Rotavirus Vaccines

Rotavirus Vaccines
A Child's Battle with Rotavirus: 1999 Drawback through 2006 Draw Out
According to the research of the American Academy of Pediatrics in their official Pediatric journal,
one term defines a whole field of the relationship exchange between the child and his or her
pediatrician. A "medical home" was once used to conclude all the medical information about a
patient, but nowadays can be delineated a" partnership approach with families to provide primary
health care that is assessable, family centered, coordinated, comprehensive, continuous,
compassionate, and culturally effective period" (Sia, et al.). With increasing healthcare cost,
technology, survivorship, foundations, and specializations, this causes an abundant amount of
attention focused ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
RotaShield[™], despite being highly effective, was withdrawn from the market less than one year
from its inauguration. By reason of associations with intussusception it had done more harm than
good. Intussusception is a downbeat misfortune that consist of part of the intestines sliding into a
neighboring part of the intestine. (Rotavirus vaccines/Vaccins antirotavirus." Weekly
Epidemiological Record) August 31, 1998, in Wyeth Laboratories located in Pennsylvania, was the
date the introduction of Rotashield by the FDA came to be recognized. Until shortly a month after
the anniversary passed fifteen cases of infants were reported to the VAERS of developing the illness.
"Eight infants required surgical reduction, and one required resection of 18 cm of the distal ileum
and proximal colon"(Delage, "Rotavirus vaccine withdrawal in the United States; The role of
postmarketing surveillance, The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases). October 1999 conducted
more cases on the rise and delivered the news of the postponement of the vaccine. At this time,
"Fifty–two patients required surgery, nine required bowel resection, and one patient died"(Delage. A
major setback for the aid came with the delay period tallying eight years until any real progress
emerged. February 2006, a rivalling company, MERCK, set the playing field introducing
RotaTeq[™}. The human reassortant vaccine consists of a triple dose taken orally at two, four, and 6
months. Subsequent doses are required at intervals of four to ten weeks. With the risk being greater
for intussusception these vaccines are not intended for catch–up purposes. 2007 was the kickoff of
further countries participating with their vaccines, unavailable in the United States and neighboring
districts. Vietnam distributed Rotavin–M1, manufactured by the center of research and production of
vaccines.
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Rotavirus
Rotavirus is commonly spread from person–to–person. It is highly contagious and passes easily
through the fecal–oral route by way of contact with contaminated hands or objects, such as toys and
surfaces, through tainted food or water, in respiratory droplets or on water contaminated with feces.
Infected children begin to shed rotavirus in their stools 76 before the onset of symptoms and can
excrete up to 1011 rotavirus particles per gram of fecal matter, much more than the number of 100
particles required to infect new contacts. The risk of rotavirus transmission can be reduced by
frequent hand washing and treatment of contaminated materials at high temperatures, namely above
+ 50°C. Rotaviruses are ubiquitous, easily spread and resistant ... Show more content on
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Serological studies indicate that infections in adults are less dependent on seasonal fluctuations than
infection in children 5371. Adults who are interested in children and travelers infected by resource–
shortage environments appear to be at the greatest risk 53. Transmission among adults was also
documented in hospitals 53, nursing homes and military barracks. In view of the fact that rotavirus
is typically distributed in amounts well beyond what is required to cause infection in fully
susceptible hosts 6, perhaps only a few viral particles entering the small intestine, infected older
children and adults 53 are infected with a milder or asymptomatic infection 64. Be an important
reservoir for infection, although its importance for transmission remains

Reduction of Diarrheal Diseases in Under-Five Children in...
Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) describes diarrheal disease as the second leading cause of
mortality in children under five years old, accounting for around 760000 deaths of children every
year (Lweendo, 2010). Diarrhea is usually transmitted through the faecal–oral route. From the
public health perspectives, contact with human excreta due to improper faecal disposal, poor
hygiene in terms of hand washing to mention a few are the most potential risk factors. It has been
documented that diarrhea causes of malnutrition in children under– five years. Diarrheal disease
causes loss of water and salt in the body and can lead to death. This disease is very dangerous for
children under –five years
Nigeria is one the countries ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As it has been earlier pointed out, majority of people lives in slums. This situation poses a challenge
of attaining Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of halving by 2015 the proportion of people
without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
Epidemiologically, diarrhea diseases are associated with poor hygiene in terms of hand washing
(Lweendo, 2010). For example, the Cross–sectional study that was conducted among the Lagos
community revealed that only 46% washed their hands before eating. In the same study it was
revealed that 3.6% washed their hands after cleaning a defecated child and 0.3% after cleaning
running nose (International Journal of Infection Control 2013).
Poverty influences the state of hygiene and sanitation and vice versa (Lweendo, 2010). In Lagos
alone, it is reported that children who lives in poorest socioeconomic strata have lower health
indicators as compared to those from wealthiest. For example, mortality rate among children under–
five from the urban settings is 85/1000 while mortality rate in rural settings where socioeconomic is
low is 219/1000 live births (Senbanjo, Olayiwola et al. 2013). Overcrowding, unhygienic
conditions, low income households and families are conditions that make children more vulnerable
to disease many diseases such as diarrhea.
The current public health interventions in Lagos
There is growing evidence that diarrhea can be prevented through the approach that includes among
other

Rotavirus Essay
Every year it kills approximately
1 Million children world wide. The invader sneakes in unnoticed, takes over, all the while increasing
in number as it goes. These children are falling victim to a rotavirus responsible for severe pediatric
diarrhea. This rotavirus takes over in the human digestive tract, invading its cells and hijacking its
protein synthesis machinery. This inhibits normal protein production in favor of a virus army.
Children affected by this have had no chance of recovery, but now a glimmer of hope is visible on
the horizon–a cure, whose secret lies in the virus' unique structure–a tunnel, which, like the fate of
the virus, could be sealed.
So, what is the Rotavirus actually doing??
Our bodies consist of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Whereas normal RNA has a poly–A tail which triggers protein synthesis with a protein called PABP,
the Rotavirus does not have these proteins. Instead, it uses a different protein called NSP3.
What is being done about it?
In order for researchers to begin to find a cure, they began looking at the structure of the viral
protein and how the virus actually attaches itself to the host machinery. Researchers hoped that this
knowledge would give them an idea of how the virus take–over could be prevented. The researchers
used several different methods to determine the structure of the NSP3 protein. The method that
yielded the most information was the Crystallographic Analysis.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS:
This process allows the researchers to determine the structure of the viral protein bound to the
virus'mRNA. This is done by creating a crystal containing an array of ordered NSP3 proteins bound
to RNA. X–rays are then shined on this co–crystal structure. The angles at which the light bounces
off the atoms produce a diffraction pattern on a detector. From the positions of and intensities of the
spots, dense areas of electrons are identified. These areas correspond the location of the atoms
within the protein structure.
What was determined??

Through Crystallographic Analysis, researchers were able to determine the structure of the viral
NSP3 protein. The NSP3 protein is

Rotavirus Disease Essay
Spread of rotavirus infection can be controlled on farms by isolating the affected foals, strict
hygiene and disinfecting stalls and equipment.
Treatment
To control dehydration and electrolyte loss isotonic fluids @ 60 to 80 ml/kg body weight should be
administered, according to the hydration status. Paste of astringent bismuth sub salicylate @ 20
mg/Kg body weight, orally for 3 to 4 times in a day should be given. Administration of activated
charcoal @ 0.25 to 0.5 g/kg body weight once daily helps in binding toxins and firming the feces.
Exogenus lactase @ 120U/kg body weight twice a day should be given. Foals showing colic should
be administred flunixin meglumin @ 0.25mg/kg body weight. Oral administration of antaacid
omeparazole @ 2–4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The major clinical signs observed over the course of disease included recumbency 100%,
hyperesthesia 81%, loss of tail and anal sphincter tone 57%, fever 52%, and ataxia and paresis of the
hindquarters 52% of cases. Mean survival time after the onset of clinical signs was 4.47 days (range,
1 to 7 days). Supportive treatment given had no effect on survival time and did not correlate with the
detection of Negri bodies at necropsy. Other diseases which present clinical symptoms similar to
rabies are tetanus, equine herpesvirus, botulism, lead poisoning, moldy corn poisoning, protozoal
myelitis, and trauma to the brain or spinal cord. Post–mortem diagnosis can be made by submitting
the intact head refrigerated by wet ice but not frozen to diagnostic laboratory. Diagnosis is
performed using the fluorescent antibody (FA) test to stain sections of the brain for the presence of
rabies virus. A positive test means treatment should be started for anyone who has come in contact
with the rabid animal. There is no treatment of the rabies virus. Immediate cleansing of the wound
area may prevent infection. Post–vaccination of the animal may not be useful as the horse may die
before immunity has time to develop. If a horse has been previously immunized, an immediate
booster should be given. Strict quarantine and observation for six months are mandatory in all cases.
If clinical symptoms develop, the horse should be

The Anti Vaccine Movement Paper
Pierce Kurek
Anti–Vaccine Movement Paper
4 September 2016 The first argument that I found compelling – in the manner that someone with
little formal training in science might be susceptible to – was the claim that there are unnatural and
dangerous chemicals and poisons in vaccines. Through looking at a short list provided by the
Healthy Home Economist, you can see things that would make any parent nervous: formaldehyde,
aluminum, mercury, antifreeze, and many more. These are dangerous chemicals, and the anti–
vaccine movement argues that they should not be injected into the bloodstreams of children, which
sounds absolutely reasonable. However, the key here is dosage. A large dose of anything can be
dangerous; you can drown in water, or have your kidneys fail incurring hyponatremia if you drink
too much water without replenishing sodium lost through sweat during intense exercise. The same
principle occurs here. Formaldehyde is ever present in day to day life. It is found in car exhaust,
household products such as carpets, upholstery, and paint, and even in cough drops and mouthwash.
In low doses, it is not harmful. Aluminum is also consumed on a daily basis, with the average adult
consuming 30 to 50 mg per day through food, drinking water, and medicines. Vaccines that contain
aluminum typically contain .125 to .625mg, which is only 1% of what is consumed daily regardless
of vaccination. Mercury is perhaps the easiest to dismiss, as it naturally exists in breast milk and

Effectiveness Of The Rotavirus Vaccine Essay
Effectiveness of the rotavirus vaccine in New Zealand infants between 8 weeks and three years old
Abstract
Background. Rotavirus is a gastrointestinal illness characterized by vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach
ache and a fever. Children less than three years old are particularly at risk of dehydration from the
sudden vomiting and diarrhoea, which can require hospitalisation. A vaccine against rotavirus was
recommended globally by WHO in 2009, and it has recently been approved into the New Zealand
immunisation schedule. As yet there are no studies following the effectiveness of this vaccine since
its introduction using New Zealand study subjects specifically.
Methods. In this matched case control study, cases are infants between eight weeks and three years
of age who will be seen in a participating ED with rotavirus, confirmed with a positive rotavirus
antigen test, between November 2014 and November 2016 in New Zealand. For every case we will
enrol 1 or 2 controls who are seen in the same ED without rotavirus and they will be matched for
date of birth (within two weeks) and date of visit to ED (within two weeks). Vaccine effectiveness
will be calculated by 1 minus the matched odds ratio, multiplied by 100 for the percentage. Aims
To measure the effectiveness of the new rotavirus vaccine against Emergency Department
attendance, or admission, for rotavirus in infants between 8 weeks and three years of age in New
Zealand.
To try and measure the effectiveness of the vaccine

Measles / Mumps / Rubella ( Mmr ), Inactivated Poliovirus,...
Measles/Mumps/Rubella (MMR), Inactivated Poliovirus, and Rotavirus are just a few examples of
vaccines recommended for children by the Center for Disease Control. These vaccines are
recommended for children in order to prevent the contraction and spread of diseases that have been
controlled in recent years, eradicated from our country, or that we are hoping to prevent from being
introduced. According to an article published by TIME Magazine, 1 in 10 parents choose to "opt
out" of vaccinating their children according to the recommended CDC schedule. (TIME, 2011).
While parents are responsible for choosing medical treatment and prevention methods for their
child, many are forgetting that their choices affect not only their family unit, but the entire
community they are surrounded by. The trend to refuse vaccinations is believed to have stemmed
from a fake study completed by Andrew Wakefield in 1993 saying the MMR vaccine caused autism
and bowel disease. In Wakefield's study he tested 12 children who had grown up with normal
development who presented a loss of acquired skills after receiving the Measles/Mumps/Rubella
vaccine. According to the study, "Behavioural disorders included autism (nine), disintegrative
psychosis (one), and possible postviral or vaccinal encephalitis (two)" (Wakefield, 1998). It was
later found that these diagnoses were false and Wakefield had been paid off by parents of children
with autism to make these claims and that there was no evidence to support

Vaccine and Vaccinations Nicole Tuttle
Vaccinations
Nicole Tuttle
CM107
10/1/13
Outline
I. Introduction A. Where to find information on vaccines. B. Thesis Statement.
II. Vaccines
A. What is a vaccine?
B. Why do we have vaccines?
III. History
A. First attempts to vaccinate.
B. Diseases eradicated by the creation of vaccinations.
IIII. Vaccinations and their purpose
A. Vaccinations for children.
B. Diseases vaccinations protect against.
C. Vaccines recommended for adults.
V. Benefits of vaccinations
A. The benefits of vaccinations.
VI. Disadvantages of vaccinations
A. Possible side effects of vaccinations.
VII. Conclusion A. Where to find helpful information on vaccines.
B. Thesis statement ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Vaccinations can be administered shortly after birth and are recommended into adulthood. The first
dose of the Hepatitis B (Hep B) vaccine is typically given shortly after birth but may be given at one
or two months of age. Hepatitis is a disease effecting the liver and can be life threatening. By two
months of age physicians recommend the second dose of Hep B along with the first dose of the
rotavirus, diphtheria, tetanus toxoids and pertussis (TDaP), hemophilus influenza type B (Hib),
pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and the inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV).
Rotavirus causes inflammation of the stomach and intestines; it effects infants and young children
often causing severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, fever, abdominal pain, and dehydration. Tetanus
toxoids (lock Jaw), pertussis (whooping cough), and diphtheria which is described as a thick
covering in the back of the throat, are all included in the TDaP vaccine. Diphtheria may lead to
breathing difficulties, paralysis, heart failure, and even death. The hemophilus influenza type B
vaccine which prevents meningitis (an infection of the covering of the brain and spinal cord),

pneumonia, and epiglottitis (a severe throat infection). Pneumococcal vaccine protects against
streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria which can cause severe ear infections and meningitis.
Most

Vaccination Of Children Should Be Compulsory
What are some of the objections to childhood vaccinations that have been made by various
stakeholders? Given the basis for these objections, should the vaccination of children be
compulsory? Compare examples from developed and developing countries. Mr Teanibuaka
Tabunga: ID: 18260601 Course: ELB Introduction Vaccinations of children are one of the global
health commitment to improving the children 's health and free them from preventable contagious,
and life–threatening diseases like Measles, Diphtheria, and polio. According to WHO (2013),
vaccinations or immunization is the process, whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an
infectious disease, typically by the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It will argue that vaccinations should be compulsory because there are a number of shreds of
evidence that children still dying from preventable diseases (Tabunga, 2013, Amy and Robert 1992,
Lontos, Jackson and Harrison 2012). For the purpose of this essay, stakeholders, in this case, refers
to the parents, religious beliefs, and government. Parents Objections to Immunizations There are
quite some reasons why parents refuse to get their children vaccinated. According to Tarrant and
Gregory (2001), parents refused to immunize their children because they have influenced by other's
stories of sequelae about immunization side effects. The adverse impact of injections and
immunizations like fever, irritability and rashes actually, did not stop parents to have their children
immunized. This kind of conversation can impact on parents, and reluctant to immunization, if it is
being spread around the communities repeatedly. The researchers further explain that mothers have
the unique ideas about immunization because they think, vaccinating their children will free, kids
from diseases. The study supported, by other two researchers Angelillo et.al (1999) and White
(1995), where they share similar results, that parents stopped immunizing their children because
they 've heard negative implications of the vaccinations in their communities by other parents. In
brief, the reason behind these objections

Rota Virus
Viruses come in different genomes and different forms however they all have a capsid where they
maintain their genetic material. Viruses are classified into families that are distinguish based on their
shape and form as well as they have names that are used for identification and is usually related to
the type of disease they cause. Rotavirus is a member of the family Reoviridae that is nonenveloped
segmented double stranded RNA and globally is the leading cause of severe diarrhea problems
among infants and young children worldwide (1). Rotavirus developed in a wheel shaped virus that
is surrounded by a triple layer coat composed of different structural proteins. The outer layer is
composed of VP7 and VP4 that is cleaved by trypsin into two ... Show more content on
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They used a rhesus monkey epithelial cell line MA104 and the murine fibroblast L929 cell line
(ATCC) that were grown in advanced Eagle's minimal essential medium (MEM; Invitrogen)
supplemented with 5% and 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), respectively, at 37°C in a 5% CO2
atmosphere. Then, they propagated in the MA105 cells different kinds of RV strains. RV cell lysates
were activated with trypsin. TLPs and DLPs of the RRV and BRV UK strains were purified by CsCl
isopycnic gradients (45). The mammalian reovirus strain type 3 Dearing (ReoT3D) was propagated
in L929 cells, and the viral titer was determined in MA104 cells (36, 46). Monoclonal antibodies
were used for detection of cellular proteins. Virus infectivity was determined by either
immunoperoxidase or immunofluorescence focus–forming assays. In order to bind the assays
created they used the MA104 cells that where transferred with the indicated siRNAs. Confluent cells
were then washed twice and incubated with MEM for 30 min at 37°C and virus binding was
assayed. To evaluate the binding in the cells treated with neuraminidase, the assay was carried out.
There were two type of treatments depending if the MA104 cells were LBPA–blocking assays they
will incubate the cells of anti–LBPA antibody with an isotype IgG control or if the MA104 cells
were protease inhibitors they were treated with leupeptin (in water) or with cathepsin B or L
inhibitors. Then the cells that had grown on glass coverslips were washed twice with MEM to get
them ready to localize the rotavirus particles with endocytic markers. The cells went through an
immunoblot analysis. Finally the qRT–PCR was done as well as the statistical analysis using the two
tail paired

Rotavirus: Infant Gastroenteritis
Rotavirus is the dominant cause of infant gastroenteritis worldwide and is associated with
substantial mortality in the developing countries. Despite its significant clinical importance, the
pathophysiological mechanisms by which rotavirus induces fluid and electrolyte secretion are still
not fully understood. It is fair to say that the outcome of intestinal infection with rotaviruses is more
complex than initially thought, and it is largely affected by a complex interplay of viral and host
factors. Rotaviruses infect enterocytes in the villous epithelium of the small intestine where
replication occurs, and the early events in infection are mediated by virus–epithelial cell
interactions. The mechanism that causes vomiting, which is characteristic ... Show more content on
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This enterotoxin induces diarrheal response, stimulates calcium–dependent cell permeability and
alters epithelial cell integrity. Molecular and pathophysiological changes One of the main effects of
rotaviral infection is a decrease in intestinal disaccharidase activities with relatively intact intestinal
brush border membrane. NSP4 can specifically perturb the paracellular permeability to various
molecules, reorganize filamentous actin filaments and prevent transport of the Zona Occludens–1
(ZO–1) protein to tight junctions. P70S6Kinase (p70S6K) belongs to growth factor–regulated
serine/threonine kinase family, and mitogen–activated protein kinase (MAPK) has been shown to
play a role in transducing extracellular signals into a cellular response. Phosphorylation of these
kinases was found to be decreased in severe cases of rotavirus infected ileum. Elevated levels of
prostaglandin E2 production is observed in the rotavirus infected intestine, which can induce
epithelial cell death. Furthermore, NSP4 was found to have toxin–like activity with a possibility to
upregulate nitric oxide synthase, resulting in peroxynitrite production and the inhibition of cell
migration and cell

Severe Childhood Gastroenteritis
Rotavirus represents the leading cause of severe childhood gastroenteritis. Every year rotavirus is
thought to be responsible for approximately 25 million clinic visits, two million hospital admissions,
and more than 800 thousand deaths in children under the age of five globally. Although this disease
has a worldwide distribution, most deaths occur in the developing countries.
It is hard to distinguish gastroenteritis caused by rotavirus from other enteric pathogens. Therefore
establishing an adequate diagnosis requires testing of fecal specimens with commercially available
assays. Still, rotavirus is not routinely sought in patients with gastroenteritis because the results do
not alter clinical management, which mostly mainly requires appropriate rehydration therapy. ...
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Thus, the history should include the duration of illness, urination frequency, the nature of stools, the
type of emesis, the presence of fever and the assessment of mental status.
Three principal examination signs for determining dehydration in children are an abnormal skin
turgor, abnormal respiratory pattern, as well as prolonged capillary refill time. Different scales are
used to assess dehydration, and the one from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is most
commonly employed. Parental report of the child's symptoms can also aid significantly.
Serum electrolyte measurement is usually not required in children with mild to moderate
dehydration. The child's weight during the illness in comparison with the weight after treatment is
used to retrospectively determine the degree of dehydration. Urine specific gravity and blood urea
nitrogen measurements are poor markers of dehydration.
Laboratory

Rotavirus In Children
By their fifth birthday, almost all children have been infected by rotavirus. Annually, rotaviruses
cause approximately 111 million incidences of gastroenteritis in children, 2 million hospitalisations,
and between 352,000 and 592,000 deaths.1 Gastroenteritis is an acute inflammation of the stomach
and intestines and it has a significant impact on childhood mortality and morbidity worldwide. It is
caused by rotavirus, which after infecting the lining of the intestines, triggers severe diarrhoea in
young children.2 However, with the development of vaccines, the threat of disease by rotavirus has
been significantly reduced.
What is Rotavirus? Rotavirus is a genus of double–stranded RNA virus within the family
Reoviridae. The virus is comprised ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Infection by rotavirus is
Figure 218; Source: World Health Organization 2013 virtually universal and there is no difference in
the occurrence of illness between developed and developing countries. This lack of difference
indicates that improvements in hygiene do not reduce the transmissibility of the virus.12 However,
the development of vaccines has greatly decreased the threat of disease caused by rotavirus. Two
oral vaccines, RotaTeq and Rotarix, have been implemented to safely control rotavirus infections.13
Both of these vaccinations are classified as live attenuated vaccines, meaning that it contains a
weakened version of the living microbe, making it unable to cause disease.14 Studies have shown
that RotaTeq and Rotarix provide effective protection against rotavirus and it is now recommended
by the World Health Organization (WHO) to include the rotavirus vaccine in the national
immunisation programs of all countries.15 While these vaccines have produced effective protection
against the most common strains of rotavirus, effectiveness on uncommon strains is still

Rota Virus: A Case Study
Rotavirus, a highly infectious double–stranded RNA virus of the family Reoviridae, is the main
etiological agent of severe dehydrating diarrhea in infants worldwide. In adults, symptomatic
rotavirus infections can cause outbreaks in the elderly and in immunocompromised individuals.
Infections in humans are caused by serogroups A, B and C, with serogroup A being the most
common.
Transmission routes
Transmission of rotaviruses is primarily by the fecal–oral route, which can happen directly from
person to person, or indirectly via contaminated fomites. Viruses are shed in large numbers in stool
(more than 10 trillion per gram) by patients with diarrhea, and can easily contaminate the
environmental objects. A respiratory mode of transmission ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Infants get infected by putting their fingers in the mouth after touching contaminated objects,
although healthcare providers can also spread the virus when they fail to wash their hands after
changing diapers. Therefore increased hand washing by hospital staff can result in decreased
nosocomial infections with this virus.
Infected food handlers may contaminate foods that require handling and no further cooking, such as
fruits and salads. Fecal–oral transmission is also commonly encountered in family homes, day–care
centers and homes for the elderly. In those settings control policies need to be evaluated repeatedly
and new measures need to be implemented should an outbreak of rotavirus occur.
Shedding can begin a few days prior to the onset of symptoms and continue until 21 days after the
onset of illness. Compared to children with rotavirus diarrhea, those with asymptomatic infection
tend to shed lower quantities of virus, with a possibility of intermittent shedding.
There is ample evidence that rotavirus is a waterborne pathogen. This virus can retain its infectivity
for days in aqueous environments, and waterborne spread has been implicated in a myriad of
rotavirus outbreaks, although there is not enough evidence that water alone is responsible for all
rotaviral

Pros And Cons Of Vaccines
A vaccine is a treatment to produce immunity against a disease, it actually puts contained cells of the
disease into your body then your body gets use to it then you do not get sick. Edward Jenner
introduced smallpox vaccine, the first successful vaccine to be developed, in 1796. There are many
types of vaccines, such as vaccinia, MMR combined vaccine, varicella, influenza, rotavirus, yellow
fever, zoster and many more. These are all used for different diseases such as smallpox, measles,
mumps and rubella, chickenpox, influenza, shingles and many more. My first paragraph is about
how many lives have been saved by vaccinations. My second paragraph is about the types and what
they do, and my third paragraph is going to be about the negative side effects. Then I will conclude
the question and give my reasoning.
Vaccines have been used for over 221 years and has saved almost 200 million lives. The CDC
estimates that vaccinations will prevent more than 21 million hospitalisations and 732,000 deaths
among children born in the last 20 years. Vaccines save about 2.5 million lives, although the
hepatitis B vaccine isn't used nearly as widely as others are used, it still saves about 600,000 lives.
Despite this success, more than 3 million people die from vaccine–preventable diseases each year.
Approximately 1.5 million of these deaths are in children less than 5 years old. It costs about $50 to
fully immunize a child in the developing world against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis,

What Is Varicella?
Varicella, which is customarily known as Chickenpox, is a common childhood disease. It is usually
mild, but it can be serious, especially in young infants and adults. It causes a rash, itching, fever, and
tiredness. It can lead to severe skin infection, scars, pneumonia, brain damage, or death. The
chickenpox virus can be spread from person to person through the air, or by contact with fluid from
chickenpox blisters. A person who has had chickenpox can get a painful rash called shingles years
later. Before the vaccine, about 11,000 people were hospitalized for chickenpox each year in the
United States. Before the vaccine, about 100 people died in the United States each year because of
the chickenpox virus. The chicken pox vaccine does have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Typhoid Fever is transmitted through the consumption of contaminated food or water and it is
caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. Typhoid Fever is a severe illness infecting approximately
21.5 million people worldwide. Typhoid Fever has proven to be fatal in up to 10% of reported cases.
There has been a dramatic increase in the number of drug–resistant strains of Salmonella typhi since
1989. Resistance to all three first–line antibiotics has been detected in Pakistan, India, China, and
the Arabian Gulf. Unfortunately, drug resistance is rapidly spreading worldwide due to population
overcrowding, poor sanitation, insignificant control of infections and the vast increase of extensive
international travel, trade, and population movements. Humans are the sole carriers of the bacteria,
which is shed through feces from 6 weeks to 3 months after infection. Most common symptoms
include fever, anorexia, abdominal discomfort, and headaches. There are two vaccines available to
prevent typhoid fever. There is an inactivated Typhoid Vaccine and a Live Typhoid Vaccine. The
inactivated vaccine is given as a shot while the live typhoid vaccine is taken orally over the course
of 4 doses. The risk of either typhoid vaccination causing serious harm is rare and reactions

The Debate Over Vaccinations for Adults and Children Essay
A very controversial issue these days is whether or not to receive immunizations. I am a young
mother and I tend to follow my mothers and doctors' advice when it comes to mine and my
children's health, I feel as though my doctor has the best advice on how I can keep us all happy and
healthy, however this is not the case for everyone. Many questions have arisen about immunizations
and there are quite a few people who are either hesitant to or will not have themselves and their
children immunized.
I am a person who believes that children and adults should be immunized, by not receiving
vaccinations it is possible to be putting the public at risk for more diseases. It should not matter what
the parents' philosophical or religious views are. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This enables our bodies to develop the antibodies to fight off the disease without having to get sick
first.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, most childhood vaccines are 90–99% effective
in preventing disease. Under some circumstances the children that have been vaccinated do get the
disease; they usually have milder symptoms with less serious complications than a child who has
not had the same vaccination. This proves that there are more risks with not being vaccinated than
being vaccinated.
Back in 2005 there was an outbreak of rotavirus gastroenteritis in Nicaragua, this caused high
mortality and hospitalization. There was a case study done to see if the children who had passed
away had access to routine immunizations, in which the children should have been given the
rotavirus vaccination. The results of this study showed that with a rotavirus vaccine the seasonal
outbreaks could be diminished.
Rotavirus gastroenteritis is not the only disease that has been an issue. Polio paralyzed about 37,000
and killed about 1,700 every year in the 1950's in the United States. About 15,000 people died each
year from diphtheria before there was a vaccine, and up to 70,000 children a year were hospitalized
for rotavirus.
There are also financial reasons that children should receive their vaccinations. According to a
statistic from the Centers for

Controversy On Vaccines
There has been a lot of controversy about vaccines today. There was once thought that there was a
link between vaccines and autism in children but there is absolutely no proof out there that this is
true. Although there is proof out there that vaccines do provide many benefits to those who do
receive them. Vaccine preventable diseases are still around, yes they are down because of the
vaccines but they are still around. Vaccines help children and adults stay healthy by protecting them
from these preventable diseases. Vaccines can actually make the difference between life and death,
sounds scary, but it is the truth. There are many other benefits to receiving vaccines as well but I am
going to just start with these three. Pertussis (whooping ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As shown above there are still many notable cases of these disease around today and millions of
people die annually due to them. Vaccines prevent 2.5 million deaths every year in all age groups.
Expanding the coverage of vaccines at the national and subnational level could prevent an additional
two million deaths in children under five. So it just shows a few seconds of pain with an injection or
a lifetime of illnesses or possibly death. Which one would you chose? So with all of the information
out there on the subject of vaccines it clearly shows that the benefits of vaccinating yourself against
vaccine preventable disease outweighs the statistics of non–vaccinating yourself. The diseases are
out there and if people keep vaccinating we can slowly diminish these diseases one by one. We
always want health for ourselves and our loved ones and vaccination is the way to achieve and
assure us of that. Life or death, which on do you chose? If you get one this out of this I would hope
it would be; Get vaccinated it saves

Rotavirus: Symptoms And Treatment
Rotavirus is an infection that contaminates the bowels, creating an inflammation of the bowels and
stomach. Children or infants are most common to get infected by the Rotavirus causing watery
diarrhea. People who are infected by the virus sends the virus in the feces. Touching contaminated
objects or surface will get you infected such as, putting your hands in your mouth or having contact
with someone who is already infected. And Contaminating foods or liquids can also transmit the
virus to other people. Symptoms for the Rotavirus include, Severe diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal
pain, and fevers. Children can be easily dehydrated from these symptoms and needs immediate
hospitalization to prevent a deadly situation. To diagnose a Rotavirus is often

List And Describe Several Pathogens That Can Cause...
1. List and describe several pathogens that can cause gastroenteritis in children. – Rotavirus: is a
common cause of gastroenteritis in infants and young children. Rotavirus is a non–enveloped,
double–shelled virus with a double–stranded RNA genome. The virus is capable of infecting the
epithelial cells of small intestine, leading to decrease in production of digestive enzymes and cell
death. As a result of epithelial cells damage, the absorption of fluids by small intestine is interrupted
which leads to watery diarrhea. [1] – Salmonella enterica: is a member of the Enterobacteriacecae
family, a rod shape Gram–negative bacterium. After passage through the gastric acid barrier, S.
enterica binds tightly to specific receptors of the epithelial cells in small intestine. The receptor
interaction activates a cellular response results in transfer of bacterial effector proteins into the
epithelial cell, following by uptake of bacterial cell by endocytosis. Invasion of epithelial cells
induce an inflammatory response that increases the fluid secretion of epithelial cells, causing
diarrhea. [2] – Giardia lamblia: is a pear–shaped, flagellated protozoan, with two nuclei. The
pathogen may exist as trophozoite (enable to feed, grow and cause disease) and as a dormant cyst,
with thick, highly resistant walls composed of chitin–like polysaccharide that help the organism
remain viable outside the host body for long periods. Due to this characteristic, is the pathogen able
to pass

Child Vaccines For Children
INFANT AND CHILD VACCINES
When you are a parent, you can do anything to protect your child and keep them safe and healthy.
Vaccines is the vital way to do that. For neonates, mother's breast milk can help protect against
many diseases. It contains antibodies passed from the mother. However, this immunity wears off
within a year, and many children aren't breastfed to begin with. In both cases, vaccines can help
protect babies and small children from disease. They can also help prevent the spread of disease to
older children and adults. Vaccines emulate infection of a certain disease in your body. This boosts
up your immune system to develop weapons called antibodies. These antibodies fight against the
disease that the vaccine is meant to prevent.

Should Vaccines Be Required For Children?
Should Vaccines Be Required For Children? All living things on this earth are subject to attack from
a disease–causing agent. Therefore, multicellular animals have dedicated cells and tissues that fight
off infectious microbes in order to build immunity. A multitude of specialized cells carries out much
of the immune system's work. Each of these cells is intended to fight off diseases in a particular way.
Vaccination, which is one of the methods that is used to prevent germs from proliferating, is subject
of many discussions. While opponents believe that most of the diseases such as diphtheria and
varicella are not necessarily harmful, and that injecting questionable vaccine ingredient into a child
may cause side effects, such as seizures, paralysis, proponents believe that vaccination has been one
of the greatest developments of the 20th century. It has served as a protection for the community,
and has saved children and parent's time money. The idea of increasing the rate of vaccinating
children at an early age during the twentieth century is what makes it unquestionable. A lot of
diseases such as poliomyelitis, hepatitis A, and hepatitis B have been killing infants and causing a
rising percentage in the infantile mortality. Some of the diseases such as polio, and diphtheria have
been discarded completely while other diseases have not. However, vaccination has helped due to
the fact that it has been contributing to decreasing the effect of the disease. For instance,

Genetic Disorders: Gene Therapy
Gene therapy
Treatment and prevent the disease by transfer the copy of gene to disordered gene that we need to
fix or make correction for it. We need to resolve the disease or causes of the diseases, and the drug's
use to reduce the symptoms for inherence diseases.
The gene therapy was discovered in 1972 by authors who are advice the any author to make sure
and study the gene carefully, the first try was unsuccessfully, also the first case for transfer gene in
the human not count of transplantation of organ, for example it was done by Martin in 1980 , and
Cline who is sad that gene was active in his patients after six months, although he did not publish
this data, or it has been verified, Even if it is true, it is unlikely that it produced ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
And soon became that about 44–55 % of the mutations cause severe hemophilia had no detectable as
result of the reversal of the DNA sequence within the intron that the factor 8 gene specific crashes,
(Hortelano, Al–Hendy et al. 1996, Mannucci and Tuddenham 2001, Chuah, Evens et al.

Pros And Cons Of Vaccines
Vaccinations have been extremely important in the United States of America for as long as they have
been around. The first vaccination was in the year of 1796, when Edward Jenner created the first
smallpox vaccination. A vaccine, also known as an immunization is a "biological preparation that
provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease," (American Academy of Pediatrics, 3).
The American Academy of Pediatrics states that "most childhood vaccines are 90%–99% effective
in preventing disease," and that "Vaccines Save 2.5 million children from diseases every single
year." There are 10 vaccines that are critical for human health, and below each vaccine is laid out on
what the vaccine is, the risks, and how they repel diseases. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Measles is a very serious contagious disease caused by a virus. It spreads through the air when an
infected person coughs or sneezes. Measles starts with a fever, and soon after, it causes a cough,
runny nose, and red eyes. "Measles is seldom given as an individual vaccine and is often given in
combination with mumps and rubella." (Sousa, S 14). The Center for Disease Control (CDC)
recommends children get two doses of MMR vaccine, starting with the first dose at 12 through to 15
months of age, and the second dose between the ages of 4 and 6. The measles vaccination was
invented in 1963, when more than 500,000 Americans had measles which killed nearly 1 in 1,000
(site source). As far as risks of the measles vaccine, again, like any other medicine, the vaccine is
capable of causing serious problems, such as severe allergic reactions. The risk of MMR vaccine
causing serious harm or death is extremely small. Most people who obtain the MMR vaccine rarely
have any problems with the vaccine. Mild problems may be a fever, mild rash, and swelling of the
glands., and Ssevere problems which are very rare consists of deafness, long term seizures, coma, or
permanent brain damage, again which is very uncommon and rare. There is a common myth that
sweeps around the world that states the the MMR vaccine causes autism. In reality, this widely
believed theory has been thoroughly disproved by (14 separate studies conducted on hundreds of
thousands of

Research Paper On Illness In Childhood
Dennise Cruz–Torres
HPRS 1304
Childhood Illnesses and Injuries Essay
It is very important for a new parent or a child care giver to be aware of the most common illnesses
and minor injuries that could occur to these children. Kids depend on us care givers to take care of
them. Even though most trauma injuries are accidents many of them could also be prevented or
stopped with the proper education. To be alert of these illness could help not only one child but
many others too. We should be prepared and well educated on how we could prevent this. With so
many infectious diseases arising on this day is it easy to catch anything any where. Here are some
examples of some diseases out in the world that affect children the most and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Some people may not know how deadly and fatal these illnesses could be and it is critical to be
mindful on how we could help our children to prevent virulent diseases. Children are very fragile
and they could easily get sick or hurt. Not only illness could hurt them but also minor injuries such
as head bumps, cuts or scrapes, nosebleeds, burns, squashed finger or toe. Children are full of life all
they want to do is explore their surroundings. Inevitably in some occasions children get hurt despite
the care that the chid care gives them. Time is am important factor when it comes to injuries,
knowing what to do and doing it correctly without injuring the child

The Cost-Effective Analysis of a Rotavirus Immunization...
The "Cost–effectiveness Analysis of a Rotavirus Immunization Program for the United States"
article was performed to estimate the economic impact of a national rotavirus immunization
program. The research question being addressed is if the implementation of a rotavirus vaccine
program would be beneficial and cost effective. These are policy relevant questions because it will
determine if a rotavirus vaccine program will be cost effective and valuable enough to employ.
These research questions are not only relevant to healthcare providers, but doctors, hospitals, the
vaccine users, and society as a whole.
Decision analysis is an appropriate method for this case study because the decision to be made is
operations focused and not tactical, it is impartial rather than subjective, and it is repetitive rather
than infrequent. Decision analysis looks to identify the most appropriate alternative outcomes and
occurs at a give point in time in a process. Additionally, it takes the view point of the organization in
decision making, opposed to an individual standpoint.
Date included in the study consisted of the number of doctor and emergency room visits, the number
of incidences, rotavirus infections, mortality estimates, hospitalizations statistics, hospital discharge
data, affected children, and vaccine coverage. Medical costs of the rotavirus are compromised of
inpatient and outpatient treatment, room charges for hospitalization, emergency department care,
vaccination

Rota Virus Case Study
Up to 6 54 10 8.33 %
6 – 12 44 10 8.33 %
12 – 18 12 2 1.66 %
18 – 24 6 2 1.66 %
24 – 30 1 0 0
30 – 36 1 0 0
36 – 42 2 0 0
42 – 48 0 0 0
Total 120 24 20 %
From table (3–2) we found that most of infected children in our results were under 2 years age, with
highest prevalence in those between (18–24)months and ( up to 6) months also (6–12) (8.33%), this
results agree with results of Magzoub et al,and Ansam (2017).Studies world wide have reported that
the most vulnerable age group to rotavirus infection is under 2 years of age with highst prevalence
between (6–12)months of age (Junaid et al.,2011).And agreement with DeDonne et al.(2013) who
confirm that most of Rota virus cases were identified in the age group ( 0– 24 months),in particular
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rotavirus positively was found in vaccinated children (94%) figure (3–5) show higher than non–
vaccinated children (6%).statistical analysis shown a significant difference between vaccinated and
non–vaccinated children (p≤ 0.05) .this results was dis agree with results of Preeti et al.(2016) who
confirm that rota virus infection was significantly higher in non–vaccinated children than in
vaccinated, and agree with other studies which confirm that the efficacy of rotavirus was lower
ranging from 51% to 64%(Mahdi et al., 2010).also we found that rotavirus infection was in
vaccinated children with first dose of vaccine ,it was (17%) and in children with second dose of
vaccine was (83%). Figure (3–5) Distribution of Rotavirus infection according to vaccinated and
non–vaccinated children.
Figure (3–6) :Distribution of Rotavirus infection according to the dose of vaccine.
3.1.3 The main concentration of Interleukin–6 and Interleukin–17 in serum of patients and control
groups:
The study showed high level of IL–6 in patients group in compare with control group, The mean
concentration of IL–6 recorded (123 ± 25 pg/ml), with significant differences (p≤0.05) between
patients and control group (58 ± 24 pg/ml) figure (3–7).
These results were in agreement with the results of Chen et al.(2014) who found that significante
increase in level of serum IL–6 in children with rotavirus infection .These

Rotavirus Vaccination
This journal article reports about rotavirus vaccination in terms of kinds of it and its performances.
There are many types of childhood disease. One of them is rotavirus. The reason why children suffer
from this disease rather than adults is that they have weaker immune systems. Rotavirus is
transmitted through various ways such as unclean hands or impure water. Before rotavirus
vaccination, many infants used to die from this. However, this is one of the most common causes of
preventable childhood disease these days so it is important to know this vaccine.
Rotavirus vaccination did not prevent its virus perfectly at first though it is easy to protect from it
now. The vaccine can be classified in two groups according to basis of its development,

Can Rotavirus Cause Disease
There are several known mechanisms by which rotavirus can cause disease. Rotaviruses, primarily
infect mature intestinal epithelial cells on the apices of the small intestinal villi. Destruction of
infected cells and subsequent development of villus atrophy reduces digestion and absorption of
fluid and nutrients, resulting in secretory diarrhea with loss of fluids and electrolytes into the
intestinal lumen, which is explained by the transport of electrolytes from the intestine is severely
damaged, resulting in a high osmotic pressure, which subsequently disrupts the absorption of water
in the colon. Second, non–structural protein 4 has been shown to act as an enterotoxin secreted by
rotavirus infected cells 34. Administration of non–structural

Lab Report On Laboratory Equipments And Apparatus
2.1. Materials:
2.1.1. Laboratory Equipments and Apparatus: The main equipments and instruments used in this
study are listed in Table (2–1). Table (2–1) Laboratory Equipments and Apparatus
Equipments/ Apparatus Company Country
Biohazard safety cabinet class II B Marubeni Japan
Centrifuge Gemmy Taiwan
PCR system or thermocycler Clever USA
Cool Box Gemmy Taiwan
Deep freezer–80 Marubeni Japan
Digital camera Canon Japan
Disposable tips Bio–Hit Finland
Disposable plastic cups OEM China
Distillator GFL Germany
DNA extraction tubes Eppendorf Germany
Dry heat block Biobasic Canada
Electrophoresis apparatus Clever USA
Elisa reader Lamda Germany
Elisa washer Lamda Germany
Eppendrof centrifuge Bio–Hit Finland
Ice bath Lamda Germany ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
RNA Extraction Kit
RNA Extraction Kit
Materials:
Lysis Solution
Washing Solution
Sorbent
RNA–eluent
Green Master Mix Kit
Materials:
1– DNA polymerase enzyme (Taq).
2–dNTPs (400µm dATP, 400µm d GTP, 400µm dCTP, 400µm dTTP).
3–pH 8.3.
DNA Ladder

Materials:
1–Ladder consist of 13 double–stranded DNA ranging in size from 100 to 1500 size bp .
2–Loading Dye which consis of (15% Ficoll, 0.03% bromophenol blue, 0.03% xylene cyanol, 0.4%
orange G, 10mM Tris–HCl (pH 7.5) and 50mM EDTA).
2.2. Methods :
2.2.1 Collection of samples:
2.2.1.1 Stool samples :
A total of (180) diarrhea samples and healthy sample as control (60) from children under 5 years in
Hilla city the center of Babylon province were collected from patients admitted to Babylon
Maternity and Pediatrics Hospital, and Al–Noor Pediatrics Hospital and many of Primary health care
centers during a period extending from November 2016 to April 2017, Demographic data collection
included name ,gender ,age ,weight ,immunization and feeding were collected, stool samples were
collected in sterile screw cap containers for detection of rota virus and intestinal protozoa ,then
storage in deep freeze (–20º C), 10 ml of blood samples were collected

Crohn's Disease In Cow Milk
Briefly, The physiological breakdown of two cow milk proteins casein and lactoglobulin–to amino–
acids is abnormal, forming a powerful opioid, casomorphin. If the formation of the opioid that cause
the brain symptoms but if continued for years will eventually cause permanent brain damage,
creating a window of opportunity to cure autism at an early age. Because cow milk caseins produce
enough opioid to completely remove cow milk and its products from the diet to alleviate the
symptoms. The symptoms are then removed but the children are still ill. Camel milk does not
contain the two caseins responsible for the formation of the opioid and rehabilitates the immune
system, so–doing curing the autism. [9]
Crohn's Disease : Scientific evidence indicates that it is not primarily an autoimmune disease but
rather a bacterial infection caused by Johne's Disease in cows, the bacteria being MAP
(Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis). The symptoms of these cows are identical to those of
persons with Crohn's Disease. It has been established that MAP passes into cow milk and is not
destroyed by pasteurization. The MAP then enters the intestinal tissue as a saprophyte, not creating
any symptoms. A very severe emotional stress activates the MAP and it becomes active in the
intestinal tissue. The reaction of the body is to send antibodies to the intestines but as they can not
pass into the thick tissue they attack the intestines themselves, creating an autoimmune disease.
Camel milk's protective ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scientific publications have shown that camel milk cures both hepatitis B and hepatitis C. The
special fat in camel milk also soothes the liver [31]. Tumors: There are a number of tumors which
can be cured with camel milk, the action is due to the fact that the very active antibodies bind onto
the tumors, killing the tumor calls without damaging healthy tissue. Human antibodies are too big to
do this

Rotavirus Research Paper
Rotavirus Infection, Adult Rotavirus infection is a condition that causes vomiting and diarrhea.
Diarrhea and vomiting can make you feel weak and dehydrated. Dehydration can make you tired
and thirsty, have a dry mouth, and urinate less frequently. There are many different types of
rotaviruses. This infection is passed from person–to–person (contagious). CAUSES This condition
is caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water. This condition may also be caused by
sharing utensils or other personal items with an infected person or by touching a contaminated
surface. RISK FACTORS This condition is more likely to develop in: People with a weak defense
(immune) system. SYMPTOMS Symptoms of this condition may occur 1–4 days

Diarrhea Critical Summary
This critical summary provides a background of why people suffer from diarrhea. It also defines
what diarrhea is. Numerous ways of avoiding and curing Diarrhea for both adult and children will
also be discussed in the summary. Watery feces many times per day, feel like vomiting and
cramping, that is Diarrhea. Although, Diarrhea is not a dangerous symptom when it lasts for a short
period of time, however, it can be hazardous if Diarrhea does not disappear after week 4. More than
100 types of diseases can cause Diarrhea, but most of the time it is because of the poisonous virus.
According to the article, there are two types of Diarrhea, which are acute diarrhea and Chronic
diarrhea. Acute diarrhea is when diarrhea lasts for approximately 1 ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Both types of diarrhea can severely dehydrate one's body. Dehydration can make us have dry skin,
headache, constipation, dizziness, low blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, rapid breathing. Diarrhea can
be caused, as a result of, consuming certain medicines, not being able to digest some specific foods,
some colon issues or it can be created because of the diseases, which impact stomach, small
intestine. Fortunately, there is an abundance of preventative measures for diarrhea such as having
wonderful hygiene, always cook the meat before consuming it and so on. When it comes to children
and babies specifically, they tend to bite their toys which can lead them towards diarrhea. Most of
the time, diarrhea of children is associated with the rotavirus. It is quite a usual virus and it can
multiply quickly. Rotavirus vaccines are the only remedies which can truly defeat the virus, even
though this vaccine is for eliminating the virus, not for curing or preventing diarrhea. Aside from the
rotavirus diarrhea, traveler's diarrhea is the common symptom for travelers who decide to travel to
developing countries. A few actions can be made to avoid this type of diarrhea, which are to not
drink tap water or use it to brush your teeth, restrain

Vaccines Are Really Good For Our Children
More and more in today's generation you hear the debates about whether or not vaccines are actually
doing good for our children. Many people believe that vaccinations lead to greater health risks, such
as ADD, autism, and diabetes. They also believe that the diseases that vaccinations prevent are just
not around anymore, such as polio and small pox. They also believe that a child's immune system
can fight off any disease that vaccinations prevent. Despite what these people believe, they are
wrong. ("Vaccines", 2016) Today 's children are immunized by age 13 against some 16 diseases (or
53 vaccine doses), including measles, mumps, rubella, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping
cough), hepatitis A and B, meningitis, pneumonia, polio, chicken pox, flu, rotavirus and the human
papillomavirus. Most vaccinations are required, such as measles, tetanus, polio. Others are optional,
such as flue, chicken pox, or hpv, although recommend, parents are given the option for those
vaccinations. As harmless as any of these may seem, some of these are life threatening and not
something anyone would want to have. There is no cure for polio. Your body will shut down and
you will weaken, until you lose all muscle function. Tetanus is a serious bacterial disease that affects
your nervous system, leading to painful muscle contractions, particularly of your jaw and neck
muscles. (Mayo clinic staff, 2013) Tetanus can also lead to death. Meningitis is inflammation of
brain and

Anti-Vaxxers: The Evils Of Vaccination
When it comes to anti–vaxxers, I think child abuse. Fear–mongers and false prophets have come
forward to preach about the evils of vaccination and all the harm it is doing to children. When in
reality it is hurting our children by not vaccination them. Anti–vaxxers use a shock and awe
approach, with no credible evidence, they parade around autistic children and claim that their brain
abnormality is caused by the MMR vaccine. All evidence that has come forward to support this has
been debunked. According to the World Health Organization, in the article "10 facts on
immunization" "Over 1 million infants and young children die every year from pneumococcal
disease and rotavirus diarrhea ... these deaths can be prevented through vaccination".
Many

Health Benefits Of Vaccination Procedures
Before vaccines existed, many people were caught ill with nasty, life–threatening diseases that can
be lead to several complications and possibly death. (Department of Public Health, n.d.) You should
always have the required immunisations and needles according to your status. By having the
required immunisations according to your age and gender, you can save yourself from some very
bad diseases and illnesses. Although our bodies generally try to fight these foreign organisms, some
bacteria cannot be fought against by our immune systems. (World Health Organisation, 2016) Do
you want to be the one who is likely to spread a disease of some sort by not having your correct
vaccine?
Getting needles is a vital way to keep yourself safe. The vaccinations ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(World Health Organisation, 2016) Vaccinations combine and react within the immune system to
produce an immune response similar to the disease that is being vaccinated against. The vaccines
given do not cause the disease or put the person given the vaccine anything your body can't fight
against. The vaccination is basically used to 'train' the body how to deal with a disease and try to
prevent it before your body is faced with the real disease. You should always get the vaccine
because in some instances, vaccinations are used to simply to decrease the side effects whereas
waiting to get the disease can be much more risky and

The Effects Of Vaccination On Children And Children
published a controversial study in British journal Lancet where he linked MMR vaccination to
autism. (Should I include what his study was based on and results?) Years later, many other studies
proved it wrong but mistrust of science and mistrust of government is still there (2011). For
example, Phea Paul study stated that there is no evidence that autism is cause by any vaccine and
therefore no reason for parents to deny a child protection in today's vaccines offered (2009). His
study shows that if comparing risks mathematically of death or disability as a result of not
vaccination a child which are small, to the risks of causing an autism spectrum disorder by
immunizing it increases significantly.
Despite the fact, that some people believe that vaccination is bad, majority of the population still
getting vaccinated yearly. One of the diseases children might experience is rotavirus which is major
cause of severe acute gastroenteritis or AGE. Previously it infected nearly every child in United
States by age of 5 years old until "routine rotavirus vaccination on United States infants began in
2006" (245). There were two studies conducted that proved that vaccination protects children from
certain diseases. (name of the study) provided many rated based on their study and it showed that
"rotavirus vaccination had dramatically decreased rates of hospitalization for rotavirus infection
among children in United States countries" (245). The study demonstrated a burden of severe

Cost-effectiveness Analysis of a Rotavirus Immunization...
The "Cost–effectiveness Analysis of a Rotavirus Immunization Program for the United States" was
designed to estimate the economic impact of a national rotavirus immunization program. The
research question and objective of the analysis was to determine if a rotavirus vaccine immunization
program would be beneficial and cost effective. The study is policy relevant because it will
determine if a rotavirus vaccine immunization program is effective enough for implementation and
will assist in setting priorities for policy makers. The conclusions of the analysis will affect
healthcare providers, doctors, hospitals, the vaccine users, and society as a whole.
To cultivate results that illustrate a need for a rotavirus immunization program, decision analysis is
an appropriate method because the decisions are objective rather than subjective, they are more
focused on operations instead of strategy, and they encompass repetition rather than infrequency.
Decision analysis looks to distinguish the most appropriate alternative outcomes and extracts data
that identifies elements of the program that reflect value or disvalue. Additionally, it takes the
viewpoint of the organization when decision–making, opposed to an individual standpoint.
Date included in the study consisted of the number of physician and emergency room visits,
incidence rates, rotavirus infections, mortality estimates, hospitalizations, hospital discharge records,
affected children, and vaccine coverage. The

Rotavirus Vaccines

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