
filled with methylated

The Infection: The Role Of Leeches In Ancient Cultures
As loathsome as some people find them, leeches played a relevant and predominate role in the field
of medicine in Ancient cultures, starting in 2000 B.C. These blood–sucking annelids were used in
the c therapeutic treatment of blood–letting to cure a variety of problematic health issues: diseases,
blood circulation disorders, and infections. In fact, So great was the demand for the aquatic worms,
that an entire profession was built around the supply of leeches. Thus, the job of leech collector was
created, and those who worked in the occupation kept the medical practitioners well supplied with
the curative parasites. During the middle ages across Europe, health providers used leeches for
blood–letting to such an excess, that it is estimated

Marine Biology : Annotated Bibliography Of Marine Biology
Annotated Bibliography
Francis, W. R., Powers, M. L., & Haddock, S. H. (2016). Bioluminescence spectra from three deep–
sea polychaete worms. Marine Biology, 163(12), 255.
Annotation:
The purpose of this experiment was to observe the light that the Tomopteris emits. They collected
Tomopteris from Monterey Bay off the coast of California. They then stimulated the Tomopteris to
produce light so that they could observe the light that it produced. The researchers took photos and
measured the amount of light that was emitted per Tomopteris. One interesting discovery was a
Tomopteris that emits a blue light which is rare since most Tomopteris emit a yellow–orange light.
The researchers tried to create explanations as to why this Tomopteris emits blue light. They think
that "different protein complements may be responsible for the light in different species". However,
this isn't their only explanation for this rare blue emitting Tomopteris. The other explanation is that
"this could potentially reflect different ecological roles of the two light colors". Researchers
concluded that with further testing the blue–light emitting Tomopteris may be considered a species
of their own.
Evaluation:
This article relates to the project because it observes the light that the Tomopteris emits. It provides
us with exact measurements of light that the Tomopteris produces which is useful to our project that
is exploring the bioluminescence that the Tomopteris produces. The article also

Phylums: Similarities And Differences And Characteristics...
ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY
Comparison among the following phylums:
1. Phylum Kinorhyncha
2. Phylum Priapulida
3. Phylum Nematomorpha
4. Phylum Loricifera
Phylum is a taxonomic division on the base of different characters of all species present in
biosphere. Species with similar characters are placed in a single phylum.These phyla have a large
number of species but these species are very small in size. And moreover, all species of these phyla
have not been fully studied. Here, the comparison of these phyla are present, all of these phyla have
bilateral symmetry. These have hydrostatic skeleton which may have segments in some species.
There body is covered cuticle which is made up of chitin or collagen. A few characters are described
in table below to show ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
No food tube is non–function and may not present.
Excretory system is absent.
Fertilization is internal but sexes are separate.
Circulatory system is absent.
Endocrine system is absent.
Non–ganglion nerve cord is present with anterior nerve rings.
In fertilizer nematomorpha infestations were used as pest control. These are parasitic in nature so
can be used for research.
These have no dangerous effect on human and livestock.
The process of development occurs by mean of zygote development by a specific spiral cleavage.
Phylum Loricifera
. Loricifera (from Latin, lorica, corselet (armour) + ferre, to bear) is a phylum of very small to
microscopic marine sediment–dwelling animals with twenty–two described species, in eight genera

These are worldwide, live in all types of habitats and in all depths and in all types of sand.
They have spines for movement and move by extending their internal muscles.
No cavity is present.
Mouth cone with a head having mouth at its end, and anus is on terminus.
No excretory system is present.
Sexes are separate and fertilization is

Explain The Three Hypotheses Concerning The Evolution Of...
Arthropods, annelids, and chordates exhibit examples of true segmentation. Segmentation, being the
repetition of structural units including pieces of the body, evolved numerous times. This article
ultimately delves into it's origins and seeks to determine whether segments within animals evolved
independently or whether they were derived from a common ancestor. Three hypothesis were
developed to examine both similarities, differences, and variance between the processes between 3
phyla. Different animals within each of the categories were studied to collect data and support these
hypotheses. Ultimately, it was concluded that there is still not enough data needed to develop a
strong answer on how exactly segments evolved in the various phyla. ... Show more content on
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What are the three hypotheses concerning the evolution of segmentation?
The first hypothesis essentially states that segmentation was acquired independently in all of the
three phyla. The second goes on to say these segments are in fact homologous within the
protostomes, but that chordates evolved segments independently. Lastly, the third hypothesis also
believes that segmentation is homologous but only throughout the Bilateria.
2. What evidence does the author provide that supports or contradicts each of the three hypotheses?
The evidence is based on the assumption that homologous structures tend to possess similar
developmental properties as compared to structures that have evolved independently on both the
genetic and molecular stages.
1. The first hypothesis, segmentation was acquired in dependently in all three phyla, is supported by
the prediction that segmentation developmental similarities in different groups are in fact

Platypuses Research Paper
Platypodes The platypus is the weirdo of the animal kingdom, that makes its home in the rivers and
lakes of Australia. In addition platypuses are one of the two living mammals in the world that can
lay eggs, this is what makes them so interesting and unique. Male platypi weigh between two point
two pounds to five point three pounds and are around twenty inches long, while females weigh
between one point five pounds to three point five pounds and are around seventeen inches long and
can live for seventeen years in captivity. These creatures mostly live in freshwater lakes, rivers,
lagoons, farm dams, and streams of Tasmania and eastern and southeastern coasts of Australia.
Additionally platypi are found in bodies of water that have earth

Flatworm Lab Report
Universal Statement: There are three phylum of worms. There are the flatworms (Platyhelminthes),
roundworms (Nematoda), and the segmented worms (Annelida). Flatworms have long, flat bodies
and are usually parasites. An example of one is the Planarian, which are free–living and feed like a
vacuum cleaner. Roundworms have long, round bodies and unlike cnidarians or flatworms, have a
digestive system that is like a tube, open at both ends. Segmented worms have long, round bodies
made up of linked segments. Segmented worms also have a closed circulatory system. Earthworms,
that we were learning in our lab are from phylum Annelida. In the lab we were examining the
internal anatomy of the earthworms and comparing it to a human's. 1 Re–do Statement:

Meriton Ruhani. Bio. April 3, 2017. Evolutionary Success.
Meriton Ruhani
Bio
April 3, 2017
Evolutionary Success
There are many definitions of success when it comes to the evolution of living organisms: number,
diversity, size, distribution, longevity, evolutionary history, generalization, specialization, even
usefulness to humans. Throughout history, groups or individual species, have faced many challenges
on Earth. All animals have adapted differently to the constantly altering living conditions. Some
have been immensely superior to others in their ability to survive and rule all forms of life. Their
complexity varies, but because of their ability to adapt, it's what has made these species successful.
Adaptation is an evolutionary process that allows animals to become superior in a particular ... Show
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Generally, people underestimate its importance to Earth and our lives. It is a biological blueprint for
countless other species.
Earthworms are found in the phylum Annelida. () They can vary in size. Their bodies are segmented
which allows them to compartmentalize. The number of segments the species is born with will stay
the same throughout their life. Normally, the number of segments found is similar within specimens.
Remarkably, earthworms have the ability to regenerate lost segments. ()
They play a key role in regenerating and displacing soil. Earthworm activities changes both physical
and chemical characteristic of soil. They help convert organic matter to humus. Additionally, they
ingest other particles (sand grains) and when it is digested and excreted, it is accessible for plants to
take advantage of its minerals and nutrients. Physically, the earthworm creates tunnels for air and
water to navigate the soil. () They play an essential role in fighting erosion and are vital to plant
growth. Healthy soil is depended on a thriving worm population. The ability to break down organic
matter and excrete nutrients makes the earthworm valuable to restoration projects. Some people
have employed earthworms to prepare soil for the return of native flora. Individuals that utilized this
idea have seen better results in the return of their soil ecosystem than previously used methods. The
number of

Arthropods Vs Annelids
What safety procedures must you follow during this lab period? During this lab period, the safety
procedures that should be followed are wearing your lab coat, safety glasses, gloves and use proper
tools for dissection. What characteristics contribute to the diversity and abundance of arthropods?
The characteristics that contribute to the diversity and abundance of arthropods is the ability to adapt
because of their rough, exterior skeleton and joint appendages. Is the circulatory system of
arthropods more similar to that of annelids or of mollusks? Why? The circulatory system of
arthropods is like mollusks because both have open circulatory system. How does growth in
arthropods differ from growth in humans? Arthropods have an exoskeleton.

New Guinea Flatworm Research Paper
Just last month, a deadly worm was found in not one, but four locations in the U.S. state of Florida.
This worm, until recently, was documented in only twenty–one countries, most of which were island
nations. Although the New Guinea Flatworm may seem as a highly dangerous predator, it is only
about two inches in length and mainly targets snails for its nutrition. These worms are not harmful to
humans, but they will feast on any soft creature in the soil. In order to eat snails or any critters with
a hard shell, the New Guinea Flatworm latches itself onto the shell's opening and then spits out its
own stomach through the opening in its belly. This allows an acidic goo to dissolve the snail's flesh
and the worm can continue on with its meal by swallowing both its stomach and the snail. In
addition to causing a problem with the snail population, the New Guinea Flatworm is also bringing a
massive problem into the U.S. that deeply affects humans. This problem is a parasite called the rat
lungworm, which New Guinea Flatworms carry. These parasites burrow into the brain and can be
spread to humans. The symptoms of those infected with rat lungworm are muscle aches and light
sensitivity, but most people recover without ever knowing what ... Show more content on
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In the past, snails have destroyed crops in many places, such as Montana, Detroit, and Washington
State. David Robinson, the nation's chief malacologist, has been battling outbreaks "around
quarantine barriers for over a decade. In order to emphasize how big the snail invasion is, Robinson
said "they come in on everything: cut flowers, imported fruits and vegetables." The malacologist is
also working with Florida officials to help the spread of giant African snails, which grow to become
about eight inches in length. While it is known that the New Guinea Flatworm will destroy the snail
population in the United States, many believe that it is

Tapeworm Infection
od
Tapeworm Infection
The tapeworm, also known as cestode, is a parasitic worm. The cestode is an almost see–through
creature whose life–cycle consists of three stages: the egg, larva, and adult. An adult cestode grows
to reach a total length of almost 100 ft. There are 6 different types of tapeworm––taenia saginata,
taenia solium, diphyllobothrium latum, hymenolepis nana, hymenolepis diminuta, and dipylidium
caninum––each of which are named by the food in which they can be found. For example, taenia
saginata is found in beef while Taenia Solium is found in pork.
A person may contract tapeworm infection by ingesting food or drink contaminated by larvae or
eggs. After the larvae has been ingested, it will continue to grow inside of the host's ... Show more
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The CDC reports that less than 1,000 cases are reported a year; however, this number is not exact
(Taeniasis FAQs, 2013). Certain precautions may prevent tapeworms from entering the body
including:
Properly disposing of animal and human feces.
Washing one's hands and food prior to cooking or eating.
Freezing all meat for twelve hours and fish for twenty–four hours will kill any larvae that may be in
the

The Comparison of Nervous Systems in Humans, Cnidarians,...
Biology II
30 March 2012
The Comparison of Nervous Systems in Humans, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and Annelids The nervous
system is one of the most important organ systems in the body. It is in charge of all of the things that
happen within the body. Being responsible for receiving sensory input from internal and external
stimuli, integrating and processing information, and generating output, it would be hard to survive
without a nervous system; however, there are different types of nervous systems in various
organisms. Humans, cnidarians, flatworms, and annelids all have very diverse nervous systems.
There are similarities and differences in each of these beings. Of the fours organisms listed, the
nervous systems in humans in the most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The brain then will send motor neurons to the correct affecter in muscles and glands (Understanding
the Basic Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body). The nervous system of cnidarians is called
a nerve net. This is the simplest nervous system found in any organism (The Nervous System:
Organization). It is called a nerve net because there is no center point of the system, and the nerve
cells are spread throughout the body in a net like system (The Nervous System: Organization).
Within the nerve net of cnidarians you will find sensory neurons, motor neurons, and intermediate
neurons. The intermediate neurons carry messages from the sensory neurons to the motor neurons,
and some of these could possibly be organized into ganglia. In the body there are two layers of cells:
nerve cells and body cells. The nerve cells help to coordinate the actions of some body cells that are
within the net. For instance, if the body is touched, the whole body will react (Cnidarians).
Flatworms, which have bilateral symmetry, have a nervous system that is arranged like a ladder that
includes two nerve cords and a brain at the head end. The nerve cords, which are a simple peripheral
nervous system, have commissural nerve fibers that make the rungs of the ladder. The brain, which
is the central nervous system, is not truly a brain, but is more a collection of two ganglia that acts
like one. The ganglia integrate signals from the

Burgess Shale Essay
Burgess Shale
The Burgess Shale was first discovered in 1909 by a Paleontologist named Charles Walcott and is
believed to be over 500 million years ago in Middle Cambrian. This geological formation was first
found near a mountain by the name of Mount Burgess, for which it was named after, in Canada.
Similar formations have been uncovered in China, Europe, USA and many other places around the
world. The Burgess Shale is one of the most important of fossil type formations due to the fact that
they are one of the most preserved including not only the hard parts of an animal such as the tissue,
muscles and organs, but also gives evidence that soft bodied creatures lived at the time.
Trilobite – Olenoides The scientific name of a Trilobite in

Sensory System Analysis
The sensory system plays a crucial role for organisms to survive by detecting environmental cues. In
animals, the sensory signaling is largely mediated by chemoreceptors belonging to the GPCR
superfamily [21], as well as by ion channels that mediate mechanosensation, thermosensation and
others [89]. Chemosensory GPCRs in vertebrates are encoded by several gene families, which
includes the olfactory receptors (ORs), vomeronasal receptor type 1 and 2 (VRs 1 and 2), taste
receptor type 1 and 2 (TRs 1 and 2), and trace amine–associated receptor (TAARs) [21]. Apart from
these, GPCRs also mediate vertebrate vision by means of the Opsin family genes that belong to the
large Rhodopsin family (Class A) of GPCRs [90]. Previous evolutionary mining of ... Show more
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This mainly includes the nematode chemoreceptors (or nematode chemosensory GPCRs) as well as
the insect odorant and gustatory receptors. The insect odorant receptors (IORs) were initially
thought to be GPCRs due to the presence of seven–transmembrane regions, but subsequent studies
showed that they lack homology to GPCRs. Also, compared to the GPCRs, the IORs possess a
distinct structural topology in their N–terminus, which is located intracellularly [92]. Moreover,
recent data has shown that IORs function as both heteromeric ligand–gated ion channels and cyclic
nucleotide–gated ion channels, but not known to be functioning as receptors coupling with G
proteins [93,94]. Similarly, the insect gustatory receptors, responsible for taste perception in insects
(sweet and bitter taste) are unrelated to mammalian taste receptors or other GPCR families, but
shares homology with the insect odorant receptors [95,96]. These findings raise the possibility that
insect gustatory receptors are not GPCRs and they also function as ligand–gated ion

A Brief Lok at the Earthworm
General Appearance:
Earthworms have a body that is shaped cylindrical and usually varies from 90 to 900 millimeters
when they are full grown. The outside of the worm is divided into segements that is called primay
segmentation. This means that the worm is divided by the longitudinal axis which is seperated by
the septa and furrows. The Lumbricus species have an advantage when they are trying to tunnel and
during locomotion by having retractile structures. Having these structures the species is able to
retract parts of their body. Setae is usually one of the main characteristics that are noticed while
looking at these worms. Having six layers in the body wall is something not usually normal when
looking at the Lumbricus species. These six layers are opened by three apertures which are the
excretory, genital and reproductive apertures. The six layers contain the cuticle, epidermis, nerve
plexus, circular muscles, longtitudinal muscle, and the peristoneal layer. (Reynolds 1977)
Range:
The Lumbricus species of the earthworm is found in many different places over the world. The
terrestris worms are native to the regions of Europe. This species was not known to be in the parts of
North America, until farmers started to move into the area. Today earthworms are native to all parts
of America. (Nuttinen et al 2014).
Habitat:
Earthworms are known to mostly live in soil unless the conditions are not right for them at the time.
Some conditions that they will live in are the

Taking a Look at Kingdom Animalia
Animals share certain characteristics such as being heterotrophs, multicellular, no presence of cell
walls, and many more. Animals can further be divided through the use of a phylogeny, which is an
evolutionary tree. A phylogeny shows patterns of relationships between several different types of
species. When branching off to dissimilar species, characteristics are taken accounted for whether
they are derived, ancestral, or shared traits. Traits include symmetry, tissues, segmentation, body
cavities, and patterns that deal with the development of embryos. The kingdom Animalia breaks
down to two subkingdoms, Parazoa and Eumetazoa. Parazoa include organisms, such as sponges,
who most members lack symmetry, but are multicellular to help circulate water and reproduce.
Eumetazoa separates from Parazoa by symmetry and definite shape therefore, anything that
branches off from Eumetazoa consist of these characteristics. Eumetazoa, or "true animals", further
divides among protostomes and deuterostomes (Telford, 2009). Protostomes and deuterostomes
differentiate by the embryonic development and how the zygote goes through mitotic divisions,
known as cleavage, and so on (Raven et al., 2014). Bilaterally symmetrical animals have two
dissimilar types of development. Therefore because some protostomes are not bilaterally
symmetrical, protostomes broke down to two different classes, one class being Spiralian
protostomes who undergo spiral cleavage in embryonic development. Spiral

The Diversity Of Soil Invertebrates
Introduction: The diversity of soil invertebrates is very important to our ecosystem, because most
soil invertebrates are responsible for key soil processes such as nutrient recycling, nutrient retention,
formation of soil structure, and decomposition rates. Invertebrates are one of the most dominant
groups of animals in the world. Recent studies show that animals may constitute as much as 23% of
the total diversity of living organisms (Lavelle et al., 2006).
Common soil invertebrates include arthropods and nematodes. These soil invertebrates provide
major ecosystem services. For example, ants, dung beetles, ground beetles, earthworms, and slugs
aid in seed dispersal, which is important because seed dispersal is known to affect food production
and nutrient recycling as well as decomposition rates. Bees, butterflies, moths, and ants aid in
pollination. These invertebrates are very important because about three–fourths of all plants are
pollinator dependent and insects tend to provide most of the animal pollination globally. Without
pollinators plant species would be more susceptible to extinction. In agricultural systems,
invertebrate pollinators are responsible for the successful production of vegetables and fruits that
maintain livestock production. Nematodes, annelids, and arthropods aid in decomposition (Prather et
al., 2012)
Materials and Methods: The experiment began with the construction of a Berlese funnel, which is an
apparatus used to extract

Cell Systems And Their Function
Introduction
Systems and their function:
All living things must obtain and use nutrients, get rid of waste, interact with their environment, and
perform other processes in order to live. The complexity of an organisms will determine the way the
organisms will carry out these processes. Unicellular organisms are organisms containing only one
cell such as bacteria and some algae. These types of organisms performs all of the process necessary
for life using only a single cell. Multicellular organisms, on the other hand, are organisms that
consists of more than one cell. These type of organisms require organ systems to carry out the life
process.
Organ systems are group of anatomical structures that work together to perform a specific ... Show
Muscular System
3. Skeletal System
4. Nervous System
5. Circulatory System
6. Lymphatic System
7. Respiratory System
8. Endocrine System
9. Urinary/Excretory System
10. Reproductive System
11. Digestive System
12. Immune System
All these organ system rely on each other in order to function properly. If even one organ system
fails to works properly, the organism could lead to severe disability or even death. (Study, 2015)
The circulatory, digestive, and respiratory are three main organ systems discussed in this lab report.
The digestive system are the collection of organs that work together to break down food into
nutrients so that it can be absorbed into the blood. This systems consists of four main steps which
include ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion. The mouth is responsible for carrying out the
first step which is taking in the food. The salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, and the teeth are
responsible for the second step as they are responsible to break down the complex food molecules
into smaller molecules. The absorption of the food is done by the stomach, the liver, the gall bladder,

and small intestines. These organs are responsible for absorbing the digested nutrients and
transporting them to the bloodstreams. Finally, the last step, the egestion, is done by the large
intestine, rectum, and anus. These organisms are responsible to remove the waste food materials
from the body.
The circulatory system, also called the

Biodiversity, Or Biological Diversity
Introduction: Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is a term first coined in 1985 by Walter G. Rosen
concerning the number of species in a particular habitat and revolved around the idea that diversity
cannot solely be understood through numbers (Maclaurin and Sterelny, 2012). However, before
1985 biodiversity was related to concepts of "genetic diversity and ecological diversity". This
allowed to further define ecological diversity with species richness as "the number of species in a
community of organism". Biodiversity is more than just the amount of species in an area but rather
better measured by taxic measures, molecular measures, and phylogenetic measures (Harper and
Hawksworth, 1994). Today, zoologists have estimated that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Our method of capture was the pitfall trap (digging a hole in the ground and placing a cup) that was
filled with isopropyl alcohol. The independent variables for this experiment included location
(habitat 1 vs habitat 2) and sun vs shade. The way biodiversity was measured through the arthropod
collection project by primarily using statistics including the sum of individual specimens, the sum of
taxa, and evenness. The sum of individual specimens allows for the depiction of abundance. The
sum of taxa is better known through richness or more specifically how common a certain arthropod
is. Lastly, using the Burger– Parker index, evenness is the "lack of dominance" which is known as
"1/Pm" (UNO Department of Biological Sciences,1999).
Methods:
This experiment was conducted in New Orleans and Kenner, Louisiana which are located in Orleans
and Jefferson Parish, however, Kenner is more suburban rather than city. Conducting this
experiment required setting out eight pitfall traps (four in each habitat) which were labelled cups
one through eight. This experiment was conducted over the time frame of three weeks in order to
collect approximately 100–200 arthropods. Every day for three weeks, cups (pitfall traps) were
placed in two different habitats (Kenner and New Orleans) and put out every morning and picked up
every night. The shade

Differences And Characteristics: The Evolution Of...
The Evolution of Hermaphroditism
The diversity of animals is astounding, with different characteristics exhibited across extant species.
Despite the vast differences, all animals share a fundamental similarity, and that is the need to
reproduce to ensure perpetuation of their own kind, albeit with different methods of reproduction.
Animals that diverged early from other groups, namely sponges from Phylum Porifera, are mostly
hermaphroditic with individuals having both male and female reproductive organs. As animals
increase in complexity and evolutionary trends lean towards cephalisation, most bilaterians develop
a head where sensory organs are concentrated (Solomon et al., 2010). This allows active searching
for suitable mating partners by facilitating locomotion and a greater awareness of their surrounding
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hence, gonochoric bilaterians with separate sexes in different individuals eventually became more
ubiquitous than hermaphroditic bilaterians. Yet, hermaphroditism still occurs in certain bilaterians as
this condition provides them with a higher chance of reproduction and passing on genes to their
offspring before death, especially if finding suitable mates could pose a challenge due to population
density, size and mobility constraints, and environmental conditions of their habitats. Thus, this
essay aims to discuss three reasons for the occurrence of the hermaphroditic condition amongst
certain bilaterians (using examples of animals from phyla Mollusca, Annelida and Platyhelminthes),
and explain with evaluation the possible roles that hermaphroditism provides. Table 1 gives a brief
description on the hermaphroditic reproduction process amongst the bilateria, and would be referred
to in

Crayfish And Earthworms
When society thinks about crayfish and earthworms they become extremely curious about how their
bodies operate because of how they are made up. I will give a brief synopsis of both animals before
going into major detail about them. According to the online website named dictionary.com, it says
that an earthworm is a burrowing annelid worm that lives in the soil. Earthworms play an important
role in aerating and draining the soil and in burying organic matter (Dictionary). Crayfish are
nocturnal freshwater crustacean that resembles a small lobster and inhabits in streams and rivers
(Dictionary). Crayfish and earthworms are some very interesting animals that possess some
exclusive qualities both similar and different.
As researched, earthworms are known as hermaphrodites, which are defined as an animal having
both male and female sex organs or other sexual characteristics, either abnormally or (in the case of
some organisms) as the natural condition (Dictionary). During the earthworm lab, I discovered that
earthworms have both seminal vesicles and seminal receptacles. Holding sperm after cross–
fertilization has occurred is the seminal receptacles for females only. Seminal vesicles produce and
release sperm and are well known as the male reproductive organs. Gizzards are responsible for
mechanical digestion and grinding up the food for earthworms (Earthworm dissection video). On the
other hand, for male crayfish to make sperm they must contain testes, unlike the females they

Earth Worms Research Paper
Earth worms should be good for the soil right? Well not for the places where there have been no
earthworms for thousands of years. Usually they wouldn't make it that far north but different
situations caused this to happen. People have inadvertently intervened. Sometimes they've dumped
their leftover bait in worm–free zones, or they've accidentally brought worms or eggs in the soil
stuck to cars and brought them up causing the worms to take up residence as far north as Alberta's
boreal forests. Earthworms "are not really supposed to be in some of these areas," says Tara Bal, a
forest health scientist at Michigan Technological University in Houghton. In the northern forest soil
is naturally stratified and nutrients and can only be found in

Evolution Of Animal Research Paper
Animal Phylum Evolution
In this research paper, I'm going to be discussing the evolution of animals and how things have
changed to make them more complex throughout history. I'm going to discuss what types of phyla
there are and how their body systems work. First, I'm going to discuss is the phyla Protists. Some
protists are autotrophs, a photosynthetic group of phyla referred to as the algae. Some protists are
heterotrophs. Heterotrophs get their energy by consuming other organisms. Protists reproduce
asexually by binary fission, and a few species are capable of sexual reproduction. Protists are so
small they don't have any special organs to exchange gases or get rid of waste. They rely on
diffusion which is movement from a high concentration ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It's the first phyla most people are familiar with. The phylum is made up of mostly vertebrates. All
chordates have pharyngeal slits (filter feeding organs), dorsal nerve cord (hollow cord to the
notochord), notochord (a skeletal rod supporting the body) and a post–anal tail (a body part that runs
past the anal opening.) They have a brain and a central nervous system. As for their digestive
system, they have a 1–way stomach. Now we have the seventh phyla, Osteichthyes and
Chondrichthyes. Osteichthyes have a bony exoskeleton. They have gills that are covered by
operculum. They have a swim bladder and fertilization is external for them. Examples of
osteichthyes are salmon, sea horse and trout. Chondrichthyes have some differences. Their
endoskeleton is made of cartilage. Their gills are exposed to the outside, they do not have a swim
bladder. Lastly their fertilization is internal. Examples of chondrichthyes are sharks and rays. They
both have a two chambered heart. They both have a 1–way stomach track. Next, we have the
phylum Aves as our eighth phyla. Aves are birds. All aves are endothermic and warm–blooded
animals. They lay eggs that hard and waterproof. Instead of teeth they have a beak or a bill. Aves are
bipedal which means they only walk on two legs. Their forelimbs are developed into wings and
most members of the phyla are highly adapted for

The U-High Creek Experiment
The U–high freshman biology class designed an experiment to test the question; based on the
number of micro invertebrates, what is the water quality of the U–high creek? On 9/22/14, the day
of the experiment, the conditions were recorded at 10:05 AM. The temperature was 55 degrees with
a 6 mph wind, and 62% humidity. One of the observations of the creek is that there was some
garbage and trash on the banks, although there was minimal amount. Another observation was that
there was run–off leading into the creek from roads, nearby parking lots, and neighboring yards.
There were about 40 small fish, only about 2–3 inches long swimming north against the current. The
water was also very clear, and the bottom was clearly visible. Based on the observations ... Show
The first piece of evidence supporting this statement is a water quality index of 48. The 7 pollution
sensitive organisms in the creek are worth three points each on the water quality index, plus the 10
moderately tolerant organisms each 2 points and the 7 tolerant organisms each 1 point add up to get
the 48 water quality index. The water quality level is considered excellent if it is 23 or above. The
water quality in the U–High creek is more than twice that. There were many different types of
organisms found in the creek including 7 pollution intolerant micro invertebrates. The total number
of organisms including the 88 pollution intolerant Caddis fly larvae point to a low pollution level in
the creek. The 10 moderately tolerant micro invertebrates also point to low polluted creek. There
were also a high number of midges and aquatic worms. The water in the creek was also very clear
and did not have a smell. There were many small fish and plants growing in and around it
concluding a low pollution level in the

New Zealand Flatworms Play a Huge Role in Agriculture
The New Zealand Flatworm (Arthurdendus Triangulates) is an Invasive Species here in Ireland. It
originates from New Zealand as the name implies and has spread extensively throughout Europe. It
was first recorded in Northern Ireland in 1963. In 1963 it was looked upon as a novelty in gardens
around belfast and was not seen as a pest that could in the future potentially do detrimental damage
to agricultural land. In 1983 scientists discovered that these flatworms were preying on our native
types of earthworms, and drastic falls in their numbers were seen in areas where the NewZealand
Flatworms were abundant. Earth Worms play a huge beneficial role in Irish Agriculture land and
gardens by improving drainage, aerating soil, mixing the soil structure and decomposing material,
when they are preyed apon by the New Zealand Flatworm they can completely disappear in severe
cases and in those areas the land can become water logged and as a result growth of plants suffer
and the whole ecosystem is effected .
The worm is believed to have reached Ireland by the importation of exotic potted plants which
contained the flatworms eggs mixed in throuh the potted soil. The worm has established itself
mainly in the North of the Country but sightings have also been recorded in the West in County
Mayo and County Sligo. The worm does not thrive in soil temperatures above 23 degrees which is
why they are usually found in the North of which ever country they inhabit as soil temperatures are
colder

Mumbai University Zoology Syllabus
Academic Council 25/05/2011 Item No. 4.59
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Syllabus for the F.Y.B.Sc. Program: B.Sc. Course : Zoology
(Credit Based Semester and Grading System with effect from the academic year 2011–2012)
1
F.Y.B.Sc. Zoology Syllabus Restructured for Credit Based and Grading System To be
implemented from the Academic year 2010–2011
SEMESTER I Course Code UNIT I USZO101 II III I USZO102 II III USZO P1 TOPICS Diversity
of Animal Kingdom I Life processes I Ecology Molecular basis of life I Biotechnology I Genetics 2
2 2 Credits L / Week 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Practicals based on both courses in theory
SEMESTER II Course Code UNIT I USZO201 II III I USZOT202 II III USZO P2 TOPICS
Diversity of Animal Kingdom II Life processes II Ethology ... Show more content on
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1.2.2: Peptide bond 1.2.3: Structure of proteins: Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structure. 1.2.4: Biological role of proteins. 1.3: Carbohydrates 1.3.1: Nomenclature, isomerism and
classification. 1.3.2: Glycosidic bond 1.3.3: Types of carbohydrates: Monosaccharides: Glucose,
fructose, galactose Disaccharides: Maltose, sucrose, lactose Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen,
cellulose, chitin, heparin 1.3.4: Biological role of carbohydrates Unit II: Biotechnology – I 2.1:
Concept of Biotechnology 2.1.1: Definition 2.1.2: An overview of achievements and scope. 2.2:
Fundamentals of laboratory techniques in biotechnology 2.2.1: Safe handling of equipments 2.2.2:
Sterilization techniques 2.2.3: Molecular separation techniques Principle and applications: Paper
chromatography, TLC and Electrophoresis– Agarose and PAGE 2.3: Food biotechnology
Applications of biotechnology in making bread, beer, wine, yogurt and cheese 2.4: Enzyme
Technology 2.4.1: Enzymes as the meat tenderizer 2.4.2: Bio–detergents 2.4.3: Concept of enzyme
immobilization (15 Lectures)
5

Unit III: Genetics (15 Lectures) 3.1: Gene and gene concepts, definition of gene and gene
expression 3.2: Mendelian inheritance: i) Monohybrid and dihybrid cross, ii) Concept of dominance,
iii) Exception to Mendelian inheritance: Incomplete dominance, co– dominance, interaction of
genes: (Epistasis:

Onychophoran Research Paper
Onychophoran, commonly known as the velvet worm, is a worm like creature with stocky legs and
velveteen body. The size of Onychophorans usually ranges from 14mm to 150mm with 13 to 43
pairs of legs. There are nearly 100 species of Onychophorans (including fossils). All of them live in
moist terrestrial habitat like the rain forest in Africa, and they are nocturnal animals. Onychophoran
has many features. They are bilaterally symmetrical with a through gut. They don't have jointed
legs, in other word they have lobopods with claws. The 2nd pair of their legs modified into jaws,
and the 3rd pair of legs is the oral papilla, which connected to the slime gland. From it's appearance,
Onychophorans look like slugs or snails for its soft body, and ... Show more content on
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Because of the fossil evidence, the first Onychophoran lives in the water, and in oder to adapt the
environment of the land. They develop the tracheae system. Another thing that makes
Onychophorans cool is their unique preying method. Most Onychophorans prey. "They(the
Onychophorans) shoot the spray out of two slime glands located near their head, and let fluid forces
and elasticity go to work" and the spray of the lime can be as long as 20 centimeters, which is
almost four times of their body length. The slime contains collagen–type protein which allows the
slime adhesive. The adhesive slime can immobilize their prey, and the Onychophorans can
eventually consume the target prey. Some researchers suggest that the unique preying method of the
Onychophorans are also a result of the sea–land transformation, for the Onychophorans don't have a
effective way to prevent them from desiccation, they need to find food in a really short time and a
very limited places, which is the moist land. The slime spraying method allows them to get fed in a
effective way. Also, in order to prevent itself from desiccation, the Onychophorans prefer the dark
environment which leads to their lack of

An Example Of Complete Metamorphosis In Prostomes
An example of complete metamorphosis in Protostomes is the Annelida having trochophore larva
(Figure 3), "a free–swimming top–shaped larva with two bands of cilia around its middle".
(Solomon et al., 2015) For aquatic annelids like tubeworms, the movement of cilia on its larva
creates water current which helps in locomotion and feeding by bringing the food closer. Annelids
then develop a tubular body that is segmented (Figure 4). In addition to trochophore larva, Mollusca
have a veliger larva in its second larval stage. The veliger larva consists of a shell, foot and mantle,
and is exclusively aquatic. (Solomon et al., 2015) Echinoderms having larvae with bilateral
symmetry and adults with pentaradial symmetry is an example of metamorphosis

Taxonomy Lab to Show Organism Relationships
Name:
Date: March 16, 2014
Instructor's Name: Professor Tyra Hall – Pogar
Assignment: SCIE207 Phase 5 Lab Report
Title: Taxonomy Lab to Show Organism Relationships
Instructions: You will need to fill out the data table and answer a set of questions.
When your lab report is complete, post it in Submitted Assignment files.
Part 1: Using the lab animation, fill in the following data tables to help you answer the questions
that follow:
Table 1: Samples 1–5
Phylum/Division | Sample 1: Chrysophyta | Sample 2: Annelida | Sample 3: Arthropoda | Sample 4:
Amphibia | Sample 5: Aves | Common Feature | Unicellular, primary producers| Segmented body |
External skeleton and segmented body | Can obtain oxygen from ... Show more content on
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| Diffusion | Nephridia in each segment; solid waste exits through the anus | Malpighian tubules |
Kidneys, intestines, anus | Kidneys, intestines, anus | Growth and Development Does the organism
go through metamorphosis, develop in an egg or uterus, or grow from seeds? | Start as small cells;
grow bigger until division | Start out as fertilized eggs, hatch into little worms that continue to grow,
and then mature sexually into adults | Complete (egg, larvae, pupae, adult) or incomplete (egg,
nymph, adult) metamorphosis | Metamorphosis: Egg, tadpole, adult | Develop in egg |
RegulationHow does the organism control body processes (hormones, nervous system)? | The
nucleus directs protein synthesis. Euglena have eye spots that can detect light | Tiny anterior brain,
ganglia, and the nerve cord runs the length of the body | Tiny anterior brain, nerve cord, ganglia, and
extremely well–developed sensory organs | Brain, nervous system, good reflexes | Nervous and
endocrine systems | Sample organism | Phytoplankton * Chrysophyta | Earthworm * Annelida | Fruit
fly * Arthropoda | Frog * Amphibia | Bird * Aves |

Table 2: Samples 6–10
Phylum/Division | Sample 6: Reptilians |

Earthworms
How Does Temperature Effect Earthworms?
Introduction
When one thinks of earthworms usually one thinks about slimy and nasty creatures that are only
used for fishing. Wrong! If there were no worms on earth, farms and many plants could not be
properly maintained. This paper will explain how important earthworms are to the earth and to our
environment. In addition, this paper will cover the origin of an earthworm, the anatomy and other
important characteristics. Origin The origin of earthworms were said to be on earth around 200
millions ago. Their ancestors were marine worms, existing before there was even soil on this planet
and vegetation. These worms underwent a slow process of adapting themselves to a new ... Show
Earthworms slowly bring soil to the surface and cover objects on the ground. This is one reason why
archaeologists have to dig down underneath the ground to find fossils. Night crawlers burrows can
go as far as 15 feet underground. Night crawlers have something that no other animal has. They
have five pairs of hearts. The hearts pump blood with the earthworm's muscular contractions. Only
two main blood vessels make up the earthworms body. The ventral blood vessel sends blood to the
rear end of the worm. The dorsal vessels pumps blood to the front end of the body and blood travels
through the ventral vessels into the capillaries on the body wall and the many other organs. Anatomy
The body of the earthworms is considered slimy and weird. Earthworm's body contains 80% water
and 70% protein. Fat makes up anywhere from 1 to 17 percent. The body divided into 100 segments.
These segments contain a pair of metanephridia, which drain the adjacent anterior segments. The
bristles help the earthworm hold its ground when trying to be pulled from its burrow. For instance, a
bird pulls off 6 to 7 segments; therefore new segments will grow back. Earthworms are
invertebrates, which mean they have no backbone. The mucus on the body helps the worm travel
through their burrow smoothly. As the earthworm travels underground the mucus holds the dirt from
collapsing on the worm.
Temperature Temperature is an important aspect

Saving Game
Purpose: To save Fred's life ! Background information: We have to save Fred from drowning. If we
drop him in the water Fred will die. Fred has only 2 lives. We can't stab Fred with the paperclips
because if we do he will also die. We have to try to get the lifesaver which is under the cup in order
to save Fred's life & keep him from drowning. Once we put the lifesaver on Fred he will be
safe but we have to be careful when we're picking up the lifesaver and Fred with paperclips.
Hypothesis: If we grab Fred with a paper clip and we move the cup with another clip we can get the
lifesaver which is under the cup with another paper clip and we sort of push Fred in the lifesaver
until we got him inside of it completely ! ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Digestion – The digestive system of annelids consists of an unsegmented gut that runs through the
middle of the body from the mouth. Circulation – Circulation in the earthworm is through a series of
closed vessels. Excretion – Nephridia are organs of excretion in the annelids. Summary of the
activity: Well basically what we did in this lab was save a gummy worm from drowning using only
paper clips. It may sound difficult but it was actually really simple. We just had to get our lifesaver
which is the thing that will save Fred from drowning and put it over him like if you were putting
fred a shirt on. But we can't use our hands at all just the paper clips. In this lap we also learned that
worm are part of the animal phylum called Annelida. We learned what annelids were and how their
reproduction, circulation, excretion, gas exchange nervous control work out. 1. What was
investigated? How to save Fred from drowning. 2. Was the hypothesis supported by the data? Yes,
yes it was. 3. What were major findings? We found out the way to save Fred from drowning. 4. How
did your findings compare with other researchers? Mostly everybody's findings were the same. 5.
What possible explanations can you offer your findings? We had to put all the tools we had in use in
order to complete the lab. 6. What recommendations do you have for further study and for

Physics Project
PHYSICS PROJECT
TO STUDY THE OPTICAL LENS OF A HUMAN EYE
Eyes are organs that detect light, and convert it to electro–chemical impulses in neurons. The
simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light to movement. In higher organisms the eye
is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment; regulates its
intensity through a diaphragm; focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an
image; converts this image into a set of electrical signals; and transmits these signals to the brain,
through complex neural pathways that connect the eye, via the optic nerve, to the visual cortex and
other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different ...
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Possessing detailed hyperspectral color vision, the Mantis shrimp has been reported to have the
world's most complex color vision system.[8] Trilobites, which are now extinct, had unique
compound eyes. They used clear calcite crystals to form the lenses of their eyes. In this, they differ
from most other arthropods, which have soft eyes. The number of lenses in such an eye varied,
however: some trilobites had only one, and some had thousands of lenses in one eye.
In contrast to compound eyes, simple eyes are those that have a single lens. For example, jumping
spiders have a large pair of simple eyes with a narrow field of view, supported by an array of other,
smaller eyes for peripheral vision. Some insect larvae, like caterpillars, have a different type of
simple eye (stemmata) which gives a rough image. Some of the simplest eyes, called ocelli, can be
found in animals like some of the snails, which cannot actually "see" in the normal sense. They do
have photosensitive cells, but no lens and no other means of projecting an image onto these cells.
They can distinguish between light and dark, but no more. This enables snails to keep out of direct
sunlight. In organisms dwelling near deep–sea vents, compound eyes have been secondarily
simplified and adapted to spot the infra–red light produced by the hot vents–in this way the

Rhetorical Analysis Of Earthworms
Introduction The Common Earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, is a terrestrial invertebrate found
abundantly across the United States. Physically, it has a red–brown color, can measure in length up
to fourteen inches, and can weigh up to .39oz. The body of the earthworm is made up of ring–like
segments, annuli, and covered in small bristles, setae, that help the worm to move and burrow
(National Geographic, 2017). The earthworm uses peristaltic waves as its form of locomotion
(Kuroda et al, 2014). Within the segments, the earthworm has two types of muscles, circular and
longitudinal. The contraction of the circular muscles causes the segment to become shorter, while
the contraction of the longitudinal muscles causes the segment to lengthen. The resulting pattern in
all segments of the earthworm's body causes it to move forward in a wave–like pattern, with one
segment moving after another (Piearce, 1983). There are kinetics involved in the locomotion of
earthworms that are directly related to its morphology. Research conducted by scientists from the
zoological department at Cambridge University on the locomotory reflexes in the earthworm found
that the tactile sense organs on the ventral surface of the earthworm affect the longitudinal
contractions. Therefore, when an earthworm moves over an irregular surface, its tension reflexes are
altered depending on the certain environment (Gray & Lissmann, 1938). Our research question is:
How does the locomotion of an earthworm vary

Evolution of Animal Organ Systems & Their Development

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