World War Between England And France

World War Between England And France
Throughout the course of human history there are countless manifestations of conflicts that
prolonged decades, let alone centuries. When one first hears of drawn out European conflicts the
foremost one that comes to mind is the Hundred Years War between England and France. However,
the Reconquista, or the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (modern day Spain) fought between
Christians and Muslims, was considerably lengthier, spanning 770 years from 722 at the battle of
Covadonga and ultimately ending in 1492 with the expulsion of Muslim forces from Granada. The
Reconquista began in response to an invasion of the peninsula in April of 711 by the Moors.
Generally the Reconquista is thought to be a 700–year of ideology, "but it would be ... Show more
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These kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, León, Aragon, and Catalan were ruled independently and often
warred against one another, resulting in further fragmentation. This fragmentation affected the
economy of each kingdom also. For example the economy of Castile was based off of the concept of
the Maesta, which were large collectives ruled by noble families who controlled large herds of sheep
in favor of agriculture due to the harsh environment of the plateaus that Castile was situated. This
led to an increased dependency of trade with, "the finest example of these busy plateaus, however, is
in the centre of the Spanish peninsula, the plateau of the two Castiles, Old and New chequered with
roads or rather tracks which were none the less inundated with people on the move, swarming with
caravans of arrieros...They transported anything that could be sold along the way, wheat and salt,
wool and wood, earthenware and pottery from Talavera... to maintain the links between the
peripheral regions of the peninsula which surround it and in places separate it from the sea. It was
this, and not Castile unaided, as has been said which made Spain. This traffic determined and, it
could be said, revealed the basic economy" . Due to the lack of natural resources found in the
plateau regions of the Iberian Peninsula it comes as no surprise that the Reconquista took
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Pelayo
The Christian Realms of Asturias and León
As the Muslim invasion quickly spread across the Iberian peninsula starting in 711, it swallowed up
the former Visigothic landholdings, leaving Christian rule in its wake. This, however, was not to
last, as the Kingdom of Asturias was born. Pelayo, the first Asturian king, has his beginnings
embellished in a myriad of supposed upbrings. Regardless of these many variations, the reputable
historian, Roger Collins, claims that Pelayo had likely been an Asturian noble prior to the Muslim
conquest. Either way, in 718 Pelayo was elected leader of the Asturian people and subsequently
defeated their Muslim rulers at the legendary Battle of Covadonga. Shortly thereafter, Pelayo
married off his daughter, Ermesinda, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
During the year, a conspiracy amongst the sons of Alfonso III resulted in his "forcible deposition,"
and the movement of the capital from Oviedo to León. Under this new Kingdom of León, Ordoño II
expanded east from Castilla into La Rioja, broadening the kingdom's boundaries.
Over the next century, the Kingdom of León prospered, but it was short–lived. In 1030, Sancho III
of Navarre invaded León, leaving Vermudo III with only Galicia. This sudden and massive loss of
land would only last five years until Sancho's death, but after that a far worse fate was in store.
Following the creation of the Kingdom of Castilla in 1035, the new Castillian king, Ferdinand I,
invaded León, killing Vermudo III, and uniting the two kingdoms under his rule.
Only in 1157 did León ever regain its independence, following the death of King Alfonso VII in
1157, who had partitioned his land amongst his two sons. In that same year, Ferdinand II ascended
as the first king of León in over a century. In 1196, though, fearing the threat of Castillian
hegemony, León allied with Navarre and the Muslim Almohads in raids of Castillian territory. This,
however, proved unsuccessful following Almohad unrest in Tunisia, and their subsequent treaty with
the Castilians. Then, in 1224, the Almohad decline reached a peak, resulting in their fall from power
in al–Andalus. With this, León pounced, taking Caceres (1227), Merida

Spanish Inquisition Research Paper
Beig, "Al–Andalus is referred to the territory occupied by the Muslim empire in Southern Spain,
which refer to the cities of Almeria, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordoba, Jaen and Granada"
(p.1). The moors gradually claimed control over the whole of the peninsula but this in turn sparked
the Christian Reconquest Covadonga in 722AD. For the next four hundred years the Christians and
Muslims fought against each other trying to capture then conquer different areas within the
Peninsula. Then finally in 1230 the Christian armies of Castilla, Aragón and Navarra joined forces to
banish the Muslims for good.
The next stage of Spanish history explains how Fernando of Aragón married Isabel of Castile 1469
uniting their kingdoms under the joint rule of a Catholic monarchy. During their reign the monarchs
implemented "The Spanish Inquisition". Research by Pérez (2005) shows that the Spanish
Inquisition was established to eliminate racial differences, "Ferdinand and Isabella wanted a modern
state" (p. 35). The inquisition was meant to force the Jews to convert to Christianity otherwise they
would be tortured or banished.
In 1492, the monarchs subsided Christopher Columbus's voyage to discover the Americas.
Columbus's discoveries lead to the beginning of the Spanish Empire overseas. The influx of new
wealth enabled them to finance a huge army ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This demonstrates the freedom that Spaniards have to believe in their own religious idealism.
Although, religion is not enforced, Spain still flourishes with the traditions that the Catholic Church
used to define their nation. For instance, Holy week is celebrated all over the country to
commemorate the life of Christ. The celebration happens during the last week of lent with street
processions and festivals performed all over the nation, attracting tourists from all over the

Essay on A Comparison of Christian and Islamic...
A Comparison of Christian and Islamic Architecture in Spain
By the 6th century a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths, converts to Arian Christianity, had
established themselves as the aristocratic elite. The Christians built many monumental basilica–plan
churches. The Santa Maria de Quintanilla de las Vinas, Burgos, Spain and San Juan de Banos de
Cerrato are two such churches that still remain today. In the beginning of the 8th century Islamic
Muslims conquered Spain and ended Visigothic rule. They constructed militaristic and religious
architecture including castles, watchtowers, rock castes, the Great Mosque, and the Red Palace. The
remaining Christians adopted some of the Islamic styles and soon built upon a new style that ended
up ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Moors also built atalayas, or watchtowers and rock castles that served as part of the defense
system for the castle. The watchtowers were used as communication devices for castles that were
great distances apart. The watchtowers would signal the castle in case of an enemy attack by using
smoke and mirrors. They built rock castles, or small defense castles high on rocks, using the natural
terrain to the maximum effect. Since the rock castles were small they did not house many soldiers.
Another important Islamic site is situated in Cordoba, southern Spain, along the banks of
Guadalquivir river (the Great River). Cordoba served as the capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba.
Cordoba houses the famous Great Mosque or Gran Mezquita, the largest mosque in the Western
World. The interior of the mosque consisted of a mirhab, a niche that separates the qibla wall from
the others. The mirhab was intentionally positioned facing Mecca for the faithful who prayed in that
direction.
The mosque can be identified by its elaborate squinch–supported domes. The Great Mosque of
Cordoba is one of the finest surviving examples of Umayyad architecture in Spain. The mosque has
marble capitals and columns in the hypostyle prayer hall. A person enters the hall through an open
courtyard called a sahn. Its famous horseshoe arches have an alternated pattern of pale stone and red
brick voussoirs

Essay on The Arabic Invasion
Early history of Islam is marked by a remarkable political will to consolidate the fragmented tribes
of the Arabian Peninsula. Accordingly, it emerged a unified polity and administration, first under
Prophet Muhammad and then the first Caliph Abu Bakr that set the stage for the early Arab
conquests. The conquests continued unabated during the reigns of Caliphs Omar and Othman, and
then by the Umayyads and the Abbasids and other Muslim dynasties that established strong centers
of power in the world. By the 11th century AD, the Islamic society could boast of a number of
cultural and technical centers of leaning with eminent scholars of all the known disciplines of the
time. Thus, when the Arab–Islamic armies invaded distant lands, they ... Show more content on
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The Church was also vibrant but largely in acquiring lands for donor's salvation, to the extent that by
the end of Carolingian era, over one third of the land of Gaul belonged to the church. The Arabic
culture, politics, and economy influenced Europe tremendously. The Arabic conquest of Spain
shows a great example for its succession. The kingdom of "Al Andalus" displayed political
centralism; it became an important location for trade It is also true that conquering armies too are
affected by the culture of the conquered lands. The Abbasid period also witnessed the Muslim
Agriculture Revolution and the Scientific Revolution during the reigns of al–Mansur 9754–775,
Harun Al Rashid 786–809 and Al–Mamun 809–813.Thus, when Crete was conquered in 827 AD,
the Arab civilization was surely at its peak.
Initially, indeed, the Arab society was not an ideal social and cultural set up and the Muslims were
aware of the fact that contemporary civilizations are far superior. To fulfill the requirements of a
developing intercontinental empire they adapted at a large scale. They tried and benefitted liberally
from Babylonian, Hellenic, Roman, Persian, Indian and Egyptian civilizations. The rich heritage
thus gathered was judged and reinterpreted in the light of contemporary demand and they never
shied away from experimenting and upgrading. They updated math to calculate inheritance and
taxes, made innovations in architecture for

The Fall Of The Moors
Name
Class
DR.
Date
The Fall of the Moors In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered the new world. That year also
marked the fall of the Moors (Medieval Muslims). They ruled over the Moor Kingdom of Granada
in the Iberian Peninsula from 711 to 1492, where the three Abrahamic religions lived in peace. In
that year, the battle of Granada caused their great empire to fall. After this battle, Muslims were
forced to convert to Christianity or be expelled from the land. This oppression went to the extent of
forbidding any Islamic acts, behaviors, and scriptures, with violators being prosecuted, which
resulted in unfair and unjust treatment for the Moors in Spain. The Moors arrived at the Iberian
Peninsula in 711 by crossing the Mediterranean Sea near North Africa (Florian 20). Within seven
years, the Iberian Peninsula (which they called Al–Andalus) was almost completely occupied by
these people (De Luca et. al. 5). Moors had control of the majority of Iberian Peninsula, but, in late
718, King Visigoths Pelayo of Alcama, fought against the Moors and defeated them at the battle of
Covadonga. Later on, they were defeated at another battle: the battle of Granada. The unity of Spain
played heavily in this battle. It was between Aragon 's King Ferdinand and Isabella I, the Queen of
Castile. They were married in 1469, soon after which the united forces of both states rose against the
Moors (Florian 183). Their combined forces participated in the Reconquista, which led to the fall of

The Alambra And The Alhambra
After the Umayyad caliphate of Iberia splintered into small kingdoms across modern–day Andalusia
in the eleventh century, al–Andalus witnessed the reigns of three important powers: the Almoravid,
Almohad, and Nasrid dynasties. As each dynasty confronted the gradual encroachment from the
Christian north, most notably with Alfonso VI's conquest of Toledo in 1085. It would be the Nasrid
dynasty (1230–1492) who would ultimately witness the end of Muslim rule in Spain when they
surrendered to Isabella I and Ferdinand II in 1492 at Granada.
As a fortress and a palace, the Alhambra is arguably the most important fixture of Nasrid art and
architecture. The Alhambra, or "The Red One", was built on the remains of Roman fortifications,
just as the Great Mosque of Córdoba had been with spolia. Although the fortress had been built in
the ninth century given its location on a strategic point overlooking the city of Granada, the Nasrid
dynasty transformed the fortress into a royal city under Mohammed I (1238–1273). However, it was
under Yusuf I (1333–1353) and Mohammed V (1353–1391) that the Alhambra was transformed.
Yusuf I in particular emphasized the importance of art, "[beginning] a glorious age of Nasrid
cultural achievement... [under his rule was] where the Alhambra came into full glory" (Drayson 17).
Both rulers augmented the structure with the Alcazaba, the fortress component, and gardens that
would survive even through the brutal Granada War at the end of the fifteenth century.

Islamic Golden Age Research Paper
The Islamic Golden Age is traditionally dated from the mid 7th century to the mid 13th century.
During this time, Muslim rulers established one of the largest empires in history. Artists, engineers,
scholars, poets, philosophers, geographers and traders contributed to the Islamic world with
agriculture, the arts, economics, industry, law, literature,navigation, philosophy, sciences, sociology
and technology. They were able to contribute because they preserved earlier traditions and used
inventions and innovations of their own. Also at this time, the Muslim world became a major
intellectual centre for science, philosophy, medicine and education. In Baghdad, the "House of
Wisdom" was established. It was a place where scholars, both ... Show more content on
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Many classic works of antiquity, that would otherwise have been forgotten, were translated into
Arabic and later in turn translated into Turkish, Sindhi, Persian, Hebrew and Latin. Knowledge was
synthesized from works originating in ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome, China, India, Persia,
Ancient Egypt, North Africa, Ancient Greece and Byzantine civilizations. Rival Muslim Dynasties,
such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of Al–Andalus, were also major intellectual
centres. Cities such as Cairo and Córdoba were rivals Baghdad. The Islamic empire was the first
"truly universal civilization," which brought together for the first time "peoples as diverse as the
Chinese, the Indians, the people of the Middle East and North Africa, black Africans, and white
Europeans." A major innovation of this period was paper – originally a secret tightly guarded by the
Chinese. The art of paper making was obtained from prisoners taken at the Battle of Talas spreading
to the Islamic cities of Samarkand and Baghdad. The Arabs improved upon the Chinese techniques
of using mulberry bark by using starch to account for the Muslim preference for pens vs. the
Chinese for brushes. By AD 900, there were hundreds of shops employing scribes and binders for
books in Baghdad and public libraries began to be

An Essay About The Alhambra
Alhambra, a palace built in Granada, Spain, grew significantly in the 14th century. It was
constructed by the Berbers of the Emirate of Granada in al–Andalus. It is built on a high–leveled
land that overlooks the Granada city. The area where the Alhambra is built is a mountainous region,
where the Nevada Mountains are ascending over the Alhambra palace. The area is known for its
extreme temperature where it can be very cold or extra hot.
The name "Alhambra", whose literal translation is "red fortress", is derived from the color of the
bricks composing the outer walls, which is of made of clay and gravel. Portions were rebuilt in the
Renaissance fashion, and a piece was destroyed to build an "Italianate palace designed by Pedro de
Machuca in 1526".
The Alhambra reflects the culture of the final centuries during the Moorish rule of Al Andalus. It
incorporates extensive gardens– the Generalife. The combination of open spaces, water, constructed
structures, and gardens, signify this palace.
The palaces were built perpendicular to each other and they are centered around a courtyard with
cortices on either side. The Alcazaba (citadel), which is the oldest part, is included in the Moorish
portion of the Alhambra. What remained from the citadel until this day are its enormous outer walls,
ramparts, and towers. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"It's a rounded court enclosed by a low gallery supported by 124 white marble columns". A pavilion
aims into the court at each frontier, where the walls are elegantly ornamented, and the arched roof is
illuminated. The colonnade is covered with white marble, and the square with colored tiles, while
the walls are board up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below of
enameled blue and gold. The columns sustaining the roof and gallery are placed

Short Essay On Medieval Spain
Medieval Spain (Intro)
Medieval Spain started with the arrival of the Visigoths in the late 5th century to the end of the reign
of Ferdinand and Isabella in the 16th century. However, its roots can be traced back to the medieval
countries and kingdoms including Galicia, Leon, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, Catalonia, Valencia,
Murcia, and Granada. These countries all contributed to what has been known as the Spanish
language as well as the country itself.
Medieval Spain and Feudalism
There was quite a debate whether feudalism existed in Spain or not. Historians believed that
feudalism can be traced back to the height of the dark ages, especially when dealing with the history
of Spain. However, English scholars had the tendency of downplaying feudalism ... Show more
These cities served as cultural and administrative centers, where the bishops, kings and government
officials were situated. These cities also had large markets and houses that expanded from a fortified
stronghold across the peninsula. Medieval Spain was also known for its great cities such as
Barcelona, Leon, Granada, etc.
Medieval Spanish Castles
Spain has the most formidable castles in the world. Spain has more than 1000 Spanish castles
recorded through history. The castles were built for various reasons. However, the primary reason
was to stop the Arabs when they invaded Spain in 711. The Spanish built so many of them in fact.
These castles were mostly concentrated in the northern part which was where the Arabs advanced
when they attacked. And when the Spanish military moved to reconquer the peninsula towards the
south, they built additional strongholds to prevent the Arabs from reclaiming Spain. These castles
were known as Castilla.
Medieval Spanish Kings & Queens
The Hispanic–Goth monarchy was the known political and legal monarch that succeeded to Rome
on the peninsula. This was the first effective independent Kingdom in all of Spanish territories. The
crown and leader of the monarch was elected and selected from a particular

Afro-Eurasia Dbq Analysis
How does a single faith survive for almost 1500 years? This is a complex question that could be
answered differently for every religion that has managed to survive that long. However, for Islam, it
is a matter of studying the history of its growth. From its beginnings, Islam was unique and
continued to remain so. It was highly influential to life in Afro–Eurasia and continues to remain
intact today. The establishment of Islam in the seventh century heavily influenced the next
millennium in Afro–Eurasia through the conversion of mass populations, the growth and
standardization of trade, and new scholarly developments. By studying the phases of Islam and the
changes it brought to the age of third wave civilizations, we can begin to understand ... Show more
It grew from a local, oppressed faith that was pioneered by Muhammad and his close family and
friends, to a force that united nations under one of the largest empires that the world had ever seen.
It would have never become what it was without the incorporation of whole populations into the
faith, the unified network of trade it provided, and the scholarly developments it pioneered and
renewed. Without the deliberate conquests of different nations, Islam would not have grown so
rapidly. If Islam had not grown so large, so quickly, the entirety of Afro–Eurasian trade would not
have been so standard and unified. Likewise, if there was no such established network of trade, the
ideas and innovations of Muslim education would not have become so widespread. Therefore, it is
evident that each of these effects of the Islamic faith and its empire needed the others. Without all of
them, Islam would not have been so influential to the history of Afro–Eurasia and would have
produced a very different outcome that would have affected the history of Islam up until

Al Andalus: The Jews In Islamic Spain
The Jews in Islamic Spain: Al Andalus
by S. Alfassa Marks
One of the characteristic features of the early history of Spain is the successive waves of different
people who spread across the Iberian Peninsula. Phoenicians, Greeks, Vandals, Visigoths, Muslims,
Jews, and Christians all occupied Spain at one point or another. History records communities of
Jews living on the Iberian Peninsula from as early as the destruction of the first temple in Jerusalem
(Diaz–Mas 1). But it was during the realm of the Moors in Al–Andalus (land of the vandals) which
the Jews thrived the greatest. Though this was a time of artistic, educational, and cultural
enlightenment, it was not completely serene or without persecution for the Jewish people.
As historians ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A translating program was established in Toledo, using Jews as interpreters. There they translated
the Arabic books into romance languages, as well as Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. This
included many major works of Greek science and philosophy. Jews studied and contributed to
mathematics, medicine, botany, geography, poetry, and philosophy. It was at this time that the study
of Medicine expanded to produce a large number of exceptional Jewish physicians. Islam had its
sway over Jewish cultural life too. In literature, and the arts, the Muslim influence on the Jews is
enormous. Though written in non–Islamic language and script, medieval Hebrew poetry, and much
of the prose literature, belong to the same cultural world as Arabic and other literatures of Islam
(Lewis 81). In the Caliphate of Cordoba [the geographical zenith of Islamic life in Al–Andalus], the
Jewish element became increasingly important, reaching its peak in the tenth century (Diaz–Mas 3).
Jews lived among themselves in a walled area known as the aljama (Jewish quarter). There they
lived among their own administration, and managed their own communal affairs (Epstein 1). There
the Jewish community had their own legal court known as the Beit Din. This court, with Rabbis as
Judges, would render both religious and civil legal opinions pertaining to

Culture In The Middle Ages Essay
Have you ever imagined what it would have been like in the Middle Ages? If you imagined the
Middle Ages, then you'd have to imagine that there were a few different cultures with a few different
religions. This is true. There were three main cultures in the Middle Ages consisting of Muslims,
Jews, and Christians. But each culture made different decisions, and each decision lead to a different
outcome. Overall, the Muslims gained the most because they made the wisest decisions. Jews had
hardly any decisions to make because they were always a minority, which means that they were
always being controlled, so they suffered the most. Christians were always deciding to try and take
control over everything, they wanted to be at the top, so they ... Show more content on
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The culture that gained the most in the Middle Ages were the Muslims because when they took over
all of Spain, they gained all of its benefits, including land, control over the people living in there
(Jews and Christians), and bathhouses with warm water to soak in. The culture that suffered the
most in the Middle Ages were the Jews because they were always at the bottom of the social class,
they never had a choice in what they wanted to do because they were always being controlled by
either the Christians or the Muslims. The culture that caused the most Cultural Division were the
Christians because they were ones who began all of the war and fighting. They did this by first,
persecuting the Jews and forcing them to convert to Christianity, be enslaved, or die. After that, the
Christians wanted to purify all of Spain of Cultural Diffusion. Lastly, because of their intolerance for
Muslims, the Christians decided to start a Crusade. A Holy War against all Muslims. Overall, one
could conclude that the Muslims gained the most, besides the fact that all of their history books were
burned, the Jews suffered the most, even though the Muslims offered them weaponry and protection,
and the Christians caused the most Division, in spite of the fact that they developed an integrated
culture in Al

Abbasid Research Paper
The Abbasids had rebels within their group, which made their hold of their lands looser. This is
evident when Hindu rulers try to reconquer parts of the lower Indus valley. Land and sea travel was
slow and dangerous for people. Most people kept regional identities instead of to the caliph. Their
military technology was equal or even less than the enemy's. Over time, the leadership quality
worsened, and the caliphs were no longer frugal but began to buy luxurious items. These luxuries
cost them the future, and resources were decreasing from less territory. Women's rights regressed
even further as they were kept to men and confined. When wealth grew, so did the demand for
slaves that were mostly captured or purchased. The slaves' worth was based ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
There was even a brahman–inspired attempt to assassinate him, but Harsha's preference of
Buddhims over Hinduism strengthened. Muhammad ibn Qasim led over 10,000 horse– or camel–
mounted warriors to Sind from India and declared the Sind interior and the Indus valley to be
Umayyad provinces. The new caliph in Damascus was Hajjaj's–the Umayyad viceroy of eastern
provinces–enemy. He killed Hajjaj as well as execute his son–in–law, Muhammad ibn Qasim, after
disowning him. Islam did little to change life in India. Many converted to Islam. Of these, the most
converts included low–castes, outcastes, Buddhists, and some animists. A Muslim community was
eventually established in India, although most of the population still remained Hindu, even with the
Sufi mystics. Islam spread to Southeast Asia through trade from India, where they had contact with
Sufi mystics. Conversions in Southeast Asia were especially made after the fall in the 13th century,
when the pious Buddhist trading empire, Shrivijaya, fell, allowing them to convert to Muslim like
other traders and

Early Interactions between Muslims, Jews, and Christians...
When it comes to the modern relationship that Islam shares with both Christianity and Judaism, it is
not difficult to recognize mutual hostility. Islamic extremism has been gradually dominating the
Western perception of Muslims–in the midst of this, the World Trade Center attacks could only
exacerbate the situation. On that account, it was no surprise when these hostile attitudes were
unmistakably revealed during the "Cordoba House" mosque controversy at which point in 2010, it
was proposed that a mosque dubbed the Cordoba House be established near ground zero. Sure
enough, the proposition was met with overwhelming opposition and rebuke (Barbaro). Most of the
country objected to the mosque while many of those with more personal experiences ... Show more
The Umayyads started out as one of the elite clans of Mecca who at first rejected Muhammad's
divine revelations (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien). However, Muhammad utilized his resources
and quickly grew a strong following, organizing them into the Umma, an Islamic family "that
transcended the old bonds of tribe and clan" (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien). As his support
proliferated, his opposition dwindled and increasingly converted to Islam. In 629, with 10,000
warriors at his command, Muhammad marched onto Mecca and quickly conquered it with few
casualties. The elite Meccan clans–the Umayya among them–were swiftly rehabilitated into the
Umma, much to the chagrin of Muhammad's earliest followers.
The Umayya remained a powerful clan as Islam spread under Muhammad and, after his death in
632, his two successors, or caliphs–successors of the Prophet. Still, the clan's power had far from
peaked. After the death of Umar, the second caliph, a member of the Umayya became his successor:
Uthman ibn Affan (Kishlansky, Geary and O'Brien). Uthman, however, was quickly murdered
because he privileged the Meccan elite over the early converts. Shaken by his death, the Umma
charged the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as being complacent with Uthman's murder. Eventually
Ali himself was murdered by the Umayyad's supporters, giving rise to an Islamic state ruled by the
Umayya, the Umayyad Caliphate, where the Islamic

Tension And Legitimacy : Politics
Tension and Legitimacy: Politics' Effect on Religious Tolerance in al–Andalus In this paper, the
following question will be answered: "What was the main factor that influenced the degree of
religious tolerance or oppression by Berber rulers in al–Andalus during the years 1094 –1248?" In
particular, this question will be examining the treatment of dhimmis, or "protected people," which is
to say Christians and Jews by Almoravid and Almohad rulers. In addition, this paper will address the
practice of labeling those who were perceived to be bad Muslims as kafir and how this label was
used by the Almohad Movement in order to delegitimatize the ruling Almoravid dynasty and
conquer their territory, while at the same time used to reenforce ... Show more content on
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The Almoravids' origins can be described as awash with religious zeal, and it is this zeal, which
motivated them to come to the aid of the Muslim states of al–Andalus when called upon. The main
driving factor behind the Almoravids' foreign policy can be described as a pushing back against an
expanding Christian Iberia, which set the stage of religious tension after the Almoravids established
a permanent presence in the peninsula. The aforementioned desperate appeals from Muslim states in
al–Andalus, peppered with religious rhetoric and appeals, spurred the Almoravid intervention during
the Reconquista. They would later use this intervention as a means to spread their strict
interpretation of Maliki law, which, in a sense, was their religious mission. Christians in al–Andalus
began to take on conflicting roles. From a political standpoint, the Christians were the people of the
enemy, while, from a religious standpoint, they were people who were afforded protection under
Maliki law. Conversely, since there were no extant Jewish states to fight the Almoravids, less
religious tension developed between the two religions during the Almoravid period, although that
does not necessarily mean that they were treated fairly. Jews were forced to pay the standard
protection tax, or Jizya, which guaranteed their status as dhimmis. While, on the other hand

Muslim Influences In Spain
When you think of Spain you usually associate it with Catholicism, grand churches and architecture
along with Ferdinand & Isabella. Rarely do most people know of the Jewish and Muslim influences.
However, the history of Spain encompasses all three religions, interacting with one another for
centuries, more so than most other geographical locations. I myself was able to experience this first
hand during my time in southern Spain, witnessing forgotten Jewish communities and Islamic
buildings repurposed for Christianity. It is an insight that is essential. In fact, understanding the
intricate relationship these three had during this period could help today's society realize how vital it
is that we embrace each other's differences and learn from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Under this Christian rule, the three religions experienced a period similar to what was seen in Al–
Andalus. When Christian forces took Toledo, they found immense libraries full of text from Muslim
and Jewish authors and instead of burning the, they keep them and use them to learn (Cities of
Light, 58:32). In fact, Toledo became the center of translation, with people of all religions working
together. These translations were sent into Europe for all to learn, one in particular is Paris, which
was able to have these translations of works such as Aristotle (Menocal, 155). After the Christian
armies had taken Cordoba, positive relationships were still apparent as Muslim and Jewish
craftsman, such as ceramics and tanning, were allowed to stay and practice in the conquered cities
(Cities of Light, 1:24:44). The Jews specifically lived in the Urban centers with limited issues due to
their superior skills in business needs (Cities of Light, 1:25:41 – 1:26:20). The Christians realized
the tools and skills that the people of Al–Andalus possessed and realized that regardless of religious
views, they were needed so that they could not only benefit from them, but also learn. However, it
was not a perfect relationship amongst all. Under Alphonso X, a master code of laws was enacted.
These laws allowed Jewish property to be confiscated, Jewish officials to be jailed if deemed
necessary, and even enacted public lashings to Jews not wearing identifying clothing. Some laws
were even more appalling, such as death to anyone who converted to Judaism or Islam. Be that as it
may, Alphonso X epitomized the time in Spain, as his laws also gave some privileges to the
Mudejars, Muslims living under Christian rule (Cities of Light, 1:28:30 –

Speech And Speech: The Golden Age Of Islam
Purpose
At the end of my speech, the audience will have a clear view of the most important achievements of
the "Islamic golden age".
Introduction
At the beginning of the 8th to the 13th century, a new era has emerged and placed a stamp in the
Islamic history that is called "the golden age of Islam", throughout which the Islamic history was
ruled by various important caliphates where many scientific, economical, and cultural developments
took place. The Abbasid caliph Harun Al–Rashid was the ruler during that time (786 to 809) with
the existence of House of wisdom in Baghdad, all the researchers from around the world with
different backgrounds and knowledge gathered to translate the traditional information into Arabic
language.
The main ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Muslim engineers also created crankshafts and water turbines which worked for the better
techniques of extracting natural resources like water and fossil fuels, they also established the use of
dams as sources of water power. These advances replaced the manual tasks that were previously
made by labor with machinery in Islamic world. An uprising industrial growth also emerged to
Europe after these technologies were transferred to

The Puritanical Bans Introduced By The Almohads
In addition to the puritanical bans introduced by the Almohads, the movement also subjected the
dhimmi population to violence. Going further than the Almoravids, the Almohads were responsible
for massacres and forced conversions of Jews and Christians alike, driving them into Christian
Iberia. By 1200, the indigenous Christian inhabitants of al–Andalus had, for the most part, been
forcibly converted or rooted out. The only Christians left in the area were prisoners of war,
mercenaries, and merchants. To emphasize the severity of the treatment of the dhimmis by the
Almohad rulers, in 1224, an Almohad chronicler, al–Marrakushi, made the claim that, "No pact of
protection has been signed between us and the Jews or the Christians since the rise of Almohad
power." It was not only the Christians who were persecuted by the Almohad movement, as Jews
were also the object of abject discrimination. In addition to his previous statement, al–Marrakushi
also noted that "In all the regions of the west there are no synagogues or churches." The Almohads
under Caliph Yaqub (1194–1199) became increasingly paranoid about crypto–Judaism in Jewish
families which had converted to Islam. Such was his paranoia and contempt for these families that
he demanded that they put on a humiliating garb consisting of black clothing with sleeves that
reached all the way down to the wearer's ankles in addition to a hat with ear–flaps. It was in this
manner that the Jewish ethnicity was discriminated against

Muslim Spain (711-1492)
Over a thousand years ago, Europe experienced one of its greatest periods of cultural
enlightenment.Islam in Spain has had a fundamental presence in the culture and history of the
nation. The religion was present inmodern Spanish soil from 711 until 1492 under the rule of the
Arabs and Moors of al–Andalus.Islamic Spain was a multi–cultural mix of the people of three great
monotheistic religions: Muslims,Christians, and Jews.For more than three centuries in Medieval
Spain, Muslims, Jews and Christians lived together and prospered in a thriving multicultural
civilization. Here, remarkable individuals of different faiths made lasting contributions in such areas
as poetry, art, architecture, music, dining etiquette, science, agriculture, ... Show more content on
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Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Straight of 'Gibraltar' at first with the sole intention of avenging king
Roderic for the crime he committed. However, because of the weakness of the kingdom due to civil
war, Tariq opted to continue his occupation of Roderic's entire empire. Another theory for the
occupation by the Arab Muslims of Spain is that because of their persecution, the Jews called upon
their contacts in North Africa, who in turn encouraged the able Arabs to capture Spain. This allowed
the Almoravids and the Almohads to establish themselves in Spain.Nevertheless, without a doubt,
the Jews supported and welcomed Muslims in Spain because they were great beneficiaries under
Muslim rule. Rule The majority of the Army as well as commander Tariq himself were not Arab but
Islamic Berbers, and in timeIslamic migrants from places as diverse as North Africa to Yemen and
Syria came to live in the Iberian peninsula.The Islamic rulers called the Iberian peninsula "Al–
Andalus", which some say means "Paradise." That was the rootfor the name of the present–day
region of Andalusia, the southernmost region of Spain. For a time, the area that is today Spain and
Portugal was one of the great Muslim civilizations, reaching its summitwith the Umayyad Caliphate
in the 10th century.Muslim Spain was not a single period, but a succession of different rules.
Muslim Spain had the following chronological phases: The Emirate

The Spanish Reconquista
Spain has always been a melting pot of ethnicity and culture. From the Celts and Visigoths that
came from the north to the Africans and Arabs from the south to the Romans from the East, empires,
kingdoms, and tribes all over the world have recognized and tried to take advantage of the benefits
of Spain. War, conquest, and reconquest are frequent throughout the entire history of Spain, and the
history of Moors in Spain is no exception. It began in the year 711 when the Moors first crossed
over to the Iberian Peninsula, until their expulsion from Granada in 1492 which marks the end of the
Reconquista, they influenced the native Iberians in many ways including culture and religion. The
Moors were people of Berber, Black African, and Arab ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Christians and Jews were heavily taxed for the right to practice their own religions. Those who
converted to Islam, however, paid lesser taxes and had more privileges. Around 718, Pelagius, a
Visigoth nobleman, established an independent Christian state in opposition to the Moorish
dominance in Spain. Due to his opposition of Muslim control, Pelagius and a group of 30–some men
were exiled and lived in a cave, refusing to pay taxes and harassing the Moors. Between 718 and
722, Pelagius and his small band of warriors fought and triumphed against the Moors at the Battle of
Covodonga. This is considered the beginning of the Spanish Reconquista. The Reconquista was a
period of around 774 years where the Christian kings reclaimed the Iberian Peninsula from the
Islamic Moors. The Reconquista was not carried out by the Spanish alone, however. King
Charlemagne of France reclaimed the western Pyrenees and formed the Marca Hispanica to defend
the border between the Frankish Kingdom and the Muslims. Christians from all over Europe
traveled to the Iberian Peninsula to participate in the reclaiming of Spain in the name of God. The
Reconquista was not all war and conquest, but also the re–population of Christians on the peninsula.
As the Berbers abandoned towns and fortresses, the Christian kings took their people and re–
inhabited those areas. In some places, Christian peasants, monks, and nobles were granted lands by
their king or lord to

The Theory Of ' Convivencia ' Between Christians And Muslims
Is the theory of 'convivencia ' between Christians, Jews and Muslims in Iberia convincing in the first
four centuries after 711?
4243296
Word Count: 1904
The theory of 'convivencia' between Christians, Jews and Muslims is considered to be the period in
Medieval Spain in which the three Abrahamic religions were able to coexist and live together
peacefully. The notion of convivencia not only refers to the overall tolerance of Christians and Jews
to be able to practice their religion in Al–Andalus, it also incorporates the idea of members of these
three faiths sharing a common culture, a language and working towards advancing civilisation
through poetry, literature and science. Historians who have studied this issue are largely divided on
whether this time period really was as harmonious as it is commonly described. Historians such as
Bat Ye'or highlight the lack of convivencia by placing emphasis on how leaders of Al–Andalus
would enforce rules such as granting non–Muslims with the status of dhimmi, essentially making
them second–class citizens which by today's standards would undoubtedly lead to the theory of
convivencia being somewhat unpersuasive. However, relative to this era, Islamic Iberia was the apex
of religious tolerance, immensely surpassing the level of tolerance in surrounding nations and
empires. Montgomery Watt goes as far to say that under Muslim rule, Jews and Christians were
considered as "People of the Book" who were to be a

Spain And Spanish Culture
When examining any culture, pieces of other ideologies and cultural normalities different than the
foremost culture prevail, intertwining different cultures together. Spain, historically, has been known
to be a passing point for a wide variety of religious groups. During the ancient world, Christian,
Muslim, and Jewish peoples coexisted, each ultimately contributing to Spanish culture. Starting
around 701 C.E., Muslim forces began to expand into areas around the Middle East, gradually
broadening this land mass to reach Spain. Initially, Arab invaders were met with vigorous resistance;
however, as time went on, invaders experienced little opposition, allowing them to reap city after
city. Within the newly Arab–conquered cities, other religious groups faced little discrimination.
Additionally, this conquest established the ever–present influence of Islam on Spanish culture. In
this case, Spain adopted Islamic cultural innovations such as: forms of writing, religious aspects,
architectural styles, and materials supplied for said architectural innovations. Trailing into the
modern world, traces of Islamic culture are evidently intertwined into Spanish culture. Due to
Spain's rich history in interweaving cultures, it can be said that Spanish culture is intensely
influenced by Islamic culture through the invasion of Arab military in medieval time, visually
retaining influence through culture, religion, and architecture.
At the beginning of the early 700s, Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula began their conquest by
convincing nearby Germanic tribes to surrender; though it was not until they travelled across the
Straits of Gibraltar and attacked around 711 that their expansion truly began. As stated earlier, other
religious groups within Muslim Spain faced little discrimination. This impartial society could be
explained by the Treaty of Tudmir. This treaty promised that "[Christians] will not be coerced in
matters of religion, their churches will not be burned, nor will sacred objects be taken from the
realm" (Treaty of Tudmir). Islamic forces continued their invasion and took control of Zaragoza,
Spain by 714 C.E. In an opportunity to encourage his men, Tarik, a leader in the conquest of Spain
wrote: "attack this

Cultural Diffusion In The Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages there were three cultures, one gained, one suffered, and one started the Crusades
because of greed, fear and intolerance. The first culture that gained the most in the Middle Ages
were the Muslims because In Unity, O'Roark and Wood stated that "Abd al–Rahman III allowed
cultural diffusion by allowing for growth of knowledge in agriculture, text" (O' Roark and Wood)
also Muslim, "The Caliph Al Andalus identified ways to bring cultural diffusion to his land, by
building monuments, pristine architecture, enormous economic expansion, allowing lots more
money. His palace was open with arches everywhere, the gardens were lush and part of the
decoration. The rooms were filled with gifts from around the world." (O'Roak and Wood). The
evidence collected consistently supports the assumption of the Muslim towns having functioning
bathhouses with WARM water to soak in. Lastly Abd al– Rahman hires a Jewish scholar, Ibn Sharut,
to be an ambassador and his personal physician. This man cured Top Rahman, Top Rahman trusted
him implicitly. Ibn Shaprut also worked with Byzantine men and Eastern Monks to decipher what
medicinal books said because they were written in Greek and Latin. But some may also argue that
the Muslims suffered greatly during the Crusade leaving devastation everywhere because they
attacked Spain (Al–Andalus) causing cultural division between German Visigoths (Christians) and
Muslims because the Muslims also won the war against the Visigoths.

The Ottoman And The Aztec Empire
Comparative Essay The post–classical era in history (600CE– 1250CE) saw the rise and fall of
many great empires. In the early part of the era, the Islamic Caliphates acted as a core region in the
Middle East, heavily influencing the region around them. On the other side of the world, the Aztec
Empire rose to power in the later part of the era with minimal trans–regional influence. Although on
different sides of the world, both empires found similar ways to adapt to their diverse environments.
In the post–classical era, the rise of the Islamic Caliphates and the Aztec Empire were similar in that
they established cohesion through their respective cultures and used military conquest to come to
power. Although there are similarities in the rise of power in the Caliphates and the Aztec Empire,
there is a difference in the speed of expansion given that the Caliphates were located in a central
trading region while the Aztec Empire was not.
Both the Caliphates and the Aztec Empire show a similarity in how each used their cultures to
achieve cohesion among their respective empires. In the Caliphates, Islamic culture helped unite the
population while Aztec ritualistic culture unified the ethnically diverse peoples of the Aztec Empire.
Islamic culture unified much of the region under Umayyad and Abbasid rule. As Islamic merchants
and missionaries spread Islam to the people, forms of Islamic culture spread with them. Islamic art,
sciences, maths, medicine, architecture, Islamic

The Culture Of Spain And Spain
The following is an overview of the culture of Spain.
1. Values and attitudes
Family, including extended family is extremely important in Spanish culture and is the basis of
society. Families provide a social and sometimes financial support network. Increased individualism
is having its effect, however, as families become less close, family size decreases and a respect for
personal preference decreases the frequency of people working for their family businesses (Spain –
Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette).
General manners and customs
Spanish culture is unique in Europe, but similar enough for people to easily adapt. In Spain, men
greet each other with handshakes or hugs and women greet everyone with a kiss on both cheeks
(Spain – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette). People verbally greet strangers in places like
elevators, shops, lockers rooms, etc. (Hendr). Dress is more formal in Spain and shorts are not
usually worn in public (Priest). When dining, it is important to keep both hands visible on the table
and use utensils to eat most things (Spain – Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette).
3. Business–specific manners and customs
Spaniards conduct their business very personally. They prefer face–to–face contact and like to
engage in small talk to get to know the other party before beginning a business relationship. They
tend to only do business with people that have earned their trust (Spain – Language, Culture,
Customs and Etiquette). Conducting business

The Spanish Military Hospital Museum
Recently, I visited the Spanish Military Hospital Museum in St. Augustine. Even though there are
many cultures and co–cultures involved in my experience I will focus mostly on the Spanish culture
and its position in the hospital. The Spanish Military Hospital includes three small buildings
Hospital East, Hospital West, and the William Watson House which was also the apothecary. When I
visited we went in the William Watson House, because the other two locations were destroyed in a
fire. The hospital served military personnel only and used Spanish methods to adhere to their sick.
While touring the museum many artifacts such as a pill roller, iron bells, ophthalmic speculum,
herbs and many other tools were viewed and discussed. During my tour I viewed three rooms and
the herb garden of the small hospital. One room specifically called the "mourning room" is where
soldiers just rested until there death. Another room housed six to eight beds were soldiers rested
while they recovered from there surgery. At this time period germ theory or anesthesia had not been
developed yet so survival after surgery was risky. Most hospitals had a 30% – 40% survival rate but
the Spanish military hospital had a 60% – 70% survival rate based on their Spanish tactics. For
example when dressing the wound the Spanish used a lynch mixture made out of cotton and corn
flour. This form of wound dressing was more efficient and cleaner than other wound dressings
during this period. Also the Spanish changed

How Did Byzantine Architecture Influence The Islamic Empires?
Before Muslim rulers came to power, people such as Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews were already
living in Arab lands. Two great Empires that were in power were the Byzantine Empire and the
Sassanian Empire. These societies had already established their own arts and architecture. When
Muhammad received revelations from the angel Gabriel, he began to create the Muslim umma
(community). After his death in 632, the four rightly guided caliphs ruled the umma. In their rules,
these caliphs began to extend the Islamic Empire. As they acquired more territories, they adapted
new styles of arts and architecture and were influenced by the societies they conquered. The website
simply calls it "Islamic Art" while the museum uses the long name " Art of ... Show more content on
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According to the Quran, "O believers, wine and arrow–shuffling, idols and diving–arrows are an
abomination, some of Satan's work; then avoid it (79 Art and Artistic Taste)." While there was
nothing in the Quran that stated the punishment of artwork, some hadiths claimed that only god can
create living things and it is not within the power of humans. But other scholars argued otherwise
and drawing of living things continued to exist in the Islamic Empire. At the same time, it is
important to take into account that the prophet Muhammad broke the idols from Ka'ba but kept the
picture of Mary and Jesus. If Muslims followed the Sunna then drawings of humans should not be
forbidden. I do not all the art is Islamic, but I think it depends on who is the audience. For example,
a secular Muslims might not see a problem in all the sculptors and figural representations of the arts
and view it as Islamic, but an orthodox Muslim might forbid the figural representations and only
consider the geometries, calligraphy and vegetal designs as Islamic. I don't believe all the art is
Islamic because I grew up knowing figural representations was forbidden in my religion, and
therefore would consider most of the arts as non–Islamic. Moreover, it cannot be all Islamic because
before the Muslims took over the land, cultures already existed. These cultures influenced the
livelihood of the

History of the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba
Beautiful, magnificent, fascinating, breathtaking, and incredible are some of the words that describe
the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The Mosque is also known as the Mezquita, the Mosque–Cathedral
of Córdoba, or the Cathedral of the Assumption of Our Lady. The mosque is considered one of the
monumental jewels of Islamic civilization. In addition, it is one of the largest mosques in the entire
world measuring about 24,000 square meters. The mosque was not all built at once, its construction
lasted from 784 AD to 987 AD. First, Emir Abd ar–RahmanI began the construction of the mosque
in the year 784, on a site that was originally home to Roman temple of Janus and Visigothic church
of St Vincent. In the years 822 AD to 852 AD, Abd ar–Rahman II added an arm bone of Prophet
Mohammed, an original copy of Quran, and increased the size of the Mosque. Then, Abd ar–
Rahman III added a new minaret in the beginning of 9th century. Following Abd ar–Rahman III, Al–
Hakam II magnified the mosque and enhanced the mihrab in the year 961. Finally, Al–Mansur Ibn
Abi Aamir enlarged it further through the addition of the orange tree courtyard and the outer aisles
in the year 987. As a result, this mosque turned Cordoba into a kind of paradise on earth where the
Mosque symbolizes heaven. At its zenith, this mosque was the center of western Islam. The Great
Mosque is a forest of stone columns that seem to go on forever. The effect is disorientating like a
vast hall of mirrors where the worshiper

The Siege Of Baghdad: The Islamic Golden Age
The siege of Baghdad is a turning point in world history. This single event ended the Islamic golden
age, many buildings were destroyed, but after their invasion the city became an economic center and
religious affairs flourished.
The siege on Baghdad by the Mongols marked the end of the Islamic golden age. How? The
Mongols sacked Baghdad, committing numerous atrocities and destroyed the Abbasids' vast
libraries, including the House of Wisdom. The Mongols executed Al–Musta'sim and massacred
many residents of the city, which was left greatly depopulated. This siege is considered to mark the
end of the Islamic Golden Age, during which the caliphs had extended their rule from the Iberian
Peninsula to Sindh, and which was also marked by many

The Islamic Storming Of Spain
The Islamic storming of Spain was a tempestuous and conflicted time in history. Today it is often
portrayed by historians as a battle of good versus evil; a forfeiting of an ebullient culture that
diminished at the hand of Abd Al–Raḥmān 's Muslim–led army that began infiltrating Spain from
North Africa in AD 711. However, what ensued thereafter was a convergence of great knowledge,
trade innovation, and hydraulic technology that had not existed in the region before Islamic arrival.
The idealistic "garden of paradise" came closer to reality with the rich climatic environment of
Spain and the fabric of knowledge handed down from the Islamic world of the Moors. Upon the
arrival of the Moors, who were essentially Muslims from North Africa, ... Show more content on
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Most of Europe, especially that of which was under Christian rule, was very skeptical of pagan texts
of the ancient Greeks and Romans and never came to study these writings due to discrimination.
Muslims, however, did not ignore these valuable teachings and strove to find new knowledge within
other cultures and societies. Much of Greek knowledge stems from the ancient Egyptians, the bulk
of it being preserved at the Library of Alexandria. During the Muslim occupation of Alexandria,
they had direct access to this elusive bank of knowledge and translated large amounts of books into
Arabic, including the bible. From this, Islamic society tapped into a great understanding of the world
around them and eventually brought this rich knowledge with them to the al–Andalus. Among
theses teachings, Muslims had a great understanding of irrigation and hydraulic systems passed on
from the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, which would become a great asset to their
success in agriculture, landscaping, and gardening in Spain ("Al–Andalus History"). Virtually barren
lands of the Iberian Peninsula became flourishing centers of agriculture through the implementation
of hydraulic and irrigation technology of the Muslims, thus bringing great wealth and power to the
region through trade. Plants including palm trees, citrus, avocado, and pomegranate, none of which
had been seen in Europe before, became bountiful in al–Andalus

Religious Tolerance In Medieval Spain
In a post September 11th broadcast, Osama bin Laden's deputy describes the intermingling of
various religions as "the tragedy of al–Andalus." This reference highlights the overly romanticized
characterization of religious tolerance in medieval Spain. Aptly known as La Convivencia, "the
coexistence" in English, this period is noted by as a time of flourishing social, cultural, and
economic advancement for the major religious groups residing in Spain. Although true in many
ways, the notion that it was a time of extreme tolerance is a severe exaggeration, as is seen by the
mistreatment and exile of Jews and Christians from Andalusia. Despite cases of non–Muslims rising
to positions of authority, non–Islamic groups in Andalusia faced great discrimination ... Show more
In ORNAMENT OF THE WORLD, María Rosa Menocal supports the idea of religious tolerance,
stating "It was there the profoundly Arabized Jews rediscovered and reinvented Hebrew; there that
Christians embraced nearly every aspect of Arabic style." (chapter 1) This is problematic for a
number of reasons. First, that it is an overarching and simplified assessment of the situatuion.
Menocal proves this point by highlighting events such as the massacre of Jews in Grenada in 1066
by a mob of Muslim individuals. This contradiction shows that given that such incidences were still
taking place, Andalusia was by no means a utopia of religious intolerance, and some attitude of
discrimination or tension existed amongst the cohabiting groups. Even if you do believe that these
groups were coexisting at a more tolerant level, there are several concessions that Menocal fails to
make that are essential in terms of scholarly analysis. The first being that even if certain actions such
as taxation and differing clothing for non–Islamic peoples should be viewed only within the
confines of limited social and symbolic actions rather than as systematic discrimination, is this still
perhaps an effort on the part of the Islamic governing body to make assimilation more enticing? Just
as in Hellenistic cities special privileges were meant to encourage non–Hellenistic groups to
assimilate to their conquerers' culture, is this not the same in many ways? Regardless, how can such
actions not directly be seen as discrimination or an attempt to encourage assimilation by
incentivizing conversion? It is clearly evident from first person accounts and laws from the period
that groups were in face

Aztec Architecture Description
The history of Andalucía ranges from shifts in landownership over a span of many years. Located in
the southwestern part of Spain, Andalucía is comprises of the Iberian Peninsula. Land was being
conquered and re–conquered over the years. With the change in control of the land, palaces were
being constructed for the royalty. The Alhambra was constructed during the time of the Nasrid
dynasty. Located in what is now Granada, the Alhambra stretches across one full mile. It is one of
the most primary examples of Islamic architecture in the world, forming a fortress and a palace at
the same time.
Before construction of the Alhambra, land control shifted. In 550 BC the Carthaginians conquered
the area and named Elybirge. Early Iberian settlements inhabited the waterfront area by the Darro
River and expanded. In the 6th century the Visigoths took control until the Moors took control in the
8th century. The area would continue to change ownership within coming centuries, from the
Carthaginians to the Romans to the Visigoths, until Moorish civilizations would found the city we
now know as Granada. By the year 711 BC, the Muslim Empire began to overtake most of Spain.
The city of Granada was under control of the Moors. The city was the center of the expanding
Moorish Empire in southern ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In terms of dimension the room is a perfect square, about 40ft by 40ft. There is a central dome
ceiling that is about 70 feet high. This was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan
was placed opposite the entrance. The royalty would welcome their guests in this area. The space
served as a waiting room for the guests. The grand hall projects from the walls of the palace,
providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was a "mirador" from which the palace's
inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape of the

The Rise Of Islam, And Its Subsequent Diffusion Across...
Islam is thought to be the religion of the people, whatever race or background they might be
(Haghnavaz, 2013). The rise of Islam began circa 613CE, when the Islamic prophet Muhammad,
began to spread the word of the revelations God (Allah) gave to him. From the cities of Makkah in
the Arabian desert, the message of Islam spread with great speed. Within half a century since the
Prophet Muhammad's death, the message of Islam had risen in 3 continents (Haghnavaz, 2013). The
aim of this essay is to discover what factors contributed to the rise of Islam, and its subsequent
diffusion across Eurasia. In discovering what factors have contributed to the rise of Islam and its
succeeding diffusion across Eurasia, we have looked into economic, ... Show more content on
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It was the Silk Road which, according to legend, led a delegation into China inviting the emperor to
embrace Islam (Jones‐Leaning & Pratt, 2012). The Arab overthrow of Central Asia was an extensive
military takeover which was followed by forced religious conversions (Liu, 2011). According to
Islamic empires, the Arab takeover of Central Asia was an extension of the victory of the Sasanian
Empire (Liu, 2011). Islam thrived during the harsh but religiously tolerant Mongol Yuan dynasty.
While in todays society Muslims can be found in any rural or urban centre throughout China, in
earlier times they were settled in more distinct areas. During the Tang and Song dynasties, the areas
with the major Muslim capital were those on the south–eastern coast and, in the Ming dynasty,
Nanjing became a "major centre of Islamic learning" which from Nanjing, Islam teachings spread
even more (Jones‐Leaning & Pratt, 2012). As the spread into Asia came through a trading route,
trade is thought to be a crucial role in Islam's rise.
Evidence of Islamic trade has been found across Europe, through the findings of Islamic coins
(Mitchiner, 1987). From the 10th century onwards, the Arab merchants becoming more important
than Persians when it came to long distance trade (Deoliya, 2013). A number of factors stemming
from Mongolian unrest led to the replacement of a direct long distance trade route

Will The Abbasids Do Better Or Better Than Umayyads?
Will the Abbasids rule do better or worse than Umayyads? Or will the Abbasids fall without
success? The Umayyads were disfavored by the Muslims because they were more government
leaders than religious leaders. In the following paragraphs, the Abbasids' rise, tactics for expansion,
and the fall will be discussed. In 750 A.D., the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, which
is how the rise of the Abbasids started. How the Abbasids ruled compared to the Umayyads didn't
change, so the Muslims weren't very happy. The Abbasids promoted Sunnis more than the Shiites.
Non–arabs were welcomed by Al–Mansur. So the Muslim court was influenced by Persian cultures
as the empire began to expand. Damascus was the old capital as the Abbasids moved

Arnold Palmer Hospital And Surgery Environment
Arnold Palmer Hospital in Orlando is one of the top hospitals in the country for children. They have
received numerous awards over the years and consistently rank in the top 50 pediatric hospitals in
the United States. Arnold Palmer Hospital was recently recognized by U.S. News & World Report
and received the following rankings:
#31 in Urology
#39 in Orthopedics
#45 in Gastroenterology and Gastrointestinal Surgery
#45 in Diabetes and Endocrinology
#48 in Cardiology and Heart Surgery
In addition to their focus on providing the best medical services possible to their patients Arnold
Palmer Hospital has also reviewed their internal inventory processes and implemented Just in Time
and Lean inventory strategies. This has allowed them to operate at a much more efficient and cost
effective level.
Being able to apply these methods to the hospital and surgery environment is a great example of
how JIT can be used in non–manufacturing industries. When I think of everything that is needed
from start to finish for a surgery and how important each of those items are, JIT is not something
that immediately pops into my head. However, the more I think about it the more I see how JIT can
be utilized as a valuable tool. Improving delivery times, reducing waste and defects, less inventory
to store and track and less time spent on inspecting inventory received are perfect examples of why
JIT should be used in this type of environment.
Most non–emergency surgeries are scheduled

Similarities Between The Abbasid And The Umayyad
The Umayyads were a family that took over after the death of Ali, they ruled the Islamic Empire
helping spread the faith through conquering. The Abbasids were the next family that took over after
the fall of the Umayyads. The Abbasids had many achievements, and helped expand the empire
further. The Umayyads and the Abbasids both ruled the same areas, and they both conquered more
area to spread their religion. Although they share features they also are different in their government,
and the treatment of the social classes. Some similarities between the Umayyads and the Abbasids
are their government, where they rule from, and how they treat the people they conquer. For
example both the Umayyads and the Abbasids left the monotheistic religions such as the Christians
and the Buddhists to their faith. They let them keep their faith, culture and follow their own laws.
Also both empires initiated the jizya, a tax, for all monotheistic non– Muslims. Religions like the
Christians paid the tax so they did not have to convert, and the Muslims collected the money for
their own use. People of other religions like, religions of pagan gods, were forced to convert.
Another similarity is where the empires ruled from. During the Umayyad empire, their capital was
Damascus, on the coast of Persia. While during the Abbasid period, it was moved to Baghdad, also
in Persia. Both empires capitals were centered in Persia, which eventually influenced their culture
and traditions. Their last

Mezquita De Córdoba in Southern Spain
Mezquita De Córdoba The Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba represents the many cultural changes the
city of Córdoba and the areas around it have gone through. It has stood in the center of the city for
over a millennium, and it doesn't look like it will fall anytime soon. It covers over 24,000 square
meters (about 250,000 square feet), and is 9 meters tall at its lowest and 30 meters tall at its highest.
The Cathedral of Córdoba is officially called The Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption, but it
was originally built by the Islamic Moors to be a place of worship for muslims. Historians believe
that before the mosque was built, there was a temple to the Roman God Janus on the same site. That
temple was then converted into a church by the Visigoths before they were conquered by the Moors.
It was split in 2 and used as both a church and a mosque until it was torn down and replaced with the
Mosque of Cordoba. In the year 784 AD, construction for the mosque started under the emir Abd
Ar–Rahman 1. It took well over 2 centuries to finish, and even after it did it went through many
changes. A new minaret was added, and some design changes were made including a more
decorative mihrab (signals the direction of Kaaba, a place that is very holy to muslims), and a
courtyard for orange trees was placed inside it. It reached its current size in the year 987 when
construction was completed. The architects of the building planned to place Roman columns with
special capitals, including some that

Explain Why the Arab Invasions of 710 and 711 Were so...
Explain why the Arab invasions of 710 and 711 were so successful. In answering this question we
must first appreciate the difficulty historians face in discovering the real truth of the early Arab
invasions, a fact well demonstrated in the varying estimates of Arab invasion forces (ranging from
1,700–9000 in current publications). Scant contemporary evidence exists beyond a short narrative
present in a Spanish chronicle of 754, a vital surviving Islamic administrative document of the time,
and some archaeological remains. Our knowledge of the invasions is largely founded on the works
of later Islamic historians, the Ajbar Machmua text for example and the works of Ibn Idhari and al
Maqqari. Unfortunately there are fewer Christian ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The existence of a rival claimant caused dangerous divisions throughout the kingdom and in
Akhila's demesne land of Tarragona and Narbonne coins were minted without the king's image, a
clear measure of defiance. It is also reported in some sources that during the invasion Akhila
conspired with the Arabs to depose Roderic. Some go as far as to say that during the final battle a
wing of Roderic's army loyal to Akhila turned on him in the midst of the fighting. Whether this is
true can hardly be proven but something catastrophic must have happened for the King's army
supposedly far larger than Tarik's (Estimates 24,000–30,000 ) to suffer such a devastating defeat.
Many historians support the idea that elements within the Visigothic nobility gave assistance to the
invaders probably as a means of removing Roderic. It is unlikely however that they foresaw the long
term implications of the invasion and the extension of Muslim presence in Iberia. It is argued that as
well as the problems the succession dispute posed, the very fabric of Visigothic society itself was
weak. It is suggested that the Visgothic nobility of the time, who had placed themselves above the
native Hispano–Roman population in terms of rights and privileges, were suffering a backlash from
the lower sections of society. Incidents of rebellion had increased as had the number of slaves
deserting their Lords. Many runaways turned to outlawry and as a consequence

World War Between England And France

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