Vol 9 No 3 - June 2017

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International
Journal of
Humanities &
Social Sciences
Vol. 9 , No. 3
IJHSS.NET
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
June 2017

Vol 9, No 3 - June 2017
Table of Contents
Phenomenon Based Learning Implemented in Abu Dhabi School Model 1
Dr. Eija Valanne, Ms. Rafeea Al Dhaheri, Ms. Riina
Kylmalahti and Ms. Heidi Sandholm-Rangell
Economic Performance on Postharvest Practices among Lowland Rice
Farmers in Lanao Del Sur, ARMM, Philippines
18
Rasmiah D. Macabalang Mama
Using Abu Dhabi Education Council’s Abu Dhabi School Model
Outcomes to Reorganize Curriculum from Linear Delivery Toward a
Spiral Approach
42
Cynthia Albert Jorgenson, ABD, Dr. Tommi Eranpalo, Dr. Ahmed
Mohamed Deria and Rita Kumar
Grade 10 Students Career Choice in Sibutu Municipality: A Causal Model 54
Prof. Kaberl O. Hajilan, PhD and Al-Rashier I. Darong
AAJHSS.ORG

1
http://ijhss.net/index.php/ijhss
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 1-17, ©IJHSS
Phenomenon Based Learning Implemented in Abu Dhabi
School Model
Dr. Eija Valanne, Ms. Rafeea Al Dhaheri, Ms. Riina Kylmalahti and Ms. Heidi
Sandholm-Rangell
Abu Dhabi Education Council, UAE
(This study has been conducted under protection of Abu Dhabi Education Council Research
Department and Professor Masood Badri.)
Abstract
“Tell me a fact and I‟ll learn. Tell me the truth and I‟ll believe.
But tell me a story and it will live in my heart forever.”
Indian Proverb
The aim of this case study was to find out whether PhenoBL (Phenomenon-Based Learning)
approach connected to storytelling has a positive impact on the reading skills and on the
students‟ motivation to read. The key method in delivering ADSM curriculum with a holistic,
cross-curricular approach was built on stories. The classic children stories were chosen after a
thorough review of the themes and outcomes of ADSM curriculum. The outcomes of all
subjects were taken out and combined according to different stories to build a holistic picture.
The teachers have a Finnish teacher education background which gave the possibility to combine
the best practices from Finnish Educational Approach to learning and from ADSM (Abu Dhabi
School Model).
The reading progress was screened with the Running Records assessment tool in the beginning
of the terms one, two and three. The results can be described promising. Significant
improvement in reading skills could be noticed with the entire test group. Forty-four out of 147
Emirati students (30 %) reached the international level and even the level above their age range
in reading during the two terms. This article will describe how the Storyville project was
conducted, what were the benefits and challenges teachers faced and how students‟ reading was
improved during these two terms. The overall benefit of this project can be seen in students‟
increased motivation to read and learn through the stories, in parents‟ satisfaction and in
teachers‟ collaborative enthusiasm to create meaningful learning with a PhenoBL approach for
the students.
Keywords: Phenomenon-Based Learning, cooperative planning, Abu Dhabi School Model,
cross-curricular approach, curriculum delivery, Finnish approach to education, storytelling
Implementing Abu Dhabi School Model
Introduction
Abu Dhabi School Model (ADSM) started as New School Model (NSM) in 2010. The Abu
Dhabi Education Council (ADEC) defined a set of learning standards and outcomes for subjects
for the curriculum. The Arabic and English languages had a dual focus in the curriculum.
(ADEC 2012). The aim was to standardize the curriculum delivery including pedagogical

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methods to support 21st-century skills across all ADEC schools. The key understandings of
ADSM are: all students are capable of learning and the teacher is responsible for student
learning. (ADEC 2012).
Teachers are responsible for using student-centered approaches, continuous assessment, and
differentiation for students to reach all learning outcomes. A variety of teaching and learning
resources should be used in a way that facilitates active learning and an inquiry-based
environment. (ADEC, 2015).
Curriculum delivery, how teachers teach or deliver instruction, is hardly new, but
conceptualization of the way teaching and learning strategies are and how we define the terms
remains ever changing. “What” (the content) is taught and “how” it (the curriculum) is taught
depends on the setting, the needs of the learners and, to some extent, teacher preferences. The
main point is that the responsibility for delivery of the curriculum belongs to the teachers.
(Eränpalo, Jorgenson & Woolsey, 2016) In this setting, we should address curriculum delivery as
a school-based curriculum. To empower teachers to take the professional responsibility of the
curriculum delivery at the school level can be seen as a tactic to permit teachers to adapt system-
level policies into school-level actions. Sahlberg (2012) points out that having the school-based
curriculum teachers and administrators can formulate the values and goals of their schools
established on their professional judgment in respect of the input of parents and the community.
Sahlberg & Hajak (2016) believes that Big Data alone won‟t improve educational systems.
Decision-makers should define what leads to the better learning in schools. Recognizing Small
Data such as relationships and narratives in schools can reveal important clues how to improve
education.
ADSM curriculum is outcome based, which makes it quite fragmented. Each outcome is
basically taught only once per school year. Teachers need to proceed rapidly into the next
outcome having never time to revise or deepen the learning. Acknowledging this, teachers of Al
Raqiah School took their professional responsibility to create the curriculum delivery with a new
approach.
Given the opportunity to develop teaching and learning in line with the cross-curricular
approach the grade two teachers in Al Raqiah School started to innovate a new way of
conducting ADSM in respect of the outcome-based curriculum. Since the cross-curricular
approach to learning is emphasized in Abu Dhabi School Model (ADSM) the solution was found
in Phenomenal Education.
The starting point for learning in Phenomenon-Based Learning relies on a holistic, real-world
phenomena that are studied as complete entities and by crossing the boundaries between
subjects. The key requirement for learning process is authenticity. PhenoBL is not built on a
strict set of rules. The essential part of the process is student‟s active role in creating an
understanding of the phenomenon. (Silander, 2015; Zhukov, 2015).In contrast with passive, rote
memorization curricula of the past, PhenoBL actively involves students in hands-on activities
aimed at answering questions and solving problems. (Dougherty, 2015). Also Tough (2016)
supports the idea of increased emphasis on experiential learning and student autonomy to enable
deeper learning to appear. The more in-depth learning the abler the students will become in
bridging the gap between the different subject areas (Al Kilani, 2016).
PhenoBL enhances 21st-century skills improving students‟ critical thinking and creativity
providing possibilities to refine communication, collaboration, and game-based learning.
(Zhukov, 2015). This statement is also supported by a two-year research study that introduced
Dynamic Problem-Based Learning in Chemistry run by the researchers at Hull University.

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Positive results were found especially regarding skills development, critical thinking, and
engagement. (Dougherty, 2015). Four major advantages of PhenoBL them being cross-subject
lessons, holistic approach to learning, enquiry-based learning, and group learning. Furthermore,
he finds that in PhenoBL students are not passive recipients of lessons, but proactive
participants, contributing to and learning from the topic. (Rahaan, 2016). Media has given a lot
of attention to Finland‟s expansion of PhenoBL approach. The latest core curriculum that was
taken into practice 2016 requires teachers to include at least one topic a year for every student to
be conducted according to PhenoBL approach. Innovative use of technology and exploiting
learning environments outside the school play a significant role in activating and engaging
students in learning. (Spiller, 2017; Uudet opetussuunnitelmat pähkinänkuoressa, 2016)
A cross-curricular approach to delivering curriculum is based on collaboration. Teachers are
encouraged to engage in joint planning and co-teaching to facilitate the learning of concepts and
skills across subject areas to provide additional language development support. To enable
teachers to practice collaborative working methods there is a need for timely and supportive
resources. Walther-Thomas, Bryant, and Sue (1996) divide these assets into three levels. First of
all the district-level planning (that could be referring ADEC level in our case) should provide a
districtwide design of broad expectations, confirm resource allocation and timely resources for
collaborative staff development. Building-level planning ensures administrative participation and
ongoing co-planning possibilities for designing long-term and short-term plans for instruction.
The third one is classroom-level planning. Ongoing team planning has been found helpful for
building mutual understanding in co-teaching relationships, communication, and problem-
solving and for monitoring the progress.
To succeed with collaboration there are several elements that need to be in place. The positive
interdependence is the most important element. The group members must acknowledge that one
cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. Accountability requires each member to contribute
her share of the work. Promotive interaction is actualized by helping, supporting, encouraging
and praising each other‟s efforts. The fourth essential element is the requirement of interpersonal
and skills to work in groups. For fruitful collaboration, the group members need to be able to
lead effective decision-making and to create a trustworthy atmosphere for smooth
communication and effective conflict management. (Johnson & Johnson).
The results of the study conducted in ADEC schools in 2015 (Al Dhaheri 2015) showed that
teachers‟ membership exists in ADEC schools and teachers have opportunities to set their own
goals and actions. Teachers were satisfied regarding their opportunities to share vision and
values. The aim of collective learning is to establish trust among peers and develop the desire to
success as a team through collaboration and shared goals and values. Additionally, involving
personal practices in the learning community allow educators to set and implement personal and
professional goals in their work. Also, Sahlberg & Hasak (2016) have indicated that teachers
should be liberated from bureaucracy and be given opportunities to invest in collaboration with
colleagues in schools. Enhanced social capital is proved to demonstrate a vital aspect of building
trust for mutual understanding of education and for improving students‟ learning.
The key tool in delivering ADEC curriculum with the cross-curricular approach in our project is
stories. Both in UAE and in Finland, we have a strong history of storytelling. Folk stories have
been passed forward from generation to generation around fireplaces of crofts and campfires of
Bedouins. Friday (2014) emphasizes storytelling to be the oldest method of teaching. The stories
united the early human communities and gave answers to the major questions of life. They
moulded and cultivated people. Even if every human culture isn‟t literate, they all tell stories.
The major benefit of using storytelling as a teaching method is the way it engages learners in
different levels. It is not only a natural and effective approach to learning but also an excellent

4
way of retaining the information. Storytelling proves to be an active method of coding
knowledge. The stories can be memorized easily and passed on to the others. The emotions that
the stories evoke seem to play a major role in students‟ retention of the story and the lesson
impeded in the story. (Eck, 2006).
Stories engage students with its narratives and invite them to reflect the stories of their own
experiences. Students may find similarities with the story characters and plot twists compared to
their own life. These identifications are the reasons for engagements. Students elaborate the
stories by finding comparisons and associations to the real-life. It is important to acknowledge
that the associations are activated by anticipating of what is happening next in the story.
(Branaghan, 2010; Green, 2004).
Method
Participants
This case study was conducted in Al Raqiah School, an ADEC school in Al Ain during the
academic year 2016-2017. The school has been part of EPA (Education Partnership Agreement
between Edu Cluster Finland Ltd and ADEC11
) project from 2010 to 2017. The project
developed best classroom practices with a focus of transferring them to the other ADEC
schools. Al Raqiah School is a Cycle one school with grades 1-5. The research was piloted in six
of the grade 2 classes, having 147 Emirati students, in a cycle one school.
Design
Five EMT teachers created a Storyville project for grade two students targeting to increase
motivation to read, improve students‟ reading skills and to deepen the learning of outcomes by
cross-curricular revision. Following PhenoBL approach, the learning of the whole academic year
was built on 12 different stories. The classic children stories were chosen after a thorough review
of the themes and outcomes of ADSM curriculum. The outcomes of all subjects were taken out
and combined according to different stories to build a holistic picture.
The students‟ reading skills were examined in the beginning of the academic year and at the
beginning of the terms two and three. The aim of the study was to describe how the PhenoBL
approach was conducted and what were the benefits and challenges. We also wanted to see
whether this approach improved students‟ reading skills and increased students‟ motivation to
read. The following research questions were investigated:
1. How can the PhenoBL approach be implemented in ADSM?
2. What kind of progress could be seen in students‟ reading skills?
3. What are the benefits and challenges in the implementation of PhenoBL approach in
teaching and learning?
This study employs qualitative methods to investigate how the PhenoBL approach can be
applied within ADEC curriculum. To fully understand the implementation of the PhenoBL
approach with ADEC‟s outcome-based curriculum, grade two teachers participate in two-phase
data collection survey. The feedback from the grade two students‟ parents was gathered to form
a complete understanding of the benefits and challenges of this approach. To answer the
research questions, the data was examined through qualitative analysis design. Students‟ reading
skills were screened in the beginning of the academic year with Running Records Assessment
tool. To see the progress students are making, these results were compared with the results from
1
The EPA has been created to fuse Abu Dhabi and Finnish education designing and trials of different delivery
methods in the ADEC curriculum. (http://peda.net/veraja/ecfi/epa/project).

5
the beginning of terms two and three using the same assessment tool. The research procedure
and all test results have been dealt discreetly. Neither students‟, teachers‟ nor parents‟ individual
information was revealed.
The design of the study can be seen in the framework presented in figure 1.
Figure 1. Framework of the study: PhenoBL Approach implemented in ADSM

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Results
How can the PhenoBL approach be implemented in ADSM?
To avoid fragmentation of the outcome-based curriculum the teachers decided to try out a new
approach to curriculum delivery. They ended up with the PhenoBL approach implementing that
in ADSM. They started with piloting a project for a period of three weeks during the academic
year 2015-2016 with our first graders. The story „Cat in the Hat‟ was explored and connected to
all subjects. Students studied rhyming words by versatile methods combined with games,
memorizing, and reading methods. They studied patterns in Math inspired by the striped hat of
the Cat using art and handicrafts. They explored the Science topic of using five senses through
the story thinking which sense is used in each incident of the story. The crown of the project was
an art exhibition, a visual story reading experience made by the first graders. The visitors could
walk through the story reading it from the walls and enjoying the art. It was a huge success.
According to Dougherty (2015), the similar way of addressing PhenoBL approach can be found
in New Zealand school‟s where they are incorporating music and art into the eight projects that
students are required to complete per semester (from STEM to STEAM).
The inspiring results of this pilot encouraged teachers to revise the way of planning the learning
for the following academic year. Teachers wanted to see teaching and learning as big entities
rather than separated subjects and they wished to provide a totally new way for the children to
learn and to raise their motivation to the next level. Storyville project was built on 12 different
stories following PhenoBL approach. The classic children stories were chosen after a thorough
review of the whole year outcomes respecting the themes of ADSM curriculum. The outcomes
of all subjects were taken out and combined with different stories depending which ones related
naturally to the story.
The focus was mainly in the Math and Science outcomes since most of the English outcomes
could be taught with any of the stories. Clear connections between Math and Science outcomes
were found. As a result, the outcomes were divided between the terms in a whole new way. The
purpose of integration of suitable outcomes was to create natural possibilities for revision and
real life connections.
The outcomes of different subjects were chosen so, that the outcomes of each separate subject
supported and deepened the learning of others. The fragmentation was minimized and the
revision maximized in a way that the children did not necessarily know that they were revising
something. Certain English outcomes could be revised in a Math lesson or a Science outcome in
an English lesson. The boundaries of different subject names were gently pushed down to make
way for more efficient theme based entities. The Scope and Sequence were reorganized to
support deeper learning and cross-curricular revision. (See Figure 1.)
The story content and plot had always an educational meaning. For example when students were
studying measuring length and volume in Math and natural materials in Science the story was
„Goldilocks‟. It was easy to connect to measuring the furniture and containers of different sizes
and volumes and to talk about and investigate from which materials they are made of. Learning
took place using multiple resources and methods like drama, hands-on learning, critical
discussions, creativity, reading, painting, and crafting, singing, dancing, writing, exploring,
imagining and solving problems.

7
Teachers estimated the basic planning of the project took approximately three weeks at the end
of term three last academic year and two days of the PD-week in the beginning of the academic
year 2016-2017. As for the consistent planning during the academic year teachers used
approximately four to five hours weekly to the project planning. In the beginning of a new story,
the demand for planning increased extremely. Beside this teachers had a joint planning period
embedded in their timetable.
What kind of results could be seen in students’ reading skills?
The schools are repeatedly facing a challenge with students‟ reading skills once they enter grade
three and try to cope with the outcome expectations. Achieving the learning outcomes of the
third grade Math, Science, and English, curriculum demands fluent reading skills in English. One
of the aims of the Storyville project was to make an intense change in the way reading has been
taught in our school. The focus needed to change into reading comprehension, making the
students realize why they need to learn to read. The process of technical, sound based reading
teaching was speeded up to release time for the meaningful and motivating reading experiences.
Instead of using many hours a week in practicing how to read certain sounds or double sounds,
the focus was placed on reading whole meaningful, story based words. The weekly spelling tests
with unconnected, sound based words of the week were cancelled. Instead, the spelling words
from the grade two high-frequency word list were chosen with the connection to the theme story
contents or to the contents Math or Science outcomes of the week. There was a clear association
between learning to read the words of the week and learning other things. The focus on the tests
was changed towards comprehensive reading. Right from the beginning of grade two, it was
emphasized to the students that one reads to get information, to understand and to learn, not to
succeed in the spelling test.
Students started to read more books; whole books, even small ones at the beginning, instead of
separate words. Integrating learning contents into the theme stories opened the students‟ eyes to
see, how much one storybook can teach them. How much is hidden between the lines of one
book? The Storyville project motivated the children to read at home and at school even aloud in
front of the class. In the Math and Science lessons, the students read the task instructions and
acted accordingly. In the free writing lessons, the students used dictionaries to find ways to
express themselves. This has increased their vocabulary and made the essay writing more
exciting.
PhenoBL approach inspires students to figure out how topics are related to each other. The
motivation for reading has increased tons. Students have realized why reading is important!
They have found the miracle world of books, stories, and fairytales. (teacher 3)
Students‟ reading skills were screened with Running Records in the beginning of the term 1. The
same procedure was repeated at the beginning of the term two and three to find out whether
there had been progressing. Running Records gives a detailed analysis of literacy growth when
used systematically and accurately. Teacher registers child‟s reading using specific standardized
codes resulting in a record that reveals the smallest details on the reader‟s attitude, demeanor,
accuracy, and understanding. The number of errors is subtracted from a number of running
words in the text. The qualitative information and the student‟s comprehension level are
combined with the calculated rates to determine students reading level. (Learning A-Z, 2017).
The text is at the student‟s independent level if she manages to read the text with 95 % or higher
accuracy level. The accuracy of 90%-94% indicates the text is considered to be at child‟s
instructional level. Lower than 90 % accuracy level is regarded be too difficult for the student.
(Learning at the Primary Pond, 2016).

8
It is important to acknowledge that Reading A-Z Levelling Criteria are made to measure native
English-speaking children‟s reading skills. However, the Running Record reading results in this
article are showing the progress of the non-native English speaking Emirati children‟s reading
skills at the age six to seven.
Figure 2. The progress (%) of reading skills on the Running Records’ accuracy levels (0 –
90) in the beginning of each term.
The progress of individual students‟ reading can be verified in figure 2. In the beginning of term
1, only 6 % of the students could reach the accuracy level of 90-94 % which indicates the text is
considered to be at child‟s instructional level. Sixty-two % of the students could have been
regarded illiterate according to the Running Records test. The last Running Records test was
conducted at the beginning of term 3 which revealed significant progress in reading skills within
two terms. Thirty present of the students had reached the demanded accuracy level related to the
international standards.
Figure 3. The difference between female and male students in readings skills in the
beginning of term three

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When we take a closer look at the differences between male and female students‟ results (see
figure 3) we can notice that female students tend to progress faster in reading skills than the male
students. However, there can be found a significant progress in male students reading when the
individual students‟ progress is studied carefully.
Figure 4 presents the progress of reading of the 43 male students in grade 2. The green bars state
the level of reading at the beginning of term 3 which in most cases shows excellent progress.
Figure 4. Male students progress in reading
All of the students who reached over 90 accuracy level, were given a higher level text to scaffold
child‟s real reading level. The reading texts were levelled in an accelerating rate. Students who
read at the Level G could be compared to be reading as native English speaking 6-7 years old
children. At the Level, J students read as well as 6-8 years old native English speaking children.
In the levels K - P the text is getting a bit more challenging in each step regarding the
vocabulary, the length of the words and sentences. These levels can be compared to the reading
levels of 7-8 years old native English speaking children. Table 1 demonstrates the process of
reassessment of the students who succeeded over 95 % with their reading. In this particular
class, nine students were tested repeatedly to find the highest level of text the child could read
fluently with a clear understanding of the content. These nine students read above their age-level
according to the international reading standards.

10
Table 1. An example (one section of the six classes) of the process of reassessing reading
levels of the students who reached over 95% with their reading
Student Term 1 Term 2 Term2 Level G Level H Level I Level J Level K Level L Level M Level N
1 16 33 58
2 27 100 100 65
3 4 47 60
4 0 0 0
5 28 84 94
6 20 98 100 90 74
7 2 33 63
8 38 97 100 73
9 38 70 96
10 100 100 100 92 96 96 91
11 87 100 100 91 90 92 90
12 99 100 100 96 95 95 95 95
13 6 24 24
14 24 98 100 84
15 0 33 55
16 8 33 37
17 40 100 100 91 92 91
18 18 58 58
19 94 100 100 91 96 92
20 0 25 31
21 3 21 21
22 25 71 90
23 6 21 21
24 8 22 47
25 3 11 20
Parents were sent a questionnaire to find out their discovery on their children‟s improvement in
reading. The total of 44% parents participated in the inquiry. 75 % of these parents declared they
were aware of the Storyville project.
The total of 84 % of parents who participated in the inquiry felt their children's reading skills had
improved significantly during the term one. It is inappropriate to conclude that the improvement
in reading skills would be merely due to the PhenoBL approach. However, the project and
renewed teaching methods surely have a great impact on the progress.

11
Figure 5. Parents’ satisfaction on their children’s improvement in reading and their
notification on their children’s willingness to read books at home.
It was satisfying to find out that 70 % of parents that participated in the inquiry reported that
their child has started to read story books eagerly at home.
My daughter wants to read any words in the street. (mother 24)
The results of my daughter have progressed distinguished and this is because of the brilliant
efforts of the teacher and the school system. (mother 2)
I would suggest that it would be possible to teach a different story to the students every week for
the development of reading skills. (mother 19)
Please, add English language stories! (mother 26)
In the questionnaire, parents were able to give their contact number for further discussion. Three
mothers were interviewed in Arabic. When asked what had been their children‟s feedback about
the reading project, the response was very promising.
Our daughter is very happy about this project. She was telling me (her mother) about what she
read at school directly when she was back home from the school. She was telling a lot of details
about the characters and events happened in the stories. (mother 2)
Our son started to create his own stories and telling me (his mother) about it. (mother 19)
For the next step parents suggested that our school should increase the number of books
available for the students and activate the borrowing system in the school library. They appraised
teacher‟s professionalism and hoped the same teacher would continue with the same classes in
the following year applying the project at the school-wide level. Parents also were looking for the
continuation of effective home-school communication and requested us to reward the students
to encourage them to achieve more. Most parents seemed to be happy with the reading project
and their children‟s learning to read. The request for having more stories to read can be met with
the new A-Z program that ADEC provides us since there are more than 2000 English stories
available online for the students.

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What are the benefits and challenges in the implementation of PhenoBL approach in
teaching and learning?
The teachers were questioned of the benefits and challenges in the implementation of PhenoBL
approach in teaching and learning (see Figure 6). If we look at the evaluation of the statements
we can notice that every one of them found storytelling a beneficial method. The teachers agreed
with Friday (2014) who has stated that storytelling promotes the enthusiasm for reading and
increases students‟ purposeful talking. Mutual understanding was found also in the finding of
students‟ increased willingness to write stories and improved listening skills
It is motivating for the teachers and students. Students are quite excited always when the new
story is announced. The topics are revised in different subjects and it helps the students to
understand the topics. Their vocabulary grows easier and wider. (teacher 2)
Teachers found it meaningful for the students to study phenomena as complete entities by
crossing the boundaries between subjects. All of the teachers agreed that to succeed with
PhenoBL approach promotive interaction is needed which is actualized by helping, supporting,
encouraging and praising each other‟s efforts.
It (PhenoBL) gives the impression of having more time to concentrate on the most important
topics. It gives possibilities to revise and constantly emphasize the cornerstones of the curriculum.
Students are more motivated to learn while issues and topics are related to something they are
already familiar with. It seems to be easier for students to follow their own development. (teacher
3)
The implementation of PhenoBL approach has promoted students’ critical thinking, group work
skills and motivation to read. As for teachers they have benefited with the deeper understanding
of the outcomes and realizing the connection between the outcomes and the real world. (teacher 4)
Figure 6. Implementation of PhenoBL in ADSM according to the teachers’ inquiry

13
They all found joint planning time as an essential component. They all also pointed out the time
they have had for joint planning hasn‟t been adequate.
The long-term planning turned out to be the most vital part of planning. Having enough time
and resources for the planning process at that point is the main cornerstone in order to reach
successful results. Being able to concentrate on planning with peers for the whole days is
important. (teacher 3)
It requires a lot of advanced planning ahead and good knowledge of the curriculum. In the
beginning of the project, it is very time consuming if done properly. It also requires more
differentiation than the normal, outcome based teaching. (teacher 1)
Needs time to collect, produce, read and evaluate materials and plan activities to be used (books,
worksheets, hands-on activities, group works, outside game activities etc.) (teacher 5)
Apart from the lack of planning time the other concerns teachers shared were a deficiency of
adequate resources for curriculum delivery and the use of PD activity sessions. These requests
can be respected by the school administration when notified in time.
It is time-consuming to find/create materials that match with the theme. It requires more
creativity and in order to be creative, you should have enough time. (teacher 2)
When teachers were asked whether the Storyville project matched up their expectations the
results turned out to be promising. The teachers had a mutual strong feeling of success when
describing their reflections.
Beforehand I did not expect that reading skills could improve this much. The joy of learning and
motivation of students have also appeared to grow more than I expected. (teacher 3)
In some parts, it has exceeded my expectations. (teacher 4)
It has been a good project but still a lot to improve to make it more holistic and phenomenal
based. (teacher 1)
The teachers praised the project to have promoted their professional growth.
I have understood how nice, useful and better it is to plan together. It makes this demanding job
easier and more fun. I have gained self-confidence. I have fallen in love with our stories and want
to do this again. (teacher 2)
The level of teaching has improved. I have worked a lot but with pleasure. The Storyville project
and the cooperation experience with grade 2 teachers have kindled and increased enthusiasm to
teaching and developing higher and higher. (teacher 3)
It has been a good motivation boost and also it has given me more confidence to do things my
own way and to believe in what I do. (teacher 4)
Having a special project has also had a positive effect in group forming and cohesion of classes.
Their motivation to read and learn has had a positive side effect of them wanting everyone else
to be able to enjoy the same feeling. After the students finished their work they automatically
moved on to help the ones not finished yet. This, peer support, has been a great help for
especially the weakest students. Sometimes the child of the same age and the same mother
tongue can find better ways to explain a new phenomenon, than a teacher.

14
Discussion
The Storyville project was a whole new way of looking at the ADSM Curriculum. It was an
attempt and a pilot to make curriculum delivery more cohesive and efficient. The curriculum of
ADSM is outcome based, which easily makes it fragmented. To avoid that to happen and to
improve students‟ engagement in learning teachers used PhenoBL approach successfully to
support students‟ learning.
The curriculum delivery in a new, meaningful way was empowering the teachers who
participated in this research. Teachers in Finland are regarded professionals as doctors or
architects. The expectations for teachers‟ professional performance regarding curriculum delivery
is mandatory with the absence of common teaching standards. Finnish teachers design together
their own school curricula in respect of the national framework. “Teaching is a team sport, not
an individual race.” Sahlberg (2015). Teachers in this study were unanimous about their
responsibility for delivery of curriculum. It is teachers‟ right.
This pilot shows clearly the method of delivering ADSM curriculum with the cross-curricular
approach built on stories motivates students enormously. The outcomes of different subjects can
be taken out and combined according to different stories to build a holistic picture. The project
also responded to the governmental call for motivating the Emirati children to read. By the end
of this project students have a good knowledge of these 12 classic stories and their morals, but
more importantly, an understanding of how fascinating and fun learning and reading can be! The
results in improving the reading skills were promising and on the individual level outstanding.
The aim of this article was also to describe how the PhenoBL approach was conducted and what
were the benefits and challenges the teachers faced. One challenging component in a project like
this turned out to be adequate joint planning time. It was mutually agreed that the joint planning
should be respected on yearly, termly, weekly basis and according to the themes. A furthermore
project like this requires a solid planning session at the end of the previous academic year in
June-July for everything to be ready for the beginning of the next academic year.
PhenoBL was found a very convenient way of deepening child‟s learning at home. The
connections to the curriculum outcomes can easily be found in every day chores like cooking or
baking. Children can be measuring, making mixtures, observing and calculating physical and
chemical changes etc. Replicating the PhenoBL methods taught at the school can improve
children‟s critical and analytical thinking and has strong influence on creativity and problem
solving skills.
As a limitation, we must recognize that the Running Records Assessment tool has been created
for native English speaking children. Therefore, it doesn‟t clearly appraise the struggling start of
the non-native English-speaking children‟s reading. However, it clearly shows the speed of
progress in reading including the motivation to read compared to the previous tests as an
evidence of success. The assessment was done in the beginning of the term one, two and three.
The results in the end of the school year could have given more perspective. We must also admit
that it is impossible to declare that the progress in reading would be mere because of the specific
teaching approach.

15
Conclusion
Figure 7. Conclusion of benefits and challenges in implementation PhenoBL approach
in ADSM
To conclude the challenges and benefits of the Storyville project it must be recognized that the
benefits and positive effects weigh far more that the challenges (see figure 7). Teachers brought
up some concerns of the joint planning time, adequate differentiated reading materials and the
request to use school‟s PD-sessions more beneficially for the project. However, they appraised
highly the benefits of the project. Storytelling was found an effective way to teach and the
teachers had enjoyed collaborative planning. The cross-curricular approach had strengthened
students‟ understanding of topics and teachers had proudly developed their own way of
curriculum delivery that worked successfully with the students. When teachers are excited in
curriculum delivery, students get eager to study.

16
Figure 8. The benefits for the students of revising ADSM curriculum according to the
PhenoBL approach using storytelling as a teaching method
The major result of this project was the students‟ high reading and learning motivation and the
improved reading skills which encourage teachers to proceed with this line of curriculum delivery
also in the future. The benefit of this approach are highlighted in figure 8. Emotions of the
stories seem to support students‟ retention of the stories. (Eck, 2006). Since the learning
outcomes were embedded in the lessons along with the stories and revised through different
subjects, students remembered and learned to understand the learning outcomes. Enhanced
elaboration and thinking skills results in strengthening students‟ holistic understanding of the
phenomena occurring in their own lives.
This project can be replicated in any country and any school. These stories are internationally
known. This could also be implemented with stories from a certain country. It could also be
applied to other grade levels. It just requires choosing the right kind of stories for each grade
level curriculum. ADEC is strongly supporting schools to improve cross-curricular connections
in teaching. A project like the Storyville can be seen as a pilot for further development of
curriculum delivery in a child-centered way. These active learning methods used with the
PhenoBL approach seem to suit well also mixed-gender education. Regardless of the limitation
the joy and excitement to build learning on stories in a holistic and a cross-curricular way has
been evident and gives teachers a vision to continue with this new path of delivering the
curriculum.
References
ADEC (2012). The foundation of the New School Model: Teacher’s guidebook. Retrieved from:
https://www.adec.ac.ae/en/mediacenter/publications/teachers-guide-partA.pdf
ADEC (2015). ADEC Public School Manual. (2015, March 28.) Retrieved from HTTPS://portal.adec.ac.ae.
Al Dhaheri, R. (2015). Teachers’ Agency and Identity – ADEC Schools as Professional Learning Communities. University of
Jyvaskyla, Faculty of Education
Al Kilani, B. (2016). What is Phenomenon-Based Learning? Retrieved from
http://teachmiddleeastmag.com/pehomenon-basdes-learning/
Branaghan, R, J. (2010). What is so special about stories? The cognitive basis of contextually rich learning. In
Storytelling as an Instructional Method Research Perspectives Dee H. Andrews, Thomas D. Hull and
Karen DeMeester (Eds.). Sense Publishers, 11-27.
Dougherty, K. (2015). Global Trends in Project Based Learning: From the UK, to Finland and Beyond! Education
Insider. Retrieved from http://blog.iat.com/2015/06/26/new-global-trends-in-project-based-learning/
Eck, Jill E. (2006). An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Storytelling with Adult Learners in Supervisory Management. University of

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Wisconsin-Stout. Retrieved from http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2006/2006eckj.pdf
Eränpalo, T., Jorgenson, C., Woolsey, L. M. (2016). The Abu Dhabi school model: Effective delivery of the curriculum. In
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world-to-get-rid-of-all-school-subjects-259910/
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Green, Melanie, C. (2004). Storytelling in Teaching. APS Association for Psychological Science. Retrieved from
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Johnson, D. W. & Johnson R. T. An Overview of Cooperative Learning. (2017, January 28). Retrieved from
http://ww.co-operation.org/what-is-cooperative-learning/
Learning A-Z. (2017, March 7). Retrieved from https://www.readinga-z.com/helpful-tools/about-running-
records/scoring-a-running-record/
Learning at the Primary Pond. (2017, March 7). Retrieved from http://learningattheprimarypond.com/blog/how-
to-analyze-running-records/
Raahan, B. D. (2016). Addressing the Disconnect. The Statesman.
Sahlberg, P. & Hasak, J. (2016, May 9). ‘Big data‟ was supposed to fix education. It didn‟t. It‟s time for „small data‟.
Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-
sheet/wp/2016/05/09/big-data-was-supposed-to-fix-education-it-didnt-its-time-for-small-
data/?utm_term=.435b1fed2b9a
Sahlberg, P. (2015, October 5). Do teachers in Finland have more autonomy? The Conversation.
https://theconversation.com/do-teachers-in-finland-have-more-autonomy-48371
Sahlberg, P. (2012, September). Quality and Equality Finnish Schools. School Administrator. Retrieved from
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unnitelmat_pahkinankuoressa
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Zhukov, T. (2015, July 27). Phenomenon-Based Learning: What is PBL? Retrieved from
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International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 1-41, ©IJHSS
Economic Performance on Postharvest Practices among
Lowland Rice Farmers in Lanao Del Sur, ARMM,
Philippines
Rasmiah D. Macabalang Mama
Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon, May 2014.
Adviser: Dr. Celso CabahugTautho
Abstract
Farming is an extensive cultivation of plants to yield food, feed, or fiber; to provide medicinal or
industrial ingredients; or to grow ornamental products. This study sought to determine the
economic performance of postharvest practices among lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur,
ARMM, Philippines. Two hundred (200) randomly selected lowland rice farmers from the
municipalities of Ramain, Buadiposo-Buntong, Bubong, and Mulondo, all Lanao del Sur
participated this survey research. Results revealed that farmers have less threshing and drying
practices. Majority used mechanical threshing and solar drying; never practice storage and
milling. Postharvest problems are: lack of awareness and appropriate technologies, lack of
capital and incentives for quality products; too much broken straw on oscillating screen, grain
blown over the wing board, high investment cost, unfavorable weather conditions, inefficient
one-pass method, lack of electric power/fuel, drying, milling, and storage methods. Furthermore,
educational attainment, yield, annual gross income, transportation cost, and extension contacts
have significant influence to threshing practices. Family size, farm size, yield, annual gross
income and credit availability had significant influence. Family size, tenure status and annual
gross income showed significant influence to storage. The losses, cost, output recovery, and time
spent were significantly different for threshing while drying; only output recovery has no
significant difference. As such, farmers form cooperative and purchase facilities to improve
postharvest practices, and get financial assistance from government and private institutions to
improve crop yield.
Keywords: Economics, performance on Postharvest; Lowland rice farmers, Meranao
Introduction
Farming is mankind’s most important activity. Management of farms has therefore always been
critically important for the production of food, fibre and fuel (Kemp et al., 2004). Rice (Oriza
spp.) after wheat is the most widely cultivated cereal in the world and it is the most important
food crop for almost half of the world’s population (IRRI, 2009).It is consumed by over half of
the world population. The total world production of unmilled rice (paddy) is around 592 million
tons (based on the average production for 2000 and 2001). Ninety percent of this total is grown
in developing countries, mostly in Asia, while Latin America and Africa produce 3.8 and 2.8
percent, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2001). Rice is often the main source of employment, income
and nutrition in many poor, food insecure regions of the world. In South Asia, where 530 million

19
people live on less than US $1 a day, calories supplied by rice account for about 60-70% of total
food intake.
Rice cultivation is the principal activity and source of income for about 100 million households
in Asia and Africa. Post-harvest and transformation activities generated by rice production also
employ a large share of the total labour force in Southeast Asia. Several countries are also highly
dependent on rice as a source of foreign exchange earnings and government revenue (FAO,
2004). It is estimated that by 2025, 10 billion people will depend on rice as a main food and the
demand may reach about 880 metric tons. Many Asian countries and international institutions
agree to the strengthening of national programmes for policy and financial support to research,
seed production and extension of hybrid rice (FAO, 2001).
The maximization of benefits from rice production requires crop quality management along the
so-called postharvest chain operations that include threshing, drying, storage and milling. While
much has been done to increase crop yields through improved cultural and management
practices, little attention is given to postharvest operations. Considerable losses were incurred
after harvest than losses before harvest. Pava and Abellanosa (1987) cited that the major causes
of postharvest losses were grouped into the following: (1) biological and microbiological
consumption or damage done by insects, mites, rodents, birds, and by microbes such as molds
and bacteria; (2) chemical and biochemical – undesirable reactions between chemical compounds
that are present in the food such as fat oxidation, and a number of enzyme activated reactions
substance such as pesticide; (3) mechanical – spillage, abrasion, bruising, excessive polishing,
peeling or trimming and puncturing of containers; (4) physical – excessive or insufficient heat or
cold, and improper atmosphere; and (5) physiological – sprouting of grains caused by respiration
and transpiration.
Rice producers can significantly increase their income from their rice crops if they can reduce
physical losses throughout the post-harvest chain, store their rice until they can get a better price
in the off season and produce better quality in which most markets translate into a higher price.
Postharvest losses in food crops occurring during harvesting, threshing, drying, processing,
storage and transportation have been estimated to claim between 30 and 40% of all food crops
in developing countries.
Lanao del Sur as the locale of the study has a cool and pleasant climate which is distinguished by
an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year which is very suitable for lowland rice
production; it is observed that during crop season rice production has its potential. However,
there are problems during postharvest critical operations such as harvesting, threshing, drying,
storage, and milling hardly which result to reduction of yield or supply due to losses. It is for this
reason that the study on economic performance of postharvest practices among lowland rice
farmers in Lanao del Sur is conducted.
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study was to assess the economic performance of postharvest
practices among lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM, Philippines. The study aimed to:
1. present the demographic and socio-economic profile of the respondents;
2. determine lowland rice farmers perception towards the different postharvest practices or
operation;
3. determine the perception of the respondents towards the problems indicated in
postharvest practices or operation in terms of:
a. lack of awareness/resistance to change,
b. lack of capital/operating cost,

20
c. lack of incentives for better product quality, and
d. lack of appropriate technologies and infrastructures;
4. ascertain lowland rice farmers perceptions towards specific problems indicated in each
postharvest practices;
5. identify the factors that significantly influence the postharvest practices of farmers; and
6. identify the significant difference in the economic performance of postharvest practices
adopted by lowland rice farmers in terms of losses, output recovery, time spent, and cost.
Conceptual Framework
Mostly, Filipinos are rice eaters. The essentially rice consumers position of the vast majority of
Filipinos has eclipsed the complex ties that bind the cultivator to the rice crop. In a culture
where the symbolic value of rice has undergone historic marginalization, consumers are alienated
from the dynamics of production, and treat rice as a mere commodity. In farming, postharvest
operations must be given adequate attention since the quality and quantity of the product is
highly dependent on product handling until the same reaches the point of consumption. It is
interesting to know how the lowland rice farmers handle their product.
The postharvest research paradigm in Figure 1 shows the interplay between the independent
variables and the dependent variables. The independent variables include the Demographic
factors such as sex, age, education attainment, family size, and socio-economic factors which
include farming experience, tenurial status, farm size, yield, annual gross income, transportation
cost, credit availability, extension contact, membership in an organization. The intervening
variables are postharvest practices that include threshing (Hampasan, Trampling and Mechanical
thresher), Drying (Solar/Conventional drying and Mechanical drying), the storage: (Farm level
storage and Off-farm level storage) and lastly the milling: (Mortar & pestle, Kiskisan, and Cono
rice mill). Figure 1 below shows the research paradigm wherein the dependent variables include
the economic performance caused by losses, time spent, cost and output recovery.
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the Study
POSTHARVEST
PRACTICES
Threshing
- Hampasan
- Trampling
- Mechanical thresher
Drying
- Solar/ Conventional
drying
- Mechanical drying
Storage
- Farm Level storage
- Off-farm Level
storage
Milling
- Mortar & pestle
- Kiskisan
- Cono rice mill
DEMOGRAPHIC & SOCIO-
ECONOMIC FACTORS
Demographic factors:
- Sex
- Age
-Educational attainment
- Family Size
Socio-economic factors:
- Farming Experience
- Tenurial Status
- Farm Size
- Yield
- Annual Gross Income
- Transportation cost
- Credit availability
- Extension contact
- Membership in an organization
ECONOMIC
PERFORMANCE
- Losses
- Time spent
- Cost
- Output recovery

21
Methods
Research Locale and Participants of the Study
The study was conducted at Lanao del Sur, Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM),
Philippines, particularly in the four (4) municipalities in Lanao del Sur engaged in lowland
farming, namely: Ramain, BuadipusoBuntong, Bubong, and Mulondo. The selection of these
municipalities was based on the following reasons/or factors: farmers in these municipalities
were commonly engaged in lowland rice production; there is a stable peace and order; and these
places are accessible to the researcher. The Province of Lanao del Sur, is a province of the
Philippines located in the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). The capital is the
Islamic City of Marawi and it is bordered by Lanao del Norte in the North, Bukidnon in the
East, and Maguindanao and Cotabato in the South. On the Southwest lies Illana Bay, and arm of
the Moro Gulf. Found in the interior of Lanao del Sur is Lanap Lake, the largest lake in
Mindanao.
A total of 200 lowland rice farmers were taken as respondents coming from four (4)
municipalities of Lanao del Sur, namely: Ramain, Buadipuso Buntong, Bubong, and Mulondo.
The distribution of respondents by municipalities is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Distribution of the respondents of the study
MUNICIPALITY TOTAL
POPULATION
SAMPLE PERCENTAGE
%
Remain 100 50 25%
BuadipusoBuntong 106 51 25.5%
Bubong 89 47 23.5%
Mulondo 107 52 26.%
Total 402 200 100%
As shown in Table 1, there were a total population of 402 in the four municipalities. Lists of
qualified farmers from the selected municipalities were obtained from the DA/ MAO in Ramain,
BuadipusoBuntong, Bubong, and Mulondo. Since the study only employed 200 respondents, the
researcher made used simple random sampling design in selecting the respondents. In
determining the desired number of the respondents, a formula of Slovin (1980) as cited by
Carabelle (2004) was used in this study.
The formula is as follows:
N / (1 + N e2
)
where: N = total size of the population
n = size of sample
e = margin of error (0.1)
Research Instruments and Data Gathering Procedure

22
Structured questionnaires were used by the researcher in data gathering. A pre – survey was
conducted on the first week of February 2014 to determine the appropriateness of the
questionnaire content and add-on those questions that were not included during the first draft of
the questionnaires. For the convenience of the respondents, the questions written in English
were translated orally into the vernacular dialect (Meranao) to facilitate proper communication
and comprehension.
The data collected were the demographic and socio-economic background of the farmer-
respondents which includes age, sex, educational attainment, family size, farming experience,
tenurial status, farm size, yield, transportation cost, credit availability, extension contact, etc. the
following data were also included: perception of the respondents towards the different
postharvest practices; perceptions towards the problems identified; the factors influencing the
farmer’s choice in postharvest practices; and lastly, the economic performance of postharvest
practices in terms of cost, losses, output recovery, and time spent.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics such as relative frequency, percentage, standard deviation, simple and
weighted mean was used in data analysis. Chi-square was also used to identify the factors that
significantly influence the postharvest practices of farmers. Moreover, for the comparison on the
performance of postharvest practices adopted by lowland rice farmers in terms of output
recovery, time spent, cost, and losses, the data were analyzed using t-test.
The farmers’ perceptions on the different postharvest practices were measured in a 5-point
scaling as follows:
Scale Range Qualitative Description
5 4.20-5.00 Highly Practiced
4 3.40-4.19 Practiced
3 2.60-3.39 Moderately Practiced
2 1.80-2.59 Less Practiced
1 1.00-1.79 Never Practiced
Where:
 Highly Practiced means that the lowland rice farmers always used the type of practice.
 Practiced means that the lowland rice farmers commonly used the type of practice.
 Moderately Practiced means that the lowland rice farmers fairly used the type of practice.
 Less Practiced means that the lowland rice farmers sometimes used the type of practice.
 Never Practiced means that the lowland rice farmers certainly not used the type of practice.
Perceptions towards the problems on postharvest was measured in a 5-point scaling as follows:
5 4.20-5.00 Very Major Problem
4 3.40-4.19 Major Problem
3 2.60-3.39 Moderate Problem
2 1.80-2.59 Minor Problem
1 1.00-1.79 Not a problem
Where:
 Very Major Problem means that the lowland rice farmer considers it as extreme or main problem which is hard to deal with.
 Major Problem means that the lowland rice farmer considers it as foremost or main problem.
 Moderate Problem means that the lowland rice farmers consider it as fair or tolerable problem.
 Minor Problem means that the lowland rice farmers consider it as slight or lesser problem.
 Not a Problem means that the lowland rice farmers consider it as not or never a problem.
For threshing and drying practices:
A) average output recovery of one type was compared with the output recovery of the other type of practice;

23
B) average time was the time spent for each practice and was compared with the other type of practice;
C) average cost incurred for one type was compared with the other type of practice; and
D) average losses for one time were compared with the other type of practice.
For milling, the data gathered were analyzed using descriptive statistics since the respondents
practiced the same type of milling operations.
Results and Discussion
Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile of Farmers
Rice farmers’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics include sex, age, educational
attainment, family size, farming experience, tenurial status, farm size, yield, annual gross income,
credit availability, extension contact, transportation cost, and membership in an organization.
The distribution of respondents according to these variables is shown in Table 2 shows that all
respondents (100%) are males. This implies that males dominated the population of lowland rice
farmers in Lanao del Sur, a fact that was actually expected because in Maranao culture, women
are not allowed to go on farming; by nature male is the provider for family’s needs while the
female’s role is for household chores.
Table 2. Demographic and socio-economic profile of the lowland rice farmer-
respondents in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
VARIABLES FREQUENCY
(N=200)
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Sex
Female 0 0
Male 200 100
Age
18-28 years old 49 24.5
29-39 years old 45 22.5
40-50 years old 74 37
51-61 years old 23 11.5
62-72 years old 9 4.5
Average = 39 years old
Youngest = 18 years old
Oldest = 67 years old
Educational Attainment
Elementary 72 36
High School 94 47
College Level 28 14
College Graduate 6 3
Family Size
1-5 101 50.5
6-10 50 25
11-15 49 24.5
Average = 6 members
Farming Experience (years)
1-10 58 29

24
VARIABLES FREQUENCY
(N=200)
PERCENTAGE
(%)
11-20 75 37.5
21-30 55 27.5
31-50 12 6
Average = 12 years
Tenurial Status
Owner cultivator 94 47
Amortizing owner 46 23
Rental 60 30
Farm Size (hectare)
≤ 1 50 25
1.1 – 3.0 147 73
3.1 -5.0 3 2
Average = 2 hectares
Yield (kilograms)
≤ 2,000 3 1.5
2,001-4,000 47 23.5
4,001-6,000 84 42
6,001-8,000 61 30.5
8,001-10,000 5 2.5
Average = 4, 500 Kg
Annual Gross Income (Php)
≤ 20,000 10 5
20,001-40,000 28 14
40,001-60,000 69 34.5
60,001-80,000 74 37
80,001-100,000 19 9.5
Average = Php65,000.00
Credit Availability
No 178 89
Yes 22 11
Extension Contact
Fellow farmers 147 73.5
DA’s Extension worker 10 5
Extension worker SUC 32 16
Agricultural dealers 6 3
Local buyers/traders 5 2.5
Transportation cost (Php/sack)
20.00-25.00 84 42
26.00-30.00 68 34
31.00-35.00 48 24

25
VARIABLES FREQUENCY
(N=200)
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Average = Php23.00/sack
Member in an Organization
No 156 78
Yes 44 22
The study revealed that the highest frequency of age falls from the age bracket 40-50 years of age
which comprised 74 respondents (37%). Almost one-fourth (24.5%) of them belong to 18-28
years old and less than 5% belong to 62 years and above. The oldest lowland rice farmer
respondent was 67 and the youngest was 18 years old.
Most of the lowland rice farmers (47%) attained high school and 3% graduated from college.
This implies that rice farmers are more likely to take strategies to improve economic
performance of postharvest practices. Kilpatrick (1997) disclosed that education enhances
farmer’s ability and willingness to make successful changes to their farm.
It was found out that a little more than one-half of the respondents (50.5%) have a family size of
1-5, followed by family size of 6-10 members (24%) and 11-15 members (24.5%). The result was
expected because Maranao culture preferred many members of the family for “paramihannglahi”
and for helpers in rice farming. It was also expected since they do not practice family planning
because it is prohibited in Islam religion.Ali (2003) stated that for traditional Maranaos, having
plenty of children in the family is a blessing as well as an opportunity to achieve economic
success, since there are more producers of economic goods and services in the family. Unlike
today, having many children in the family means more consumers in the family rather than
producers. At this point in time, only rich can afford to support many children considering the
rising cost of living in our modern society. The Maranao believes that every member of the
family not only the head must o utilize his/her knowledge, skills, and abilities in earning
It was observed that almost half of the respondents (47%) were owners of the land they
cultivated. More than one-fourth of the respondents (30%) rented land they cultivated, followed
by 23% were amortizing owner. None of the respondents involved into mortgage. This implies
that farmers who own the land are more innovative than tenants and leaseholders because
landowners can go with the risk of investing something whether labor or cash. This finding
supports study of Caraballe (2004) and Bautista (1993) that landowner farmers are prone to
adopt new technology compared to tenants. There were (37.5%) respondents that had been in
the rice farming for 11-20 years followed 1-10 years farming experience (29%), 21-30 years
(27.5%), and only 6% have engaged in rice farming for 31-50 years. This finding implies that
with the length of experience on rice farming, it is expected that farmers are knowledgeable and
skilled in different postharvest practices. This finding supports the notion that experience is the
best teacher and the length of time spent in farming affects the adoption of technology (Ebd-
Ella cited by Intong, 1996).
Majority (73.5%) of the lowland rice farmers have farm sizes of 1.1 to 3.0 hectares. A fourth
(25%) had farm size less than 1 hectare and only three respondents (1.5%) have 3.1 to 5 hectares.
The study revealed the average yield per hectare was 4000 cavans (kilograms) or 80 sacks per 50
kilograms. Majority (42%) has an average yield of 4000-6000 kilograms. The least yield is less
than or equal to 2000 kilograms where there are 1.5% of the respondents. Based on the
findings, it is no surprise that the average yield of lowland rice farmers falls on the range 4000-
6000 cavans because it was previously found that more or less fixed hectarage for rice

26
production, the average yield per hectare should be 3 to 5 tons in the irrigated and rainfed areas,
respectively (PRRPO, 2005).
Thirty-seven (37%) have an annual gross income ranging from 60,000-80,000. Only ten or 5%
have reported a gross income of less than or equal to 20,000. The average annual gross income
was Ᵽ 63,000.00.
The transportation cost of rice products to nearest market outlets shows that most of the
respondents (42%) have a transport cost of 20 to 25 pesos which is also the cheapest
transportation cost. Only one-fourth (24%) of the respondents have a transportation cost of 31-
35 pesos which is also the most expensive transportation cost.
Majority (89%) of the lowland rice farmers in the Lanao del Sur have have not availed of any
credit or financial assistance from their postharvest production and only 11% positively
responded that they avail of financial assistance or loan from their postharvest production but
such loan is a credit from their friends or relatives, and not from any lending institution. The
finding implies that the lowland rice farmers of Lanao del Sur has no access to any credit
institution. According to Nhelmachena and Hassan (2007), access to affordable credit increases
financial resources of farmers and their ability to meet transaction costs associated with various
adaptations that they might want to take.
Many farmers (73.5%) of the respondents rely on their fellow farmers as a source of information
about postharvest operation/technology. This was followed by extension worker from SUC
(16%); DA’s extension worker (5%) and the least source of information that lowland rice
farmers were the local buyers which has only 2.5%. The finding coincided with the study of Dela
Cruz (1994) that the farmers’ main source of information with regards to postharvest is their
fellow farmers.
Perceptions of Respondents by Type and Extent of Postharvest Practice among Lowland
Rice Farmers
Table 3. Perceptions of lowland rice farmer-respondents by type and extent of
postharvest practices
Postharvest
Practices
Never Practiced Less
Practiced
Moderately
Practiced
Practiced Highly
Practiced
Total Mean Qualitative
Description
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Threshing:
Hampasan 200 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 100 1.0 NP
Trampling 124 62 10 5 24 12 42 21 0 0 200 100 1.92 LP
Mechanical 76 38 6 3 8 4 24 12 86 43 200 100 3.19 MP
Average: 2.04 LP
Drying:
Solar 89 44.5 6 3 9 4.5 18 9 78 39 200 100 2.95 MP
Mechanical 194 97 0 0 0 0 6 3 0 0 200 100 1.12 NP
Average: 2.03 LP
Storage:
Farm level 58 29 85 42.5 54 27 3 1.5 0 0 200 100 2.01 LP
Off-farm 200 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 100 1.0 NP
Average: 1.51 NP
Milling:
Mortar &
pestle
200 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 100 1.0 NP
Kiskisan 107 53.5 3 1.5 37 18.5 11 5.5 42 21 200 100 2.39 LP
Cono 200 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 100 1.0 NP
Average: 1.46 NP

27
The farmers do threshing manually (hampasan and trampling) and mechanically. It was found
out that 100% of the respondents never practiced hampasan, less practiced trampling and
moderately practiced mechanical thresher. Lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur both practiced
trampling and mechanical thresher. They revealed that they make use of trampling if small
amount of paddy is to be threshed. They usually threshed the paddy by using their underfoot but
if large amount of paddy is to be threshed, they prefer to use mechanical thresher because
according to them it is not laborious.
Drying has also two types or method and these are solar or sun drying and mechanical drying. As
revealed in the table, on the average, solar drying is moderately practiced by the respondents
compared to mechanical drying where only 6 out of 200 respondents practiced it but on the
average mechanical drying is not practiced. The finding implies that majority of lowland rice
farmers rely on sun drying of threshed paddy.
Lowland rice farmers of Lanao del Sur usually dried their threshed paddy by putting and
spreading the threshed paddy in a tarpaulin sheet on the road or concrete pavement of a
basketball court under the sun and manually raked it several times a day to ensure uniform drying
to prevent deterioration. They added that sun drying is cheaper and did not need special skills or
expertise.
For storage, 100% of the respondents never practiced off-farm level storage (storing paddy or
milled rice in a private or government warehouses) but less practiced farm storage (storing paddy
or milled rice for consumption or retain paddy as seed for planting in the next season). Lowland
rice farmers in Lanao del Sur usually do not practiced storage because according to them they
chose to sell their produce directly to have cash on hand and buy the needs of their family. They
revealed that storing rice is very critical for them considering that they lack the facilities that will
prevent deterioration of paddy and pest attack that will bring a big loss for them. That is why
they prefer to sell it. They added that if in case they will store accordingly, it is intended only for
consumption or to be used as seeds for the next cropping.
In milling the respondents never practiced mortar and pestle and cono rice mill but there are 134
out of 200 respondents practiced kiskisan for milling, while 66 respondents never practiced all
the said types or methods of milling. They prefer to sell it to rice miller that offers them higher
income than milling it through kiskisan that will bring only 50-60% output recovery. Lowland
rice farmers in Lanao del Sur usually milled their produce in kiskisan because it is the only
available method. The findings imply that lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur is dependent
only on kiskisan or one pass mill.This suggests that lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur should
adopt cono rice mill or modern rice mill.
.
Perceptions of Respondents towards the Problems on Postharvest Practices
Perceptions of respondents towards the problems on postharvest practices are shown in Table 4.
As shown in the table, lack of capital to pay for postharvest practices and credit unavailability are
the major problems of the individual/poor farmers. This is not surprising. The fact that lowland
rice farmers in Lanao del Sur have not availed of any financial or credit assistance for their
postharvest operation, no doubt that they consider lack of capital as their main problem.
Accordingly, they stress that if there is available capital then they can buy postharvest facilities
but still they suffer on the payment of the high interest and the high power cost in using the
facility.

28
In terms of lack of awareness/resistance to change, the respondents consider it as a moderate
problem. The need to educate the end users is also another problem, since most lowland rice
farmers obtained a high school level of education, so it is expected that they need to be educated
and be aware of those technologies promoted by the government and need to have an aggressive
extension program. They learned postharvest technology only from their fellow farmers so if
they are properly informed by these extension workers and these co-lowland rice farmers to
make themselves ready for change and improvement.
Table 4. Perceptions of respondents towards the problems on postharvest practices of
lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM.
Lack of
Technologies:
a. Difficulty in
operation, repair and
maintenance
15 7.5 30 15 79 40 48 24 28 14 200 100 3.22 24.8 MOP
b. Mismatch of
capacity
11 5.5 37 19 62 31 62 31 28 14 200 100 3.3 22.1 MOP
c. Lack of capacity
during peak of
harvest
5 2.5 14 7 58 29 75 38 48 24 200 100 3.74 29.6 MJP
d. Poor or absence
of road system in the
rural
82 41 74 37 43 22 0 0 0 0 200 100 1.8 20.6 NP
Average: 3.02 24.3 MOP
PROBLEMS
Np Mip Mop Mjp Vmp Total Mean Sd Qualitative
Description
F % F % F % F % F % F %
Lack Of Capital:
A. Individual/ Poor
Farmers Cannot Afford
To Buy Postharvest
Facilities.
21 11 8 4 28 14 64 32 79 39.5 200 100 3.86 30.1 Mjp
B. Credit/ Financing
Not Readily Available.
13 6.5 12 6 25 13 85 43 65 32.5 200 100 3.89 33.1 Mjp
C. High Interest Rates 0 0 0 0 38 19 84 42 78 39 200 100 4.2 25 Vmp
D. High Energy/Power
Cost
0 0 4 2 42 21 62 31 92 46 200 100 4.21 36.9 Vmp
Average: 4.04 31.3 Mjp
Lack Of Awareness/
Resistance:
A. Need To Have An
Aggressive Extension
Program As In The
Production Phase
18 9 39 20 47 24 44 22 52 26 200 100 3.37 13.2 Mop
B. Need For
Government To
Initiate/Assist
Promotion Of
Technologies
28 14 58 29 56 28 32 16 26 13 200 100 2.85 15.7 Mop
C. Need To Educate
The End-Users
0 0 13 3.5 95 48 74 37 18 9 200 100 3.49 40.8 Mjp
Average: 3.24 23.2 Mop

29
Legend:
5 4.20-5.00 Very major problem (VMP)
4 3.40-4.19 Major problem (MJP)
3 2.60-3.39 Moderate problem (MOP)
2 1.80-2.59 Minor problem (MIP)
1 1.00-1.79 Not a problem (NP)
With regards to the problem on lack of technologies, it was revealed that 39% ( x = 3.22) of the
respondents view difficulty in operations, repair and maintenance a problem, 31% ( x = 3.30)
consider mismatch capacity as a moderate problem while 29% ( x = 3.74) of the respondents
consider lack of capacity during peak harvest as a problem. Poor or absence of road system in
the rural areas is never considered a problem. Therefore, the findings imply that lack of
technologies is a moderate problem in the lowland rice farmers in the province of Lanao del Sur.
Perceptions of Respondents towards the Specific Problems on Postharvest Practices
As for the specific problems in each postharvest operation, it was found out in the study that
with regards to the problem on threshing, the respondents, on average ( x = 3.65), consider
threshing as a major problem. Almost half (47.5%) of the respondents consider too much
broken straw on oscillating screen as a major problem, 42.5% consider grain being blown over
the wind board as a major problem and 33% consider dirty grain as a moderate problem on
threshing as one of the postharvest operations in lowland rice farming.
As found out in the study, the respondents used mechanical thresher which suggests that these
farmers must be trained and informed on proper usage of these mechanical thresher to avoid the
mentioned problems and economic losses may be eliminated, if not minimized. The respondents
consider high investment cost and unfavorable weather condition as a major problem. Out of
the 200 respondents, 96 and 67 respectively say it is a major problem.
In addition, milling as a postharvest practice is also done by the lowland rice farmers and they
consider it as one of the major problems. The lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur used to mill
their paddy using kiskisan or one-pass mill and they consider it as a very big problem because
accordingly, high breakage occurs especially if the paddy is not well-dried giving them low
recovery of grains. Another problem encountered by the lowland rice farmers is there is no
electric power/fuel and the technology is costly. If there is no electric power, they cannot mill
their rice.
Moreover, the lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur consider storage as a major problem
because they lack storage facilities that would maintain the quality of the produce. Consequently,
high investment cost is a major problem because the farmers cannot afford to buy storage
facilities since these are expensive and they lack capital.

30
Table 5. Distribution of respondents on the extent of the identified specific problems on
postharvest practices among 200 lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
Legend:
Factors Influencing the Farmers Choice on Postharvest Practices
Factors influencing the farmers’ choice on postharvest practices are shown in Table 6. According
to the results, it was found out that educational attainment, annual gross income, transportation
cost and extension contact have significant relationship to threshing. Lowland rice farmers’
educational attainment is only high school level, which implies that the farmers has a greater
chance of adopting or learning improvement strategies in their postharvest practices particularly
in threshing.
PROBLEMS
NP MIP MOP MJP VMP TOTAL Mean SD Qualitative
DescriptionF % F % F % F % F % F %
Threshing:
a. Too much
broken straw on
oscillating
screen
0 0 0 0 55 27.5 95 47.5 50 25 200 100 3.98 24.66 MJP
b. Grain being
blown over by
the wind board
0 0 25 12.5 51 25.5 85 42.5 39 19.5 200 100 3.69 25.64 MJP
c. Dirty grain 11 5.5 37 18.5 62 31 66 33 24 12 200 100 3.28 23.8 MOP
Average: 3.65 24.7 MJP
Drying:
a. High
investment cost
0 0 0 0 47 23.5 96 48 57 28.5 200 100 4.05 25.89 MJP
b. Unfavorable
weather
condition
4 2 32 16 53 26.5 67 33.5 44 22 200 100 3.58 23.84 MJP
Milling:
a. Inefficient
one-pass
0 0 0 0 39 19.5 88 44 73 36.5 200 100 4.17 25.11 VMP
b. No electric
power/fuel
4 2 32 16 53 26.5 67 33.5 44 22 200 100 3.58 23.84 MJP
c. Costly 32 16 60 30 64 32 30 15 14 7 200 100 2.67 21.31 MOP
Storage:
a. High
investment cost
0 0 19 9.5 88 44 83 41.5 10 5 200 100 3.42 41.21 MJP
b. Unfavorable
climate
6 3 21 10.5 74 34 80 40 19 9.5 200 100 3.43 34.33 MJP
5 4.20-5.00 Very major problem (VMP)
4 3.40-4.19 Major problem (MJP)
3 2.60-3.39 Moderate problem (MOP)
2 1.80-2.59 Minor problem (MIP)
1 1.00-1.79 Not a problem (NP)

31
According to Maddison (2006), educated and experienced farmers are more knowledgeable and
informed about agronomic practices and therefore can take an adaptation measure in response to
the effects of change. Bordey (2004) found out also that farmers with at least secondary level of
education have greater probability of hybrid rice continuous adoption. This was contradicted by
Torregoza (2000), who pointed out that educational attainment played no significant influence
on farmer’s decision to adopt new technology because it is the nature of innovation being
considered. According to Rustia and Talaima (as cited by Carabelle, 2004), education is not an
adoption factor.
Table 6. Factors affecting farmers’ choice of threshing, drying and storage practices
among 200 lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
Independent
variable
THRESHING DRYING STORAGE
p-value Chi-square p-value Chi-square p-value Chi-square
Sex 0.315 2.186 0.665 0.506 0.810 0.421
Age 0.866 30.329 0.105 51.486 0.932 62.059
Educational
attainment
0.013 10.855** 0.765 1.151 0.776 3.256
Family size 0.428 1.699 0.028 11.699** 0.023 11.045**
Farm size 0.120 4.241 0.043 5.858** 0.478 3.500
Farming experience 0.458 2.596 0.458 2.596 0.299 7.247
Tenurial status 0.524 1.292 0.370 1.988 0.00 20.156**
Yield 0.029 10.803** 0.022 11.432** 0.970 2.311
Annual gross
income
0.043 9.157** 0.026 11.045** 0.013 10.855**
Transportation cost 0.006 10.753** 0.031 0.533 0.395 4.083
Credit availability 0.426 0.205 0.006 11.393** 0.734 0.620
Extension contact 0.019 11.730** 0.138 6.952 0.990 1.642
Member in an
organization
0.194 1.105 0.194 1.105 0.827 0.380
Yield is another factor that has significant relationship to threshing. As found in the study, the
respondents’ average yield per hectare is 4,500 kilograms and they both practiced trampling and
mechanical threshing. This means that higher yield is gained because of the availability of
mechanical thresher where the farmers can be able to thresh the paddy in a short period of time.
The use of agricultural machinery substantially reduces the amount of human labor needed for
raising crops. The average amount of labor required per hectare to produce and harvest rice,
corn and other crops has fallen to less than a fourth of what was required only a few decades
ago, hence mechanization has enabled the small percentage on farms to produce enough yield
(Microsoft Encarta [DVD], 2009). Transportation cost is a factor to be considered in threshing
practiced.
Contact to extension workers is another factor that has significant relationship in threshing. It
implies that farmers’ contact to extension workers from DA or SUC enables them to gather
more information in improving their postharvest practices especially in minimizing the economic
losses incurred. As found out in the study, lowland rice farmers are not members of any

32
organization; in fact, their sources of information with regards to postharvest practices or
technology are their fellow farmers. Hence, if these farmers will be able to have extension
contact, then there is possible improvement in their threshing practices. According to De
Guzman (as cited by Damag, 2003), the local government units particularly the Department of
Agriculture provides service delivery system to the people specifically the agricultural sector as
embodied in the Local Government Code (LGC) of 1991 (RA 7160). According to Rogers
(1995), mass media such as TV, radio and newspaper is considered a more effective way to
generate awareness of the innovation; whereas, interpersonal communication is considered more
effective in influencing individual’s decision to adopt.
In addition, for drying practices, the factors that have significant relationship were family size,
farm size, yield, annual gross income and credit availability. Family size influenced drying
practices because expenditures by farmers are for family living and for production of goods
(Microsoft Encarta [DVD], 2009); a lesser family size would mean a higher income for the
farmers to spend on buying mechanical drying facilities. Farm size is also an important factor to
be considered in drying. As observed in the study, the average farm size of the lowland rice
farmers in Lanao del Sur is two hectares and the maximum farm size of four hectares. These
imply that lowland rice farmers have sufficient farm size in producing rice and drying their
produce and likely willing to adopt strategies in improving their postharvest practices particularly
in drying. The result agrees with Palero (2005) that farm size is significantly associated with
farmers’ extent of adoption of total quality and productivity management. Estigoy as cited by
Laurente (2004), found significant relationship between the adoption of innovation and farm
size. The study of Laureto (1997) showed that farm size is significantly related to the adoption of
modern technologies. Aguanta (2008) stresses that Maranao rice farmers’ practices are
significantly influenced by farm size and appropriateness of MSB strategies. On contrary,
Deressa et al. (2010) stresses that farm size negatively affects the use of one, or a combination of
identified coping strategies by farmers. Also, yield is an important factor. Lowland rice farmers’
average yield per hectare is 4,500 kilograms which means that these farmers can dry their
produce either through sun drying or mechanical drying.
Annual gross income is significantly related to drying practice as well as credit availability. The
average gross income of the lowland rice farmers per hectare was Ᵽ65,000 and their lone source
of income is farming. They have not availed of any financial assistance for their postharvest
production. The findings imply that lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur are willing to adopt
new strategies or purchase drying facilities if their income is sufficient. If not, loans or financial
assistance could help them much better to buy mechanical dryer as substitute to solar drying. It
can be noted that these farmers rely mainly on sun drying, so if the weather condition is not
good then these farmers will not be bothered if they have a mechanical dryer. Ramos (1994) said
that the flow of income may reckon daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly. A community where the
economic level is subsistent, agricultural change is unlikely to occur. If the family income is
considerably lower, it may then proceed to become a member of an organization to avail of
modern technology and have greater yields in production (Solidan as cited by Palero, 2005). The
study of Bautista (1993) cited that family income in DFS is affected by the wet and dry season
making these two seasons a predictor of annual income.
Furthermore, in terms of storage, family size, tenurial status, and annual gross income are factors
to be considered in storage practices. A large family size would influence the farmers’ income;
this obliged farmers to defer means of improving their properties and facilities (Microsoft
Encarta [DVD], 2009). Most of the lowland rice farmers cultivate their own land which means
that make their own decisions to adopt for the improvement of their storage practice, implying
that there is a possibility that the farmer-respondents may decide converting portion of their land

33
to be used as their storage for their paddy. However, as found in this study, the farmers actually
less practiced storage due to lack of storage facilities. Kemp et al. (2004) stated that the land and
its related resources for one’s basic needs serve as the source of the world’s accumulated wealth.
Salva (1990) observed too that owners are more prone to make decision to adopt new practices,
while non-owners obtain permission first before trial or use of innovation. Annual income is an
important factor to storage because those with higher income would possibly purchase storage
facilities like “silo” in storing their paddy or milled rice. For milling, there is only one type of
method used and that is kiskisan or one pass mill.
Economic Performance of Postharvest Practices
Threshing
As shown in Table 7, majority (62%) of the respondents used mechanical type of threshing while
38% used trampling type of threshing. It implies that both trampling and mechanical thresher
was practiced by the lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur.
Table 7. Threshing practices of lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
TYPE OF THRESHING FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Trampling 76 38
Mechanical thresher 124 62
Total 200 100%
Table 8 shows that the economic performance of threshing a sack or 50 kilogram of paddy in
terms of time spent was 7.0 minutes in mechanical threshing while 50 minutes in trampling. The
finding implies that trampling spent much time due to its laborious method compared to
mechanical threshing. The cost spent per sack of paddy in mechanical threshing was Ᵽ22.00
compared to trampling which was Ᵽ56.00 per sack. Out of 50 kilograms, the output recovery for
using mechanical thresher was 45.3 kilograms while there is a greater output recovery in
trampling which is 48.2 kilograms. As for the losses, mechanical thresher incurred 8.36% loss
higher compared to trampling that incurred only 2.66%. The results imply that there is a
significant difference between mechanical and trampling in terms of cost, time spent, output
recovery and losses.
Table 8. Economic performance of threshing practices by lowland rice farmers in terms
of losses, output recovery, time spent, and cost in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
INDICATORS THRESHING Difference t-test
Mechanical
Thresher
Trampling
Time spent (min) 7.0 50 43 -161.45**
Cost (P/sack) 22 56 34 -160.79**
Output Recovery(kg) 45.3 48.2 2.9 -60.01**
Losses (%) 8.36 2.66 5.7 57.37**
** Significant at 0.05 level
Lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur prefer to use mechanical thresher even if it gives higher
loss and low output recovery. The result of the study agrees with Basavaraja et al. (2007) that

34
grain losses during threshing activity were estimated to be 0.52kg/q in rice. The threshing losses
were mainly in the form of broken grains, which were slightly higher, when produce was
threshed by machine as compared to manual threshing. However, a majority of the producers
preferred power thresher due to their cost and time advantages. Ramos (1994) found that
threshing by using treading or trampling caused 3.6% losses. Besides, it increased the presence of
mud balls and the broken percentage of the milled rice. Patil and Basappa (2005) added that an
average total losses during the threshing was 0.18 quintals per farm or 0.07 quintals per ha, which
was to the tune of 11.92% of the total at field level, or farm level. This is because majority of
farmers threshed their produced by power thresher. The losses during threshing in terms of
broken grains, scattering of grains out of threshing yard, grains left over in the thresher were
higher when produce was threshed by machine. But due to cost and time advantage, majority of
the producers preferred to thresh their produce by mechanical thresher. The higher losses were
compensated through the reduction in labor cost and time. Guisse (2010) stressed that threshing
losses were also higher (6.14%) when threshing was done using the “bambam” (a big locally
made wooden box) than when the bag beating method (2.45%).
In many countries in Asia and Africa, the crop is threshed by being trodden underfoot (by
human or animals); the output is 30-50 kg of grain per hour. The same method, using a
mechanical thresher the output is a few hundred kg per hour (FAO, 2007). With regards to cost,
threshing service fees normally varies with regions of the country. In Central Luzon, for
example, threshing fees are normally in kind (paddy) which is 6% of the total amount of
threshed paddy (PRRPO, 2005).
Drying
Table 9 reveals that out of 200 respondents, there were only 117 of them who practiced drying
either through mechanical or solar drying. A little more than one-half (55.5%) of the respondents
prefer solar drying while only 3% used mechanical drying. The rest of the respondents (41.5%)
did not practice drying; they directly sell their produce to traders or millers for the reason that
they needed immediate cash and they have inadequate facilities to practice milling and storage.
The finding implies that lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur preferred to use solar drying in
drying paddy.
Table 9. Drying practices of lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur, ARMM
TYPE OF DRYING FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
(%)
Mechanical 6 3
Solar drying 111 55.5
No answer 83 41.5
Total 200 100%
Table 10 shows the economic performance of drying practices of a 50 kg or sack of paddy. In
terms of time spent, sun drying of paddy spent eight hours and 51 minutes while mechanical
drying spent only of two hours and 50 minutes. Lowland rice farmers in Lanao del Sur mainly
rely on sun drying for it is cheaper and does not need expertise. They usually put their paddy and
spread it in a sheet of tarpaulin on a concrete pavement under the sun and occasionally stirred it
to have uniform drying. As found in the study, there were six respondents who used mechanical
dryer because for them, it eliminates the problems associated with sun drying and it offers more
advantage of timeliness in the drying operation aside from maintaining the quality of grain and

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