Vol 8 No 2 - Special Issue

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International
Journal of
Humanities &
Social Sciences
Vol. 8, No. 2
IJHSS.NET
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
Special Issue

Vol 8, No 2 – Special Issue
Table of Contents
The Sources of Knowledge on Essential Intrapartum and Newborn Care
Protocol (EINC) and its Impact on the Extent of its Implementation in
the Hospitals in Iligan City
1
Laarni A. Caorong and Ashley A. Bangcola
Soil Loss Mitigation using Synthetic Polymer under Simulated Condition 15
Sheila G. Griengo, Romeo B. Gavino, Victorino T. Taylan and
Sylvester A. Badua
Scientific Perspective of Meranao Students’ Superstitious Beliefs in Food
Preparation and Preservation
26
Rasmia M. Yahyah - Muti
Into The Woods: A Motif Mainstreaming of “Imontanosa’s”
Eschatological Legends
37
Jonnelle Desierto Fagsao, MTE
Application of MODIS Satellite Data in Modeling Total Suspended Solids
in Lake Lanao, Philippines
48
Rakimah Datu Macabalang and Xin Qian
The Relationship of Compliance to Medication among Hypertensive
Heads of Units and their Diet and Attitude towards Medical Consultation
60
Athena Jalaliyah B. Derico-Lawi
The Stages of Female Circumcision Practice among Meranaos Living in
the Rural and Marginalized Areas in Lanao
69
Salmah Lao Basher
Equipment Inventory Management System (EIMS) 76
Belen M. Tapado and Ma. Emmie T. Delluza
AAJHSS.ORG

Preliminary Evaluation of Lake Lanao fish Hypseleotris agilis Herre for
Antimicrobial Activity
84
N. Barosa, F. Abamo , M. Kabirun and M. Billacura
Protective and Antigenotoxic Potentials of Lantana camara Linn. Leaves 91
L. Roboca, M. Billacura and F. Abamo
Does Farmer Field School Work? Assessing the Outcomes of Madrasah
Sa Basak of MSU-PhilRice in Lanao del Sur, Philippines
97
Leo M. Aguanta
Growth and Yield Performance of the Different Varieties of Pechay
(Brassica chinensis) as Affected by the Different Organic Fertilizers under
MSU-Marawi Condition
103
Saanoding A. Balayo
On a q-Analogue of the Non-central Whitney Numbers 112
Omar I. Cauntongan

1 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 1-14, ©IJHSS
The Sources of Knowledge on Essential Intrapartum and
Newborn Care Protocol (EINC) and its Impact on the Extent of
its Implementation in the Hospitals in
Iligan City
Laarni A. Caorong
orcid.org/0000-0002-1987-4854
laarni_caorong@yahoomail.com
Mindanao State University
Marawi City, Philippines
Ashley A. Bangcola
orcid.org/0000-0002-8228-9930
ashyannaali@gmail.com
Marawi City, Philippines
Abstract
The DOH embarked on Essential Intrapartum and Newborn Care (EINC) to address neonatal
deaths in the country. This descriptive correlation study was made to find out the sources of
knowledge on EINC to the extent of implementation of the EINC protocol in the three areas:
labor and delivery rooms as well as Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) of hospitals in Iligan
City. A sample of 62 staff nurses (86.5%) and midwives (14.5%) were purposively selected from
two private hospitals and three public hospitals in Iligan City. A three-part structured
questionnaire was utilized to carry out the rationale of the study. The results revealed that the
staffs were generally applying the steps/procedures in the EINC protocol in their respective
units. The staff‘s primary sources of knowledge on EINC were the trainings and seminars
provided by the hospitals through its Nursing Service Offices, heads and colleagues. The study
further revealed significant relationship between these sources of knowledge on EINC and the
extent of its implementation in the delivery room and nursery room of the five hospitals in Iligan
City. The findings underscore the need for healthcare institutions to strengthen their information
drive on EINC which can result to its increased implementation which can in turn lead to the
improvement of health care service in institutional deliveries. This may involve empowerment of
staff and educating them on best practices and creating a monitoring and evaluation system.
Keywords: Essential intrapartum, newborn care, EINC knowledge, quantitative research,
Philippines

Introduction
Childbirth is central event to human nature and one that has a great impact on the life of women
and their families and over the years, remarkable progresses were made in the safety and comfort
of human labor and birth but there is also an increase in maternal as well as neonatal mortality
despite these progresses. Every year there are approximately 3.7 million neonatal deaths and 3.3
million stillbirths worldwide (Wardlaw et.al, 2012). The country is one of the 42 countries that
account for 90% of under-five mortality worldwide. 82,000 Filipino children under five years old
die every year. Thirty seven percent (37%) or 40,000 of them are newborn (United Nations
Development Groups, 2012) The high mortality and morbidity rates in newborn are directly
related to inappropriate hospital and community practices currently employed throughout the
Philippines. Additionally, the current practices in hospitals fell below the recommended World
Health Organization (WHO) standards and robbed the newborns of the natural protection
offered by the basic recommended interventions (DOH, 2009).
In an attempt to provide quality maternal and newborn care, and to address neonatal deaths in
the country, the Department of Health (DOH) embarked on Essential Intrapartum and
Newborn Care (EINC). The unang yakap campaign is a government program aimed at
improving newborn care and reducing neonatal death by half. This DOH initiative employs
EINC protocol as its main strategy (Pena, 2010).
In this paper, the terms ―EINC‖ and ―Unang Yakap‖ will be used interchangeably. The newborn
care package is a four step intervention to reduce newborn deaths. Four core steps were
recommended in a time bound sequence which includes drying the baby, skin contact, cord
clamping and keeping newborn and mother together for early initiation of breast feeding (DOH,
2009). According to Banzon (2013), Unang Yakap calls for the end of old, routine health-care
practices that have been previously deemed ―infallible‖ despite the absence of evidence. For the
mother, routine enemas, restriction of food and drinks during labor, routine intravenous fluid
insertion, perineal shaving and fundal pressure should be abandoned. For the newborn, routine
suctioning upon birth, routine separation of mother and early bathing (less than six hours after
birth) must be discontinued. Application of various substances to the umbilical cord and the
practice of foot printing should be discouraged, which has no value for the baby. The
recommended procedures during intrapartum includes maternal support by a companion during
labor and delivery, freedom from movement and monitoring of progress during labor, as well as
not including episiotomy as part of the routine of care and management of the third stage of
childbirth (World Health Organization Protocol, 2012).
In the early stages, EINC protocol was adopted initially by 11 pilot hospitals in Central Luzon,
Visayas and 2 hospitals in Mindanao (Chattoe-Brown et.al, 2012). Adventist Medical Center-
Iligan, Dr. Uy Hospital Inc., Mercy Community Hospital and Gregorio T. Lluch Memorial
Hospital were among the hospitals in Iligan City, which adopted the guidelines of EINC
protocol subsequently. Accordingly, these hospitals have provided trainings and seminars on
EINC to their staff to ensure that the EINC protocol is implemented correctly in their
institutions.
Statement of the Problem
The birth of children in countries like the Philippines can be risky to both mother and child
hence the need to shift to the EINC protocol. According to Banzon (2013) EINC is easily

implementable, be it the rural health unit, to lying-in clinic and even the hospital setting.
Moreover, EINC is about health systems. It is a choreographed set of actions requiring team
effort from health professionals—obstetricians, anesthesiologists and pediatricians alike,
administrative/support staff of the birthing facility and the mother‘s family. Thus, failure to
implement does not mean failure of one, but failure of the system (Banzon, 2013). This study
was made to assess the implementation of the EINC protocol in the hospitals in Iligan City.
Additionally, this study also explored the staff‘s sources of EINC knowledge, as well as the
relationship between the extent of EINC implementation and the sources of EINC knowledge.
Research Design
This investigation employs a quantitative descriptive correlational design to answer the research
questions. The descriptive design was used to describe the extent of EINC implementation and
the sources of EINC knowledge among staff nurses and midwives in the hospitals of Iligan City.
The correlation method of research was used to investigate the relationship between the extent
of EINC implementation and the sources of EINC knowledge.
Significance
This study aimed to determine the extent of implementation of the EINC protocol and
understand its application in the hospitals in Iligan City. Additionally, the results of this study
may serve as basis for assessment, performance or feedback/evaluation tool of the extent of
implementation of the EINC. It will also be a means to monitor staff in the delivery of quality
care services in the delivery room and neonatal care units. Furthermore, the results of this study
can be used for training, retraining and continuing education for hospital staff members as this
may improve overall organizational performance. Lastly, the results of this study may result in
less maternal and neonatal deaths and complications.
Method of Procedure
To determine the extent of EINC implementation and the sources of EINC knowledge, this
study utilized a survey method with questionnaires. The structured researcher-developed
questionnaire comprised 3 sections. Section A covered the demographic data of the respondents.
Section B dealt with the respondents‘ sources of knowledge about EINC/ Protocol i.e. trainings
and seminars conducted by the DOH, trainings and seminars conducted by the hospital (through
the Nursing Service Office), echo-seminars given by heads and colleagues in the unit, doctors in
the institution, downloadable videos or material sources from the internet, Instructors during
student years, printed or written guidelines handed by immediate supervisor, graphic materials,
and flyers or advertisements. Section C was adopted from the EINC step-by-step procedures as
recommended by the DOH and was further subdivided into three sections: 1) Intrapartum care
composed of seven statements answered by labor room midwives and nurses who were currently
assigned in the said area; 2) Intrapartum care comprised of 18 statements answered by staff
nurses and midwives assigned in the delivery room; and 3) The newborn care-sixteen- step
protocol answered by respondents assigned in the NICU. In this part of the questionnaire, the
respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of their implementation of each of the step in
the DOH recommended EINC protocol. A preliminary step was done for item analysis and
revision of questionnaires
For the purpose of selecting the setting of the study, five hospitals in Iligan City (2 private
hospitals and three public hospitals) were selected as the locale and the delivery room (DR),
labor room (LR), and neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) were the focus areas of the study.

These hospitals were purposefully selected since they were among the first implementors of
EINC protocol in Iligan City. The respondents were staff nurses and midwives who were
purposively chosen based on the following criteria: (1) He or she must be currently assigned in
one of the areas of OB-ER, DR, or NICU; and (2) He or she must have been working in one of
the aforementioned areas for at least six months after the implementation of the EINC protocol
in their respective areas. The subsequent sample consisted of 53 nurses and 9 midwives who
were working for not less than six months in one or more of the three areas of LR, DR, and
NICU. The respondents were mostly female with a significant number of the respondents who
were single, with ages ranging from 21 to 51 years old, earning a monthly income of less than
PhP 10,000.00 with 1 to 5 year length of service.
Collection of Data
Prior to the actual conduct of the study, the researcher visited the different hospitals in Iligan
City. A preliminary talk was conducted with the chief nurse of each hospital to explain the
purpose as well as the possible benefits of the research to the hospitals under study. During this
time, the researcher also requested for a list of the registered nurses and registered midwives
assigned in the labor room, delivery room and neonatal intensive care unit with the
corresponding length of service in their respective areas. The purpose of which was to determine
the actual number of respondents. All registered nurses and registered midwives who had served
for less than six months in the three areas of OB-ER, DR, and NICU were eliminated as
potential respondents. Another visit was made again to formally deliver the permission letter to
seek approval of the respondents‘ participation in the study. It was also an opportunity to get the
respective schedules of the respondents to facilitate the easy gathering of data. The final and
subsequent visits were made to invite the respondents to participate in the study. Among the 62
staff nurses and midwives who agreed to participate, all of them completed all the questionnaires
(100% response rate). The data gathered were tallied, tabulated, and then subjected to statistical
treatment.
Treatment of Data
The data was analyzed through the statistical package for the social sciences. A series of Cramer‘s
V correlation was used to examine the association between the extent of EINC implementation
and the sources of EINC knowledge. The alpha level was set at .05 for statistical significance. 
Findings
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution, Respondents‘ Sources of
Information on the EINC Protocol
Sources of Information f %
1. Trainings and seminars conducted by the Hospital (through the
Nursing Service Office)
36 58.1
2. Doctors (Obstetricians, Pediatricians) serving in the institution 32 51.6
3. Echo-seminars given by heads or colleagues in the unit 31 50.0
4. Trainings and seminars conducted by the Department of Health 26 41.9

5. Printed or written guidelines handed by immediate supervisor 25 40.3
6. Graphic, flyers, advertisements 20 32.3
7. Downloadable videos or material sources from the internet 18 29.0
8. Instructors during student years 17 27.4
As to the respondents‘ sources of information regarding the EINC Protocol, Table 1 shows that
when the eight possible sources of information on EINC Protocol are ranked, the following
order is obtained: 1st
- from trainings and seminars conducted by the hospital through the
Nursing Service Office (58.1%); 2nd
– from doctors serving in the institution (51.6%); 3rd
– from
echo-seminars given by the heads and colleagues in the unit (50.0%); 4th
– from trainings and
seminars conducted by the Department of Health (41.9%); 5th
– from printed and graphic
materials (40.3%); 6th
– from graphics, flyers and advertisements (32.3%); 7th
– from
downloadable videos/material sources from the internet (29.0%); and 8th
– from instructors
during the respondents‘ student years (27.4%).
Based on the findings, it can be stated that most of the respondents get their information on the
EINC protocol from the trainings and seminars conducted by their respective hospitals through
the initiative of the Nursing Service Office. This finding suggests the need for hospitals to
promote and facilitate seminars and trainings for their staff nurses and midwives on EINC
Protocol. A study in Zambia (Manasayan, et.al, 2011) to study the cost effectiveness of the WHO
EINC training of health care providers. The results of the study include a decrease in neonatal
mortality rate from 11.5 per 1000 to 6.8 per 1000 live births after ENC training of the clinic
midwives. The study concluded further that ENC training of clinic midwives who provide care
in low-risk facilities is a low-cost intervention that can reduce early neonatal mortality in these
settings. On the other hand, the data further shows that out of the 62 respondents, only 17
obtained their information on EINC from their instructors when they were still students. This
finding is unexpected considering the fact that the EINC protocol was issued for
implementation by DOH Secretary Enrique Duque on December 2009 (DOH, 2009) and was
assumed to have been adopted for instruction in most nursing schools from the time it was
issued for implementation by the Department of Health. The findings suggest a need for nursing
schools to strengthen their instructions on the EINC/Unang Yakap Protocol.
Table 2. Frequency and Percentage Distribution, Extent of Implementation of EINC
Protocol in Terms of Steps/Procedure for Intrapartum Care According to Labor
Room Staff*
Steps/ Procedure
Intrapartum Care
5
Always
4
Often
3
Sometimes
2
Seldom
1
Never
Mean
F % f % f % f % F % V I
1. Assess client at the
start of labor
29 85.3 2 5.9 3 8.8 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
2. Use partograph to
monitor progress of
labor
12 35.3 4 11.8 0 0 9 26.5 9 26.5 3.0 O
3. Wash hands before
and after care of
30 88.2 4 11.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A

each client
4. Monitor progress of
labor
29 85.3 2 5.9 3 8.8 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
5. Allow fluids & light
diet during labor
12 35.3 15 44.1 5 14.7 2 5.9 0 0 4.1 O
6. Start IV only when
necessary & if
ordered by the
attending physician
30 88.2 3 8.8 1 2.9 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
7. Allow patient to have
SO in the labor
room to be present
during labor
16 47.1 4 11.8 13 38.2 0 0 1 2.9 4.0 O
GRAND MEAN 4.4 A
Mean LEGEND: Always (A) 4.3 – 5.0 v = Value
Often (O) 3.5 – 4.2 I = Interpretation
Sometimes (SO) 2.7 – 3.4
Seldom (SE) 1.9 – 2.6 *n= 34
Never (N) 1.0 – 1.8
The 34 respondents who were assigned in the Labor Room of the five hospitals under study were
surveyed to determine the extent of their application of the seven steps/procedures for
intrapartum care in the Labor Room. The findings indicates that generally the steps/procedures
under intrapartum were ‗always‘ applied by the respondents with a grand mean of 4.4. Four out
of the seven steps/procedures under intrapartum care were ‗always‘ applied while three steps
were ‗often‘ applied. Based on ranking, the procedures of ‗washing hands before and after care of each
client’ and ‗starting IV only when necessary and if ordered by the attending physician’ were the mostly
applied steps under intrapartum care in the Labor Room with a mean score of 4.9 for each of the
procedures.
On the other hand, procedure of ‗using partograph to monitor progress of labor’ was the least applied
step under intrapartum care in the Labor Room with a mean score of 3.0. This finding is
consistent with the findings of a study by Kaur, et. al. (2010), found out in his study that the use
of partograph could be used to monitor the progress of labor. It was also found out in that
study that the use of partograph with strict evaluation and recording is not feasible. However,
EINC promotes the use of the old reliable partographs so that any trained birth attendant can
track the progress of labor and refer complicated pregnancies as early as necessary. According to
Banzon (2013), it is easily implementable, be it the rural health unit, to lying-in clinic and even
the hospital setting.
It is also significant that thirteen respondents only ‗sometimes‘ apply the procedure of ‗allowing
patient to have significant other in the labor room to be present during labor’ and only five respondents
‗sometimes‘ ‗allow fluids and light diet during labor’. EINC desires continuous support for the
expectant mother by ensuring that she has a companion while in labor and delivery and that she
is able to move around easily (Banzon, 2013). Moreover, Abraham Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs
states that people having satisfied a need moves on to satisfy another (McLeod, 2007). An
expectant who is denied food and drink during labor will find her needs unfulfilled. The needs of
the expectant mother have to be met as they are vital to her well-being, both physical and

emotional, and consequently to her process of giving birth. It can be traumatic for a woman to
be left alone in the delivery room while she is being prepped, as she might feel unloved and
abandoned. If an expectant mother‘s need are not met, her birth experiences can be unsatisfying
and may lead to complications. Conversely, if her needs are satisfied, one outcome is that the
birth experience can lead to self-actualization.
Protocol in Terms of Steps/Procedure for Intrapartum Care According to Delivery
Room Staff*
Steps/ Procedure
Intrapartum Care
5
Always
4
Often
3
Sometimes
2
Seldom
1
Never
Mean
f % F % f % f % F % v I
1. Allow patient to
have SO to be
present inside the
delivery room
8 25.0 4 9.4 11 28.1 7 21.9 5 15.6 3.1 SO
2. Encourage the
mother to void
before lying on
delivery table.
17 53.1 3 9.4 12 31.3 1 3.1 1 3.1 4.0 O
3. Permit mobility &
position of choice
during labor
12 37.5 15 43.8 3 6.3 2 6.3 3 6.3 4.0 O
4. Turn off
aircon/electric fan
when patient is in
the delivery room
8 25.0 8 25.0 12 31.3 5 12.5 2 6.3 3.4 SO
5. Wash hands
thoroughly
before and after
each care
31 96.9 1 3.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 A
6. Put on double
glove if handling
delivery & remove
first glove before
cutting the cord of
infant
11 34.4 6 18.8 11 34.4 4 12.5 0 0 3.6 O
7. Assist patient into
a comfortable
position in the
delivery table, as
upright as
possible.
19 59.4 9 28.1 2 6.3 2 6.3 0 0 4.3 A
8. Allow the mother
to push as she
wishes with
contractions
21 65.6 6 18.8 1 3.1 0 0 4 12.5 4.3 A
9. Provide perennial
support and
controlled delivery
of head
27 84.4 2 6.3 3 9.4 0 0 0 0 4.7 A
10. Limit practice of
episiotomy only
21 65.6 4 12.5 6 18.8 1 3.1 0 0 4.3 A

when necessary
11. No performance
of fundal push
8 25.0 13 40.6 9 28.1 2 8.3 0 0 3.7 O
12. Callout the time
of birth & gender
30 93.8 2 6.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 A
13. Place baby on the
mother‘s
abdomen.
29 90.6 3 9.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
14. Administer 10 IU
of Oxytocin IM
within 1 minute
after baby‘s birth
15 46.9 8 25.0 3 9.4 1 3.1 5 15.6 3.8 O
15. Perform
controlled traction
when delivering
placenta with
counter traction
on the uterus
24 75.0 5 15.6 2 6.3 0 0 1 3.1 4.5 A
16. Massage the
uterus after
placental
expulsion
26 81.3 3 9.4 3 9.4 0 0 0 0 4.7 A
17. Examine and
assess the lower
vagina &
perineum
27 84.4 3 9.4 3 9.4 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
18. Monitor the
mother & the
baby immediately
after the delivery
of the placenta
28 87.5 4 12.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
GRAND MEAN 4.3 A
Mean
LEGEND:
Always (A) 4.3 – 5.0 v = Value
Seldom (SE) 1.9 – 2.6 *n= 35
Never (N) 2.0 – 1.8
Table 3 shows the extent of the application of the steps/procedures for intrapartum care among
the Delivery Room staff in the five hospitals under study. The findings indicates that generally,
the steps/procedures under intrapartum were ‗always‘ applied by the respondents in the care of
the patients during the intrapartum period in the delivery room with a grand mean of 4.3. Eleven
out of the eighteen steps/procedures under intrapartum care in the delivery room were ‗always‘
applied while five steps were ‗often‘ applied and two were ‗sometimes‘ applied in the delivery
room during the intrapartum period.
Based on ranking, the procedures of ‗washing hands before and after care of each client and ‗calling out the
time of birth and gender of the newborn’ were the mostly applied procedures under intrapartum care in
the delivery room with a mean score of 5.0 for each of the procedures. The findings can be
attributed to the fact that washing of hands before and after providing care to the patient is a
universal practice among healthcare professionals in any healthcare setting and not limited to the

delivery rooms only to prevent the transmission of microorganisms and cross-contamination
between and among patients. According to the World Health Organization, the most effective
way to reduce cross infection is hand hygiene by health care workers (WHO, 2009). Additionally,
the procedure of calling out the name and gender of the newborn although specific to the
delivery room only is a procedure that is being practiced even before the implementation of the
EINC Protocol.
On the other hand, the procedure of ‗allowing patient to have significant other to be present inside the
delivery room’ was the least applied procedure in the delivery room with a mean score of 3.1. This
finding may attributed to the fact that in the Philippine setting family members were traditionally
not allowed to enter in the labor room and delivery room on the premise that the woman in
labor may simply adopt the sick role and take to bed. However, the central proposition of the
Birth Territory theory is that when midwives and healthcare professionals endeavor to influence
conditions to create an ideal environment and if significant others are there to provide maximum
support labor will result in an increased likelihood that the woman will give birth under her own
power, be more satisfied with the experience and adapt with ease in the post birth period to an
entirely satisfying experience for the woman as there will be an increased likelihood for her to
take control of her situation which is exactly what the Essential Intrapartum and Newborn Care
(EINC) protocol intends to accomplish.
Protocol in terms of Steps/Procedure of Newborn Care According to NICU Staff*
Steps/ Procedure
Newborn Care
5
Always
4
Often
3
Sometimes
2
Seldom
1
Never
Mean
f % F % f % f % F % V I
1. Thorough drying of
baby for 30
seconds
33 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 A
2. Assess breathing of
baby & perform
resuscitation when
needed
31 93.9 1 3.0 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
3. Place the baby on
mother‘s abdomen
for skin-to-skin
contact
27 81.8 4 12.1 2 6.1 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
4. Place baby in prone
position to drain
secretions
27 81.8 6 18.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
5. Clamp the cord
using plastic sterile
clamp 2 cm from
the base
32 97.0 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
6. Clamp using
forceps 3 cm from
the plastic clamp
32 97.0 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
7. Cut the cord 2-3
minutes after the
delivery of the baby
or when cord
pulsation stops
28 84.8 4 12.1 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.8 A
8. Discard the wet 32 97.0 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A

cloth use to dry
baby
9. Wrap the mother &
baby with linen
23 69.7 7 21.2 3 9.1 0 0 0 0 4.6 A
10. Put bonnet on
baby‘s head
22 66.7 8 24.2 2 6.1 1 3.0 0 0 4.6 A
11. Apply name tag on
baby‘s ankle
31 93.9 1 3.0 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
12. Initiate early breast
feeding
21 63.6 11 33.3 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.6 A
13. Monitor both baby
and mother
30 90.9 3 9.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
14. After 60mins of
skin-to-skin contact
and adequate
latching on, do eye
care, PE, weigh,
measure, inject
Vitamin K, Hepa B
vaccine, BCG
29 87.9 3 9.1 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.9 A
15. Non separation of
baby from mother.
29 87.9 3 9.1 1 3.0 0 0 0 0 4.0 O
16. Transport both
mother and baby to
room together.
11 33.3 11 33.3 5 15.2 4 12.1 2 6.1 3.8 O
GRAND MEAN 4.7 A
Mean
LEGEND:
Always (A) 4.3 – 5.0 v = Value
Seldom (SE) 1.9 – 2.6 *n= 33
Never (N) 3.0 – 1.8
The 33 respondents who were assigned in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) were
surveyed to determine the extent of their application of the 16 steps/procedures for newborn
care in the nursery room. The findings indicate that generally the steps/procedures for newborn
care were ‗always‘ applied by the respondents in NICU. These findings can be attributed to the
fact that 25 out of the 62 respondents were assigned in NICU (40.3%) and other 8 respondents
(12.9%) were rotated in the three areas including NICU. It can be inferred that more staff are
available to provide care to the newborns. Based on ranking, the procedure of ‗thorough drying of
the baby for 30 seconds’ was the mostly applied procedure with a mean score of 5.0. This finding
signifies that the respondents recognize the importance of drying the baby immediately after
birth because the infant is extremely vulnerable to heat loss because his/her body surface area is
great in relation to his/her weight and he/she has relatively little subcutaneous weight. Heat loss
after delivery is increased by the cool delivery room and the infant's wet skin (Banzon, 2013).
On the other hand, the findings also shows that the respondents did not ‗always‘ apply one of
the important mandates of EINC Protocol which is the non-separation of the newborn from the
mother, not even in the nursery (Banzon, 2013). Aside from the fact that the baby must remain
in skin-to-skin contact so that breast-feeding can begin immediately and skin-to-skin contact

provides additional warmth to the newborn, the non-separation of the mother and newborn is
essential to the development of attachment between mother and baby. According to Bowlby‘s
Attachment Theory (1991), attachment between mother and baby had an evolutionary
component; it aids in survival. He stated that "the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to
particular individuals is a basic component of human nature‖.
Table 5: Cramer‘s V, Respondents‘ Sources of Knowledge and the Extent of Implementation of
EINC Protocol in Area of Assignment
Tested Variables
Sources of EINC Knowledge by Area of Assignment
Cramer‘s
V Value
Computed
p – Value
Interpretation
Trainings and seminars conducted by the DOH LRIC .235 .391 NS
DRIC .184 .551 NS
NRNC .295 .090 NS
Trainings and seminars conducted by the
Hospital (through the Nursing Service Office)
LRIC .214 .458 NS
DRIC .421 .045 *Significant
NRNC .420 .016 *Significant
Echo-seminar given by the head and colleague in
the unit
LRIC .220 .439 NS
NRNC .372 .101 NS
Doctors (Obstetricians, Pediatricians) in the
institution
LRIC .325 .166 NS
DRIC .359 .105 NS
NRNC .416 .057 NS
Instructors during student years LRIC .122 .776 NS
DRIC .248 .340 NS
NRNC .088 .614 NS
Downloadable videos or material sources from
the internet
LRIC .170 .613 NS
NRNC .105 .547 NS
Print materials or written guidelines handed by
immediate supervisor
LRIC .235 .391 NS
DRIC .173 .593 NS
NRNC .385 .087 NS
Graphic, flyers, advertisements materials LRIC .103 .835 NS
DRIC .319 .168 NS
NRNC .354 .127 NS
NS – not significant (p ≥ 0.05) LRIC – Labor Room Intrapartum Care
* Cramer’s V is significant (p ≤ .05 level) DRIC – Delivery Room Intrapartum Care
NRNC – Nursery Room Newborn Care
Several sources of knowledge on Essential Intrapartum Newborn Care (EINC) and the extent of
EINC implementation were analyzed per area of assignment i.e. Labor Room Intrapartum Care
(LRIC), Delivery Room Intrapartum Care (DRIC); and Nursery Room Newborn Care (NRNC)
using Cramer‘s V Value which was appropriate for the independent variables with nominal
choices. The results show that none of the variables pertaining to the respondents‘ sources of
knowledge on EINC protocol have significant relationship with the extent of implementation of
labor room EINC protocol. This means that the implementation of the said protocol in the
labor room is not in any way influenced by the respondents‘ sources of knowledge on such and it
does not matter where the respondents obtained their information on EINC protocol.

Additionally, the data revealed that echo-seminars given by heads and colleagues in the unit and
downloadable videos or material sources from the internet have significant relationship with the
extent of implementation of EINC protocol only in the delivery room while trainings and
seminars conducted by the hospital through the nursing service office have been found to have
significant relationship with the extent of implementation of EINC protocol both in the delivery
room and nursery room.
As sources of information, trainings and seminars conducted by the hospital through the nursing
service office and echo-seminars given by heads and colleagues in the unit, were highly correlated
with the extent of implementation of EINC protocol in the delivery room and nursery room.
This could be explained by the fact that 58.1% of the respondents indicated that their primary
source of information on EINC protocol was the trainings and seminars conducted by the
hospital through the nursing service office while 50% of the respondents indicated echo-
seminars given by heads and colleagues in the unit as their primary source of information on the
EINC protocol. This finding suggests the need for hospitals to promote and facilitate seminars
and trainings for their staff nurses and midwives on EINC Protocol.
On the other hand, downloadable videos or material sources from the internet on EINC
protocol is significantly correlated with EINC implementation in the delivery room only but did
not reveal a significant association with EINC implementation in the labor room and nursery
room may be explained by the prevalence of downloadable videos on the internet which focuses
more on the steps related to the process of actual delivery. Furthermore, many of the steps in the
EINC protocol pertaining to the care of newborn are already being done by midwives in the
delivery room such as placing the baby on mother‘s abdomen for skin-to-skin contact, placing
the baby in prone position to drain secretions, clamping the cord using plastic sterile clamp 2 cm
from the base, clamping the cord using forceps 3 cm from the plastic clamp, and cutting the
cord 2-3 minutes after the delivery of the baby or when cord pulsation stops.
Recognizing the sources of EINC knowledge that have an impact on the extent of its
implementation should be regarded as a key element to strengthening the level of EINC
implementation in health care institutions.
Conclusions and Implications of the Study
This study provided useful information on the sources of EINC knowledge that could have an
impact to the extent of its implementation in health care institutions, be it the rural health unit,
lying-in clinic and even the hospital setting. In line with the foregoing findings, the following
conclusions have been reached: The staff were generally applying the steps/procedures in the
EINC protocol in their respective units/areas however, each of them were on different extent.
The staff‘s primary sources of knowledge on EINC were the trainings and seminars provided by
the hospitals through its Nursing Service Offices, heads and colleagues. These sources of
knowledge on EINC in turn have an impact on the extent of its implementation in the hospitals
in Iligan City.
To assure prime optimization of the care of women and newborns, there is a need for a shift to
the procedures in the new EINC protocol. The findings underscore the need for healthcare
institutions to strengthen their information drive on EINC which can result to its increased
implementation which can in turn lead to an improved class of healthcare delivery by health
workers. This may necessarily require the synergy of healthcare workers worldwide, and the
empowerment of staff through means such as education and the raising of awareness on best
practices and areas of improvement, discussing potential pitfalls in practicing the protocol, as

well as introducing it by means of focus group trainings, and establishing mechanisms for
monitoring and evaluation.
Although it has provided important information on the sources of EINC knowledge that could
influence the extent of its implementation, this study has a number of limitations. Firstly, the
study relied on respondents‘ self-reported data, which is prone to bias. Second, the research
method did not include a qualitative component which could have strengthened the study by
providing reasons why some things are not done the way they should be done. Another
limitation of this study is the sample size. There is no previous statistical correlation of the
sample size to any similar study that could have validated the findings as definitive of the state of
EINC protocol implementation in private and public hospitals.
Literature Cited
Brown, A. & Kerrison J., 2008. Independent Progress Review of the UN Joint Program On Maternal &
Neonatal Mortality Reduction, Philippines Final report. Retrived on May 20, 2014 from:
www.aid.dfat.gov.au/.../philippines.
Banzon, E., 2013.Health System Matter: Unang Yakap. BussinessMirror, Opinion, February 5, 2013 Issue.
DOH, 2009. Department of Health Administrative Order No. 2009-0025: Adopting New Policies and
Protocol on Essential Newborn Care. Retrieved from home.doh.gov.ph/ao/ao2009- 0025.pdf.
Kaur, G. & Kaur, B. & Chopra, S., 2010. An exploratory study on 'Nurse Midwife Manpower'
requirement in Labour room, Nehru Hospital, PGIMER, Chandigarh. Retrieved on September
2014 from: http://medind.nic.in/nad/t10/i1/nadt10i1p24.pdf.
Manasyan, A., Chomba, E., McClure, E., Wright, L., Krzywanski, S., Waldemar C., 2011. Cost-
effectiveness of Essential Newborn Care Training in Urban First Level Facilities. Retrieved on
February 25, 2013 from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3387868/
McLeod, S. A., 2008. Mary Ainsworth. Retrieved on September 18, 204. Retrieved from:
http://www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html.
Pena A. G., 2012. Essential Newborn Care, Unang Yakap Campaign. Retrieved on September 18, 2014.
Retrieved from: http://www.annakatharinamd.com/2010/03/07/essential-newborn-care-
unang-yakap-campaign/
UNDG, 2013. United Nations Development Group. Consolidated Annual Report on Activities
Implemented under the Joint Programme ―Strategy to Improve Maternal and Neonatal Health in
the Philippines‖. Retrieved from:
file:///C:/Users/acer1/Downloads/JPMNH%202012%20Consolidated%20Annual%20Report
%20(2).pdf
Wardlaw T., David, B., Cappa, C., Dwivedi, A, 2012. UNICEF Progress Report 2012: Division of
Policy & Strategy. Retrieved on May 20, 2014. Retrieved from:
www.uu.orglru/publications/pdfs/renewed_progress
WHO, 2009. World Health Organization Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: A Summary.
Retrieved on August 23, 2014. Retrieved from:
http://www.who.int/gpsc/5may/tools/who_guidelines-handhygiene_summary.pdf
WHOP, 2012. World health Organization Protocol. Essential Intrapartum and Newborn Care (EINC)
Evidence-based Standard Practices. Retrieved from:
http://www.wpro.who.int/philippines/areas/maternal_child_nutrition/newborn_
mother_care/einc_protocols/en/

Laarni A. Caorong finished her Master of Arts in Nursing major in
Nursing Administration and Bachelor of Science in Nursing in
Mindanao State University, Marawi City, Philippines. She has twelve
years of undergraduate teaching experience in various specializations
including Fundamentals of Nursing, Psychiatric Nursing, Maternal and
Child Health Nursing, Communicable Diseases, Intensive Care Unit
Nursing, Emergency and Disaster Nursing, Perioperative Nursing,
Community Health Nursing and Geriatric Nursing. She held various
positions in the College of Health Sciences in Mindanao State University. She is concurrently the
Chairperson of the Instruction Committee, Co-Chairperson of the Curriculum and Instruction
Committee, Level I Coordinator, and Secretary to the Accreditation Committee. She was also the
College Secretary of the Nursing Department from 2013-2014. She had been an undergraduate
instructor of the Nursing Department of the College of Health Sciences since 2005 up to
present. As an educator, she has been recognized for having obtained an Outstanding (98%)
Teaching Efficiency Ratings for three consecutive academic years from 2006-2007. In the field of
research, she has taken part in her University‘s Research Capsule Competition during the
Phenomenology Nursing Research Seminar-Workshop on March 2015 where she won First
Place. Currently, she is a co-researcher of a University-funded research on educators‘ perceptions
and understanding of the basis of Outcome-based education and its impact on their assessment
practices.

p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 15-25, ©IJHSS
Soil Loss Mitigation using Synthetic Polymer under Simulated
Condition
Sheila G. Griengo,
Mindanao State University-Marawi City,
Romeo B. Gavino, Victorino T. Taylan, Sylvester A. Badua
Central Luzon State University,
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija , Philippines
*Email address of corresponding author: sittieayeesha@yahoo.com
Abstract
One of the effects of climate change is soil degradation which is mostly due to soil erosion. The
use of anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) as a soil stabilizer is an emerging conservation practice for
mitigating soil loss. PAM can be an alternative to traditional soil erosion control practices rather
than mulching and slope profiling to control erosion. Generally the study aimed to assess the
effect of using synthetic polymer (PAM) in mitigating soil loss under simulated condition.
Specifically it attempted to install a locally fabricated rainfall simulator (spray-nozzle type) to
evaluate the effectiveness of PAM at different rates (no PAM, 7.4 g of PAM per kg of soil and
14g of PAM per kg of soil) at different slope gradients (10, 35 and 60 degrees) and analyze the
relationship of slope gradient versus sediment yield, and soil loss at different rainfall intensities.
Different rates of PAM were applied in soil test boxes filled with medium loam of soil under
simulated condition. Runoff volume was then collected every event to determine the sediment
yield and soil loss. Data were analyzed using the Split-plot design with three replications and a
regression analysis to determine their relationships. The results indicated that PAM applications
significantly reduced sediment yield and soil loss at different rainfall intensities. The most
effective rate of PAM applied in mitigating soil loss was found to be at a ratio of 14g of PAM per
kg of soil. Sediment yield and soil loss were best fitted in a quadratic model in the form of a
second degree polynomial equation. The relationships between slopes versus the above
parameters being used were found to be non-linear. Moreover, the observed soil loss for every
level of PAM was best modelled by the following coefficient of determination and their
corresponding second degree polynomial equations for both rainfall intensities;
at 75 mm/h,
A0 : SL = -0.0002s2
+ 0.0138s + 0.084; R² = 0.8845
A40 : SL = -9E-05s2
+ 0.007s + 0.0015 ; R² = 0.7964
A80 : SL = -6E-05s2
+ 0.0044s - 0.021; R² = 0.8485, and ;
at 100 mm/h
A0 : SL = -0.0008s2
+ 0.0652s - 0.06; R² = 0.9942
A40 : SL = -0.0004s2
+ 0.0251s + 0.0078; R²=0.9773
A80 : SL= -6E-05s2
+ 0.0034s + 0.1223; R² = 0.7536.
Keywords: soil stabilizer, Polyacrylamide (PAM), rainfall simulator, sediment yield, soil loss.

Introduction
One of the most serious ecological problems here in the Philippines today is soil degradation.
The most widespread process and most studied in the country is soil erosion (Asio, 2010). Soil is
removed through erosion. When soil is removed it, results in the loss of soil fertility in the land
where it came from. Erosion results to loss of organic matter and clay, topsoil and nutrients, and
soil's capacity to retain nutrients and water. Moreover, lower infiltration rates and increased
runoff are also a result of erosion due to the compaction and sealing of soil surface.
A vital resource for the production of renewable resources for the necessities of human
life, such as food and fiber is soil thus, for better land use and conservation practices,
identification and assessment of erosion problems plays an important role. Other than
agronomic measure and other mechanical conservation of soils, another alternative practice is
applying chemical amendments to modify the soil properties. Various polymers that stabilize soil
surface structures and improve pore continuity have long been recognized as viable soil
conditioners, (Orts et al., 2007. Many recent studies have shown that use of synthetic organic
polymers, like polyacrylamide (PAM), as surface soil amendment results in benefits including
reduction of runoff volumes, decrease in sediment yield, and stabilization of soil structure. The
versatility of PAM is one of the aspects that make it attractive. The key to its effectiveness as a
soil amendment is the way in which the polymer is adsorbs to the soil (Green et al., 2000).
Rainfall simulators have been used as tool in research in evaluating soil erosion and
runoff from agricultural lands, high ways etc. It can be used either under laboratory conditions or
in disturbed or natural soil and it is an important tool for the study of runoff generation and soil.
The RS can expedite data collection because it has the ability to create controlled and
reproducible artificial rainfall (Thomas and Swaify, 1989) and soils and management variables
among locations can be easily compared (Sharpley et al., 1999). Thus, a rainfall simulator was
designed and fabricated in this study to simulate rainfall and test the effect of synthetic polymer
as soil stabilizer in mitigating soil loss in a simulated condition.
Generally, the study aimed to assess the effect of the synthetic polymer (PAM) on mitigating
soil loss under simulated condition. Specifically it attempted to: (a) install a locally fabricated
rainfall simulator (spray-nozzle type) to create a controlled condition for the study; (b) evaluate
the effectiveness of the synthetic polymer (PAM) as soil stabilizer at different amount and at
different slope gradients in mitigating soil loss; and (c) determine the relationship of slope versus
sediment yield, and quantity of soil loss at different rainfall intensities.
Methods
Rainfall Simulator Design
The rainfall simulator (Figure 1) was locally fabricated based on the design used in the study of
Kibet, L.C., et al., (2014). Simulator consists of a collapsible frame made of 40 mm galvanized
iron (G.I.) pipe. Frame was 3 meters high bolted on each corner with an area of 2.5 x 2.5 meters
that support a single spray nozzle head above the soil test boxes.

Figure 1. Rainfall Simulator
Wide Angle Full Cone Spray Tip (FL-10VC) centered over a 2.25-m2
plot to deliver
simulated rain. . An electric pump was used to draw water from 200-liter reservoir to supply
water to the nozzle thru a 20 mm G.I. pipe. Bypass line (made of three gates valves assembled
together) just above the reservoir along with flow meter and pressure gauge before the nozzle
assembly, were used to achieve the desired nozzle pressure. Just outside the pump outlet,
plumbing system was equipped with gate valve and shutoff valve to turn the flow on and off
without disturbing valves that control the pressure and flow rate. Sediment filter was used to
reduce solid particulate transported by the water and remove suspended matter such as sand, silt,
loose scale, clay, or organic material from the water that might clogged on the nozzle.
Windscreen made from High Density Polyethylene plastic was used and attached to all sides of
the frame, secured at the top to bottom so as not to affect rainfall simulation.
Calibration
Calibration was done using a method of 10 seconds discharge flow collected at the nozzle and
measured whether or not it corresponds to the required volume of water for every simulation
.The flow was adjusted until it met the desired discharge flow for every rainfall intensity.
Determination of Rainfall Uniformity Coefficient
To evaluate rainfall distribution in the soil test boxes, Christiansen Coefficient of Uniformity
(CU) was used (Christiansen, 1942) as cited by Javellonar, 2013.
𝐶𝑈 = 100(1 −
𝑥
𝑚𝑛
) (1)
where : CU = uniformity coefficient, %
m = mean value of simulated rainfall in the boxes, mm
x = absolute deviation of the individual observations from the mean,
n = number of observation
Soil Collection and Preparation
The soil test box with dimension of 40 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm was made from plain galvanized iron
sheet formed into individual rectangular shapes riveted on all sides to keep it in shape, sealed on
both sides to prevent water and soil leak from the boxes and with 5 cm lip on the forward end
where runoff spills. Six 5 mm diameter drain holes were drilled on the boxes to allow water that
infiltrated the soil to drain from the boxes and prevent ponding.
Nozzle Assembly
Sediment Filter, bypass line, Flow meter, pressure
gauge
Pump and Water Supply

Samples of disturbed soil were used in the experiment for evaluation. Prior to packing of
soil in the test boxes the approximate bulk density of the field was determined where soil
samples were taken. Cheesecloth was placed on the bottom of the boxes to keep the soil from
washing out of the holes in the boxes while allowing water to flow through when the soil was
saturated. Boxes were then filled with soil half deep up to 3 cm and spread evenly.
The remaining 2 cm was added with soil mixed with dry PAM granules to achieve the
appropriate weight based on the bulk density and until it was levelled with the lower lip of the
boxes which was 5cm. After the desired weight was achieved by soil addition, tamping, and PAM
application, the boxes were then subjected to pre-wetting treatment and left overnight.
Figure 2. Soil test boxes
Experimental Treatments
Each set-up was subjected into two different simulated storm intensities of 75 mm/h for 23
minutes and 100 mm/h for 12-minutes. Factors used in this study and their respective levels
were the following:
A.) Main Plot: Slope Gradient
S1 = 10 degrees
S2 = 35 degrees
S3 = 60 degrees
B.) Sub-Plot: Amount of PAM applied
A0 = No PAM
A40 = 7.4 g of PAM per kg of soil
A80 = 14 g of PAM per kg of soil
Runoff Collection
The 5 cm forward edge lip of the boxes was attached with a Polyethylene (PE) plastic bag where
runoff was allowed to flow during simulation. Runoff volume was then collected in each of the
test boxes after a rainfall of predetermined duration, weighed and measured using a graduated
cylinder.
Data Analysis
Data gathered was evaluated using the Split-Plot Design with three replications. Comparison
among treatment means was also used to identify any differences if found significant in the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Least Significant Difference Test at 5% level of
significance.

Regression analyses were likewise employed to determine the relationship of slope
gradient versus sediment yield and soil loss at different rainfall intensities
Performance Indicators
In order to assess the effectiveness of the Polyacrylamide to prevent soil loss using the locally
installed rainfall simulator, the following parameters were determined:
Sediment Yield (SY) - reflects the total amount of erosion over a specific area at a given
time. In this particular study, this was the mass of the oven-dried sediment collected over the
area of the soil test box and duration of simulation. It was estimated using the formula adopted
by Berboso, et al. (2008) as cited by Junio, et al. (2009).
𝑆𝑌 =
𝑠 𝑚
𝐴 𝑏 𝑡
(2)
where: SY = sediment yield, g / m2
-hr
Sm = mass of oven-dried sediment collected, g
Ab = area of soil test box, m2
t = duration of simulation, h
Soil Loss (SL) – the total amount of soil erosion or loss generated from a given watershed
or a given area. The total soil loss from each storm event was calculated using Herweg and
Ostrowski (1997);
SL = C (Sy/ A) (3)
where: C = 0.01 conversion factor ( g/m2
to tons/ha)
SL = amount of soil loss for a storm event, tons/ha
Sy = amount of soil loss for the storm event, g
A = area of soil test box, m2
Results and Discussion
Calibration and Coefficient of Uniformity Test
Table 1 shows calibration result of the fabricated rainfall simulator. Effective area for the rainfall
simulator was 2.25 m2
meters.
During the evaluation, the estimated mean Coefficients of Uniformity (CU) of the soil
test boxes were 81.00% and 75.39% at rainfall intensities of 75 mm/h and 100 mm/h
respectively. It depicts that 19% of the soil test boxes in 75mm/h and 24.61 % of the soil test
boxes in 100 mm/h rainfall intensity did not have enough rainfall. The Coefficient of Uniformity
tends to follow a normal distribution when the values is approximately 70% or higher (Esteves et
al., 2000; Maroufpoor et al., 2010).
Table 1. Rainfall simulator calibration result
RAINFALL
INTENSITY
(mm/h)
SIMULATION
DURATION
(min)
FLOWRATE
SETTING
(li/min)
TEN (10) SEC.
FLOW
RESULT
(mL)
NOZZLE
PRESSURE
READING
(kPa)
75 23 2.81 465 - 475 134-154
100 12 3.75 620 - 630 200-230

Soil Bulk Density and Textural Classification of the Soil Sample
The bulk density of the soil samples used in this study was 1.34 g/cm3
. The test box was packed
with soil based on the computed bulk density that determines the final weight of the soil in the
box. With a soil height of 5cm at the box the approximate amount of soil was 5.4 kg/box.
Textural classification shows that the sample has a soil type of medium loam with a composition
of 49.94% sand, 30.11% silt, and 19.95% clay.
This soil type has an erodibility factor (K) of 0.42 at an organic matter of 2%. The K
factor indicates susceptibility of certain soil to erosion. The higher the value depending on the
type of soil, the more prone it is to erosion and vice versa.
Soil Loss under Different Rainfall Intensity
Mean soil loss of PAM and slope gradient is shown in Table 2. It can be noted that treatment A80
recorded the lowest soil loss at rainfall intensity of 75 and 100 mm/h, followed by A40 and A0 or
no PAM. At 75 mm/h, soil loss increased as slope increased from 10 to 35 degrees but decreased
as slope stretches up to 60 degrees. Similar trend of soil loss was also observed at rainfall
intensity of 100 mm/h were soil loss was lowest at highest amount of PAM applied and at lowest
slope gradient. Soil loss under 75 mm/h and 100 mm/h rainfall intensity were significantly
affected by amount of PAM applied, slope gradient and interaction (PAM x Slope). Result of
comparison among means for 100 mm/h intensity was noted in Table 2 where soil loss at slope
10 and slope 60 were significantly lower compared to slope 35 and significantly different
sediment yield was noted at A0, A40, A80 amounts of PAM. On interaction of amount of PAM
and slope, the treatment combinations A80 at slope 10, A80 at slope 35, A80 at slope 60, A40 at
slope 60 had no significant differences on soil loss but they exhibited significant differences with
the other combinations. Highest soil loss of 1.20 ton/ha was observed at A0 slope 35 which is
significantly different from other treatment combinations. Significant reduction of soil loss could
be attributed to PAM application on the soil test boxes. The result can be attributed to the
migration of PAM granules in the pore spaces where they act as a mortar to limit erosion. Soil
may become absorbed by activated PAM granules when PAM particles were wetted. They
provide little benefit in terms of infiltration compared to the control (Peterson et.al, 2002).
The lower soil loss at 60 degree gradient was the result of a decrease in the horizontal
surface area of the test box when it was inclined at a higher slope. When the horizontal surface
area was decreased, less rainfall will be intercepted resulting to lower runoff and eventually lower
soil loss (Javellonar, 2013).
Table 2. Mean soil loss (tons/ha) as affected by different amounts of PAM and varying degree of
slope
SLOPE TREATMENT MEAN
Degree Ao A40 A80
Rainfall Intensity -75 mm/hr
10 0.20 u 0.06 w 0.02 x 0.09 c
35 0.35 s 0.13 v 0.06 wx 0.18 a
60 0.28 t 0.09 vw 0.03 x 0.13 b
MEAN 0.28 i 0.09 j 0.03 k
Rainfall Intensity - 100 mm/hr
10 0.51 u 0.22 w 0.15 x 0.29 c
35 1.20 s 0.42 v 0.17 x 0.60 a

60 0.85 t 0.15 xy 0.11 y 0.37 b
MEAN 0.85 i 0.26 j 0.14 k
Slope Gradient versus Sediment Yield
Relationship between slope gradient and sediment is shown in Figures 3 and 4 for rainfall
intensities 75 mm/h and 100 mm/h respectively. Regression analysis for both rainfall intensities
indicates that sediment yield is best fitted in a quadratic model in form of second-degree
polynomial equation.
Figure 3. Relationship of slope gradient vs sediment yield for 75 mm/h
The following are equations and coefficients of determination (R2
) generated for every level of
PAM applied at 75 mm/h,
A0 : SY = -0.0461s2
+ 3.5957s + 21.913 ; R2
= 0.8845
A40 : SY = -0.0243s2
+1.8348s + 0.3913; R2
= 0.7964
A80 : SY = -0.0157s2
+ 1.1391s - 5.4782; R2
= 0.8485
where 21.913, 0.3913 and 5.4782 are the intercept of the line on the Y-axis when slope is equal
to zero, 3.5957 and -0.0461 ; 1.8348 and 0.0243; 1.1391 and -0.0157s2 are the first and second
degree slopes of the line respectively, the amount of change in sediment yield for every unit of
change in slope.
At 100 mm/h, the following are the equations and coefficients of determination (R2
),
A0 : SY = -0.2174 s2
+ 17s - 15.652; R² = 0.9942
A40 : SY= -0.0991s2
+ 6.5478s + 2.0435; R² = 0.9773
A80 : SY = -0.0157s2
+ 0.8783s + 31.913; R² = 0.7536
where -15.652 is the intercept of the line on the Y-axis when slope is equal to zero, 17 and -
0.2174 ; 6.5478 and – 0.0991; 0.8783 and -0.0157 are the first and second degree slopes of the
line respectively, or the amount of change in sediment yield for every unit of change in slope;
where: SY = predicted sediment yield, g/m2
-h
S = slope gradient, degree

Figure 4. Relationship of slope gradient versus sediment yield at 100 mm/h
A non-linear relationship was observed between slope gradient 10 to 60 degrees and
sediment yield for all treatments under different rainfall intensities. That is, at lower slope
gradient, sediment yield was likewise lower. When the slope gradient increased to 35 degrees,
sediment yield also increases but when corresponding decrease in sediment yield was registered.
The observed decreased in sediment yield at a higher slope gradient of 60 degrees could
be attributed to the smaller surface area of the soil test boxes. Furthermore the decrease in the
horizontal surface area was the result of the shortened horizontal distance or length of the soil
test boxes when it was tilted into a steeper slope (Javellonar, 2013).
On one of the study from Renner (1936), he found that the percentage of eroded area is
different with the slope gradient after analysing the data of the Boise River watershed, Idaho in
America. If the slope gradient exceeds a threshold value, the relationship takes inversely
proportional form that is when the slope gradient exceeded 40°, the volume of soil erosion starts
to decrease instead. In this particular study it was observed at 35 degrees slope gradient.
Slope Gradient versus Soil Loss
Figures 5 and 6 shows relationship between slope gradient and soil loss under different rainfall
intensities. Regression analysis indicates that soil loss is best fitted in quadratic model at second
degree polynomial equation. The following are equations and coefficients of determination ( R² )
generated for every level of PAM applied at 75 mm/h,
A0 : SL = -0.0002s2
+ 0.0138s + 0.084; R² = 0.8845
A40 : SL = -9E-05s2
+ 0.007s + 0.0015 ; R² = 0.7964
A80 : SL = -6E-05s2
+ 0.0044s - 0.021; R² = 0.8485
where 0.084, 0.0015, and -0.021 are the intercept of the line on Y-axis when slope is equal to
zero, 0.0138 and -0.0002 ; 0.007 and -9E-05 ; 0.0044 and -6E-05 are the first and second degree
slopes of the line respectively, or amount of change in soil loss for every unit of change in slope.
Figure 5. Relationship of slope gradient versus soil loss at 75 mm/h

At 100 mm/h, the following are the equations and coefficients of determination (R2
),
A0 : SL = -0.0008s2
+ 0.0652s - 0.06; R² = 0.9942
A40 : SL = -0.0004s2
+ 0.0251s + 0.0078; R²=0.9773
A80 : SL= -6E-05s2
+ 0.0034s + 0.1223; R² = 0.7536
where - 0.06, 0.0078 , 0.1223 are the intercept of the line on Y-axis when slope is equal to zero,
0.0652 and -0.0008 ; 0.0251 and -0.0004 ; 0.0034 and -6E-05 are the first and second degree
slopes of the line respectively, or amount of change in soil loss for every unit of change in slope;
where: SL = predicted soil loss, tons/ha
S = slope gradient, degree
Non-linear relationship was also observed between slope gradient (10 - 60 degrees) and
soil loss for all treatments under different rainfall intensities. At lower slopes, elevation is nearly
flat; therefore velocity of the surface runoff is slow. When velocity is low, shear stress which may
cause detachment of soil particles can also be slow. Therefore, when velocity of runoff is slow,
little amount of sediment can only be transported downslope. At higher slope of 35 degrees,
there is expected increase in surface runoff velocity so is with shear stress. Slope gradient also
with velocity of runoff water could be at its maximum level capable of detaching and
transporting significant amount of sediment hill (Javellonar, 2013).
Gradual decline was observed as the slope gradient further increased to 60 degrees.
Observed decrease in soil erosion at higher slope gradient of 60 degrees could be attributed to
smaller horizontal surface area of the soil test boxes when inclined to 60 degrees (Javellonar
2013). This result agrees with theory on “erosion as a function of slope” adapted from Pierce, FJ
1987, as cited by Javellonar, 2013. On the other hand, another factor which significantly reduced
soil loss is application of PAM. Lentz et al. (1992) hypothesized that PAM could be used to
decrease erosion since it can increase cohesiveness of soil at the surface which was tested in this
study and reflected in the results showing its potential to mitigate soil loss on surfaces applied
with PAM.
Figure 6. Relationship of slope gradient versus soil loss at 100 mm/h
Conclusions
1. The locally fabricated rainfall simulator (nozzle type) was effective in delivering the
required rainfall intensity in this particular study.
2. At any given level of slope gradient under different rainfall intensities, Polyacrylamide
(PAM) effectively acted as soil stabilizer that mitigates soil loss.
3. Treatment A80 at different slope gradients and rainfall intensities had significantly reduced
sediment yield and soil loss.
4 Generally, the relationship of slope gradient versus sediment yield and soil loss were found
to be non-linear and best fitted on a quadratic model in the form of a general equation: y = a +

bx + cx2
, where y represents the predicted value of sediment yield and soil loss while x is the
slope in expressed in degrees. Moreover the generalized equations for soil loss obtained from the
different amount of PAM were:
SL = -0.0002s2
+ 0.0138s + 0.084,
SL = -9E-05s2
+ 0.007s + 0.0015,
SL = -6E-05s2
+ 0.0044s - 0.021, and
SL = -0.0008s2
+ 0.0652s - 0.06,
SL = -0.0004s2
+ 0.0251s + 0.0078,
SL= -6E-05s2
+ 0.0034s + 0.1223, for 75mm/h and 100 mm/h rainfall intensity
respectively.
5. Using PAM as an alternative conservation has repeatedly been proven to be an effective
tool where it is available. However the cost associated with amount of PAM application to a
whole field or repeatedly applications may not be very the most practical way to control rain-
induced erosion.
References
ASIO, V.B., 2010. Soil and Environment;soil and its relation to environment, agriculture, global warming,
and human health. Retrieved on October 16, 2014 http://soil-
environment.blogspot.com/search?q=soil+erosion
BERBOSO, J.L., G.P., PANIEL, A.C.C., PERLADA, and R.J.V., SAN DIEGO. 2008. Assessment of
Combined Hydroseeding and Coconet Reinforcement to Control Soil Erosion. Unpublished
Undergraduate Thesis, School of Civil Engineering and Environmental and Sanitary Engineering,
Mapua Institute of Technology, Manila, Philippines.
ESTEVES M, PLANCHON O, LAPETITE JM, SILVERAI N, CADET P .2000. The Emire large
rainfall simulator: design and field testing. Earth. Surf. Proc. Land. 25: 681-690.
GREEN, V.S., D.E., STOTT, L.D., NORTON and J.G., GRAVEEL. 2000. PAM Molecular Weight
and Charge Effects on Infiltration under Simulated Rainfall. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.,
64:1786–1791.
JAVELLONAR, R. P. 2013. Rice Straw Geoxtextile As Ground Cover For Soil Erosion Mitigation.
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy, 3(11).
KIBET, L.C., L.S., SAPORITO, A.L., ALLEN, E.B., MAY, P.J., KLEINMAN and F.M., HASHEM.
2014. A Protocol for Conducting Rainfall Simulation to StudySoil Runoff.
Lentz, R. D., I. Shainberg, R. E. Sojka, and D. L. Carter. 1992. "Preventing Irrigation Furrow Erosion
With Small Applications of Polymers." Soil Sc!. Soc. Am. J. 56: 1926-1932.
MAROUFPOOR E, FARYABI A, GHAMARNIA H, MOSHREFI G 2010. Evaluation of uniformity
coefficients for Sprinkler irrigation systems under different field conditions in Kurdistan
Province (Northwest of Iran). Soil Water Res., 5: 139-145
ORTS, W. J., GLENN, G. M., IMAM, S. H., SOJKA, R. E. 2008. Polymer applications to control soil
runoff during irrigation. PAM & PAM Alternatives workshop, Albany, California, US, 34 – 37.
PETERSON, J.R., D.C, FLANAGAN, and J.K., TISHMACK. 2002. Polyacrylamide and Gypsiferous
Material Effects on Runoff and Erosion under Simulated Rainfall. American Society of
Agricultural Engineers. Vol. 45.
SHARPLEY, A. N., T. C. DANIEL, R. J. WRIGHT, P. J. KLEINMAN, T. SOBECKI, R. PARRY,
AND B. JOERN. 1999. National phosphorus project to identify sources of agricultural
phosphorus losses. Better Crops 83(4): 12–14.
RENNER F G. 1936. Conditions influencing erosion of the boise river watershed.. V S Dept Agric Tech
Bull, 528.
THOMAS, N.P. and S.A., SWAIFY. 1989. Construction and Calibration of a Rainfall Simulator. J. Agric.
Eng. Res., 43: 1-9.

The Author
Sheila G. Griengo was born at Concepcion, Koronadal City, South
Cotabato on June 23, 1986. She finished her Masters of Science in
Agricultural Engineering major in Soil and Water Management in Central
Luzon State University and Bachelor of Science in Agricultural
Engineering in University of Southern Mindanao. She is a faculty in the
Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Agriculture in
Mindanao State University Marawi City. Engr. Griengo is a licensed
Professional Agricultural Engineer, a member of the Philippine Society of
Agricultural Engineers and recipient of Engineering Research and Development for Technology
(ERDT) scholarship under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST).

p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 26-36, ©IJHSS
Scientific Perspective of Meranao Students’ Superstitious Beliefs
in Food Preparation and Preservation
Rasmia M. Yahyah - Muti
rasmiayahyamuti @ gmail.com
Saguiaran Community High School
Saguiaran Lanao Del Sur
Abstract
The acquired knowledge of young tribe men and women is one of the local issues. How
Meranao young men and women acquired alternative scientific conceptions towards food
preservation and food preparation are an inevitable concern of some academicians. The goal of
this research is: 1) to determine what are the conceptions of students towards food preservation
and food preparation gathered through their Superstitious beliefs or traditional beliefs and; 2)
how these misconceptions derived from their superstitious beliefs or traditional beliefs be
remedied through classroom intervention. This research used qualitative approach to collect,
classify, analyse and interpret the science-related superstitious beliefs among Meranao high
school students of MSU External units namely, MSU-Marantao Community High School, MSU-
Saguiaran Community High School and MSU-Lanao National College of Arts and Trades. A
total of 146 superstitious beliefs were with scientific basis but only 11 concepts about food
preservation and 10 concepts about food preparations were identified having scientific basis.
Most of the prior knowledge of the respondents on the collected superstitious beliefs had been
handed down by great grandparents from generation to generation. The sources of superstitious
beliefs are the grandparents (34%) parent (father or mother) (26%), Friends and classmates and
relatives (21%), neighbours (17%) and local radio and madrasah (2%) Implementing the
designed intervention to redirect students’ misconception was done in this study. Results
indicated that misconception was redirected as evidenced by written journals and triangulated by
their administered Likert-scaled questionnaire suggesting that the intervention has redirected the
students’ conception. It is then recommended that all superstitious belief that does not have
scientific proof should be disregarded no matter relevant it might to the peoples’ lives. The
superstitious beliefs that are not science related should be substantiated carefully and
methodically and apply it for the development of scientific investigations.
Keywords: Superstitious beliefs, Food Preparation and Food Preservation, Scientific
perspectives of meranao High School students
Introduction
Knowledge acquisition is one of local issues. How Meranao young men and women acquired
alternative scientific conceptions towards food preservation and food preparation is an
inevitable concern among academicians. The goal of this research is: 1) to determine what are
the conceptions of students towards food preservation and food preparation gathered through

their Superstitious beliefs and; 2) how these misconceptions derived from their superstitious
beliefs be remedied trough classroom intervention. Alternative conception believed to stem
from Superstitious beliefs.
Many people believe that superstitious beliefs originated during the earliest days of
humanity. Human beings attempted to create an understandable world of powers that could be
influenced by actions. The earliest superstitions were created as a way to deal with ignorance and
fear of the unknown. Superstitions are thus, a way of attempting to regain control over events,
particularly when one feels helpless. They are born from casual coincidences and learned
behaviors. The origin of certain superstitions may be centuries old, having been passed down
from generation to generation through observational learning process. Some seem more
widespread from nation to nation and some superstitions are cultures specific. It is more
common among certain groups of people and varies from culture to culture. Some superstitions
are considered harmless and may even be helpful in encouraging people to achieve their goals,
attributing result to an unrelated cause. In fact, some people depend on luck through
superstitious beliefs.
Studies on superstitious belief were conducted in Botswana(Emereole,H., et al. 2001) ;
South Pacific Country (Waldrip and Taylor, 1999) ; Utah (Hand and Tally , 1984) ; North
Carolina (Hand,1964) ; Spain (Meyerson,1990, Castro, 1995 and Franklin, 2005); Nigeria (Baker
and Taylor,1995); Pakistan (Ishaque, Saleem and Qidwar, 2009), in Muslim countries
(Zwemer,2000); and in India (Dickens, 1996) .
In the Philippines, several studies related to superstitious beliefs were also conducted by
different researchers. Among others, Rosa (1949) made a preliminary study on possibilities of
weakening or undermining common superstitious beliefs among Filipinos through the teaching
of general science in the public schools. Likewise, Arada (1959) studied the relationship of
intelligence-test scores, educational attainment, and sex to superstitious beliefs. Meanwhile,
Amor (1968) had done a thesis on magical and superstitious beliefs and practices of the
Subanons in Zamboanga. Zabala (1975) also conducted a thesis on prevalent superstitious
beliefs among college students. Moreover, Flores (1968) and Catacutan (1992) also surveyed
superstitious beliefs and practices concerning pregnancy and childbirth while Fernandez (1980)
worked on superstitions about health beliefs and practices of the people in selected barangays
of Gingoog City. Others work on superstitious beliefs were related to business and agriculture
such as those of .Cabuntucan (1980); Tabaza (1977); Villanueva (1981). Lastly, Kenoh (1977)
worked on superstitious beliefs of the Muslims of Sulu and their implication on health education.
Based on literature on hand, no studies on Meranao superstitious beliefs which can be
explained scientifically have been published in the Philippines. It is along this line of contention
that the researcher became interested in studying. Moreover superstitious beliefs on Meranao
culture, particularly those focused on superstitious beliefs of Meranao high school students
which can be explained scientifically and superstitious beliefs which may not agree with
scientifically explained phenomena. Superstitious beliefs which do not have scientific basis may
be sources of misconceptions and remediation strategies may be conducted in order for them to
form their alternative conception
It is envisioned that this study will in one way or the other help the indigenous cultures
improve and appreciate science education and become more scientifically and technologically
literate. Moreover, it may develop and promote awareness and concern among Meranao learners
about current and new scientific and technological issues in order to become advance and
civilized minority tribe.

Conceptual Frameworks
Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework of the study
Methods
Participants
The study was conducted in three selected high schools under the supervision of the Mindanao
State University .These are: The MSU-Saguiaran Community High School (MSU – SCHS), MSU-
Marantao Community High School (MSU – MCHS) and MSU-Lanao National College of Arts
and Trade - High School Department (LNCAT- HS). These schools are predominantly
dominated by meranao tribes. The respondents to this study were composed of 417 students
coming from randomly chosen intact sections from 1st
year to 4th
year in the three high schools
selected as research sites during the school year 2013 – 2014. The respondents to this study were
composed of 417 students coming from randomly chosen intact sections from 1st
year to 4th
year
in the three high schools selected as research sites during the school year 2013 – 2014.
Design
The study used qualitative method in analyzing and interpreting the obtained data. The study
involved an investigative process where the researcher makes sense of a social phenomenon by
collecting, comparing, classifying, analyzing and interpreting the object of the study.
Acquisition of Superstitious Beliefs
Acquisition of Superstitious Beliefs
Intervention
Redirection of Meranao Science-related
Superstitious Beliefs into Accepted
Concepts in Science.
Superstitious Beliefs into Accepted
Concepts in Science.
Superstitious
belief
With Scientific Basis
Compendium
Without Scientific
Basis
(Misconceptions)
Redirected Superstitious
Beliefs
Beleifs
Meranao
Society Home
(Parents)
Student’s
knowledge
about
superstitious
belief
related to
Science
Folktale Enviromental
Phenomena
Cultural Norms

Materials
The researcher used several sets of instruments used to gather accurately individual beliefs of the
respondents. These are: Open- ended Questionnaire, Clinical Structured Interview Schedule,
Focus Group Discussion Questionnaire and Field Observation Notes and Likert Scaled on
Current Views on the Redirected Superstitious Beliefs, Student Journals and the Lesson Plans.
The generated data from these instruments were triangulated to establish validity of the result of
the study.
Procedure
A total of 146 superstitious beliefs were collected from the research participants enrolled at the
MSU-Saguiaran Community High School, MSU- Marantao Community High School and the
Lanao National College of Arts and Trades, High School Department during the school year
2013 – 2014. The collected superstitious beliefs were categorized according to superstitious
beliefs which agreed with scientific explanation and superstitious beliefs which did not agree with
scientific explanation.
Results and Discussion
Of the 146 collected superstitious beliefs, 108 or 73.97% were found to have scientific basis and
38 of which did not agree with scientific explanation but were found to have led to
misconceptions among the research participants. It was also found out that among the science-
related superstitious beliefs only 11 (10.18%) for food Preservation and 10 (9.26%) for food
preparation.
The percentage of the superstitious beliefs collected related to food preservation and
food preparation is minimal. However, when the students were asked whether these
superstitious beliefs are still practiced and believed today and whether the participants are aware
that these superstitious beliefs have scientific explanations, they have claimed that some of the
common beliefs.
Moreover, the students were probed on some of the superstitious beliefs collected about food
preservation and food preparation that have scientific basis to ascertain their knowledge about
the scientific concept behind the superstitious belief and the extent at which the belief continues
to be practiced. Obviously, the students acquired the superstitious beliefs through what they see
and observe from their elder Through repetitive practice, superstitious beliefs became deeply
rooted in them.
Moreover, superstition is part of the societal traditional practices and culture. The
Meranaos possess certain beliefs and practices which they believe to be useful to them to their
daily lives activities. Protect them from harm. The desire to practice these traditional beliefs in
food preservation and food preparation are still existing and practicing by some of young tribe
meranaos particulary in the remote areas of Lanao and other older and illiterate Meranaos who
believe that they should perpetuate these practices of their ancestors.
Sources of Superstitious Beliefs
Sources of the superstitious beliefs were acquired by the research participants in every year level
from each of the three research setting. It is revealed that except for MSU-Saguiaran Community
High School where the students claimed that they acquired the superstitious beliefs more from
their parents, the students from the two other participating schools acquired superstitious beliefs
were mostly from their grandparents. This is followed by the parents, either the mother or the
father and next to these sources are relatives, friends and classmates, followed by the neighbors.

Local radio programs, the Madrasahs or Arabic schools have negligible contribution to the
acquisition of these superstitious beliefs.
Findings revealed that grandparents are the major sources of superstitious beliefs is
consistent with the claim of Cayongcat (1989) that cultural traditions, practices and beliefs which
include superstitions are acquired by children especially among Meranaos because of close
kinship. Likewise, neighbors, relatives, classmates and friends also contribute to the acquisition
of superstitious beliefs may be attributed to the frequent interaction or association among them
which is a trait that is unique among Filipinos. As Cayongcat (1989) further wrote, the series of
traditional rituals, practices and beliefs observed and experienced by their children are stored in
their mind and they keep and believe and practice on it. Gowing ,et al. (1974) also concurs that
the traditional practices and cultural values are handed down by the Meranao old folks to the
next generation.
Moreover, it may also be deduced from the results that relatives, friends and classmates
which constitute 21.11% as sources of superstitious beliefs the extent at which they may have
influenced the students to construct their own knowledge based on the knowledge shared to the.
Since learning is an active social process, their current view on the concepts brought about by
the superstitious belief, the students integrate that information into the already rooted belief thus
perhaps making more firmed up misconception
Extent of Utilization of Superstitious Beliefs
The extent of utilization of the science–related superstitious beliefs in their day to day life goes
on to this day. From the interview responses shared by the students, it may be inferred that the
superstitious beliefs and traditional practices still prevail today although they are not aware that
there are beliefs that they or adults experiences can be scientifically explained. It may be inferred
further real life situations and experiences are not used in making connections between theory
and practice.
Consistent with the above analysis, people tend to adhere to superstitious practices when
dealing with uncertainty of outcomes of high interest, before the outcome is revealed by nature
as interpreted by Skinner (1948) in that something incidental event happens and this is taken as a
cause, even if no cause-and-effect happens between two factors. The accidental recurrence of the
events then acts as positive reinforcement and facilitates survival and transmission of such belief.
Superstitious Beliefs that Led to Misconceptions
.All superstitious beliefs may have no scientific basis yet they greatly influence our way of
thinking and doing things. As can be seen in the previous sampled responses ancestors did not
clearly understand the causes of many things in their environment. The occurrence of events was
thought to be bringing either good luck or bad luck. However, with the advent of science and
technology, we have learned to investigate and interpret events scientifically. Superstitious beliefs
we hold as adults may be a by-product of the processes we use to make sense of the world
around us.
As Hood (2009), an experimental psychologist from the University of England, alluded
the idea that we are born with brains that have evolved to make sense of a complex world by
seeking patterns and trying to understand the mechanisms responsible for them. In doing so –
and this is an intuitive process – the young sometimes come up with assumptions and
misconceptions that later seem to be the basis of adult supernatural beliefs. In effect, these
beliefs are a by-product of the reasoning behaviour we developed as children. Despite what we
may have learned as we grew up, these misconceptions often remain with us as adults.

One of the points of interest of the researcher is the redirection of the science-related
superstitious beliefs which brought about misconceptions in several science concepts among the
research participants. After the process of classifying and coding the pooled SBs into appropriate
categories, it was found that there were 38 superstitious beliefs collected and classified that do
not agree with scientific explanation. These superstitious beliefs were related to natural
phenomena like for example, formation of rainbow, lightning and thunder, eclipses, superstitious
beliefs related to tooth growth and development and tooth eruption, tooth decay and toothache
treatment, male circumcision, etc.
Superstitious beliefs that do not agree with scientific explanation
The influence of the Meranao ancestors on the young Meranaos to hold on to established
traditional practices and culture, superstitious beliefs included, may bring about many science-
related misconceptions. These 38 superstitious beliefs were identified to have no scientific
explanation but have caused misconceptions among the students.
The manifested superstitious beliefs are socially and culturally adapted by many of the
families of the students and with it formed the information which has been incorporated to the
constructed ideas which resulted to misconceptions. The previously cited interview responses
show the extent of developed misconceptions brought about by the superstitious beliefs.
Tradition dictates that these superstitious beliefs, whether they agree with the scientific concepts
or not, have become part of their culture and it may be difficult for the old and conservative
Meranaos to let go the practice. Meranao customs, traditions and beliefs may have probably
originated from the old folks considering that the Meranao culture were basically resistant to
acculturation (Gowing, 1974)
The earlier responses shared by the students and discussions presented are consistent
with the eight knowledge claims regarding misconceptions (Wandersee, Mintzes and Novak,
1994), as findings of a research on alternative conceptions in science where the researchers
underscored that; Misconceptions are tenacious and resistant to extinction; Misconceptions
often parallel explanations of natural phenomena offered by previous generations of scientists
and philosophers; Misconceptions have their origin in diverse personal experience including
direct observations, peer culture and language as well as in teachers’ explanation and instructional
materials; and often, teachers subscribe to the same misconceptions as their students.
Effects of Intervention
An intervention was done by the researcher to reduce if the not eradicate the misconceptions.
The researcher utilized several methods such as the use of ICT like webquest, video clips, some
others in the plan lessons and was validated by experts (pedagogy and content). Likewise, try-out
was done prior to intervention. Results of the intervention reveals that very few were in
agreement with the superstitious belief after the intervention in comparison with those who
disagreed. An overall percentage of 95.33% of the 417 student participants either disagreed or
strongly disagreed on the superstitious beliefs on all of the 38 superstitious which were subjected
to intervention in order to redirect the misconceptions to scientifically accepted concepts. The
percentage of respondents disagreeing on each of the 38 superstitious beliefs ranged from 92%
to 97%. This may indicate the extent of redirection of the misconceptions to scientifically based
concepts due to the intervention. The remaining 3% to 7% of the respondents who were found
to be in agreement the superstitious belief may not have fully redirected their misconceptions or
they still adhere to the belief. Perhaps they still want to hold on to these superstitious beliefs it
will make them feel good about themselves when they follow certain behavioral patterns. It can

be an asset if the superstition promotes positive attitude and approach toward prevailing
circumstances.
Among the Meranaos, especially the very old ones, to them some superstitions have
rooted deeply so much so that they and their families and relatives or even the local population
encounters psychological impact on their lives because of these traditions. These age-old
superstitious beliefs that had been passed on from generation to generation may have taken
shape as a habit. If they are lacking of these beliefs, they become insecure.
Superstitious beliefs are irrational beliefs and notions held by many not only among
Meranaos which are based on fear, magical thinking, ignorance and blind faith. Igwe (2009)
opined that these beliefs and notions lacked evidence or proof and do not have any basis in
logic, fact, common sense or in reality. Many traditional and cultural practices that needed to be
preserved either by written or verbal form. Such cultural practices are beliefs, norms, traditions,
superstitions, myths, legends and other important features of social life and culture. Many of
these superstitious beliefs are to teach certain moral value which when critically observed is
scientific.
In spite of the advancement of science and technology some people still hold many
superstitious beliefs. These superstitious beliefs, according to Olorundare (1998) that negative
influence on lives especially on education as it impedes the individual’s conceptualization of
scientific knowledge by creating prior knowledge which is in contrast to science knowledge or
concepts to be learned.
Conclusions and Implication
A total of 146 superstitious beliefs were collected from the research participants, 108 (73.97%) of
the superstitious beliefs were with scientific basis. There were 11(1018%) superstitious beliefs
that are related in food preservation and 10 (9.26%) about food preparation. It was found out
that there are more of the Meranao superstitious beliefs about food preservation and preparation
agree with scientific explanation. Most of the prior knowledge of the research participant about
the collected superstitious beliefs had been handed by great grandparents down from generation
to generation.
Most of the 38 superstitious beliefs, which were found to be the sources of the
misconceptions, were related science concepts such as thunder and lightning, eclipse, rainbow,
menstruation, pregnancy, circumcision tooth development and decay – all of which were
associated with unfortunate events that befall them. Implementing the designed intervention, the
student participants to this study claimed that their prior knowledge or misconceptions which
were due to the superstitious beliefs have been redirected as evidenced by their written journals.
It is therefore implied that existing misconception through superstitious beliefs can be
remediated and can be redirected to correct conceptions.
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