Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015

Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
Aajhss.org Aajhss.org Aajhss.org
Aajhss.org
International
Journal of
Humanities &
Social Sciences
Vol. 1, No. 1
IJHSS.NET
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
January 2015

Vol 1, No 1 – January 2015
Table of Contents
Cognitive and behavioural frequencies of justice and care on moral
dilemmas between males and females
1
Dr George Varvatsoulias
Viewing the influences of ‘the global’ on education in Ghana from the
lens of Human Rights Approach
10
Moses Ackah Anlimachie
“Senso-Math” Mathematical Facilitators in Preschools: Training,
Integration and Professional Contribution
27
Dina Hassidov
Television program format preferences and aggression of
football fans
38
Vehbi Gorgulu, Yonca Aslanbay, Gul Bursa and Ayse Gul Yucel
The Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning Strategies on English language
Acquisition of the Saudi Learners
47
Dalal A. Bahanshal
Sources and Means of obtaining Psychoactive Substances among
Adolescents in Public Secondary Schools in Uganda: A Qualitative
Approach.
57
Aloysius Rukundo and Dr. Grace Kibanja
AAJHSS.ORG

1 http://aajhss.org/index.php/ijhss
International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Volume 1, No 1, pp. 1-9, ©IJHSS
Cognitive and behavioural frequencies of justice and care
on moral dilemmas between males and females
Dr George Varvatsoulias
Newham College University Centre,
Stratford Campus, London, UK
Abstract
Moral reasoning refers to individuals' cognitive, emotional and behavioural understandings
regarding everyday practices and relationships with others. Moral reasoning touches upon
personal beliefs of human interaction the way these are cultivated through mores, principles and
values in given societies. The objective of this empirical research was to question males' and
females' moral orientations on justice and care. To this aim, participants were distributed
dilemmas in a form of stories in which they were asked to offer their personal consideration. It
was found that male participants have responded in relation to a justice-based orientation, while
females to a care-based one. The interpretation of the findings showed that males tend to reply
on moral dilemmas in association with the moral reasoning of justice, whereas females in
association with care.
Keywords: moral reasoning, dilemmas, justice, care.
Introduction
According to Tangney & Dearing (2004), the idea of moral reasoning is concerned with the
appearance of dilemmas in everyday life. Researchers are interested in discussing moral reasoning
by focusing on how people think, feel or react on moral dilemmas (Paxton et al., 2012). They
argue (Piaget, 1952; Ford & Lowery, 1986; Gilligan & Attanucci 1988; Kagan & Lamb, 1990;
Killen & Hart, 1995; Crandall et al., 1999; Nunner-Winkler, 2008) that people are guided by self-
regarded aspects about how they should behave on given circumstances. The issues claimed, not
only refer to why people decide to do things of moral content in their lives, but also how they
decide to do it. Among the more sophisticated moral developmentalists, Arnold (1989) and Blasi
(1980) consider that it is a link between moral thinking and moral action (Petrovich, 2011).
Although, as it is understood, there are various appreciations about moral reasoning, they
nonetheless converge at similar points, such as the connection between moral reasoning and
behavioural choices (Blasi, 1980; Bazerman & Gino, 2012), as well as moral reasoning and
altruistic behaviour in relation to evolutionary explanations of group selection in human societies
(Varvatsoulias, 2013; 2014).
Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory on moral reasoning (1969, 1984) was
presented with research on male participants. According to his estimate, there are three stages
concerned with the development of moral reasoning. He named (1984) the first as ‘pre-
conventional’ (0-9yrs), based on avoidance of punishment and reward gaining. He called (1984)

the second ‘conventional’ (9-20+yrs), referring to gaining or avoiding approval, as well as to the
dipole of duty and guilt. The third stage was called from him (1984) ‘post-conventional’ (20-
…yrs), in relation to how one understands the right or wrong along with personal moral
foundations, whether these refer to social or cultural criteria. Kohlberg’s account on moral
reasoning is acknowledged that laid the foundations of an understanding of moral orientation as
mature and non-mature, regarding the forms they are associated with (Gibbs, 2014).
Following Kohlberg, Gilligan (1982) pointed out a different understanding on moral
reasoning which was referred to both genders. She considered that males tend to understand
moral reasoning in relation to justice, whilst females in relation to care (Skoe, 2010). Although
the understanding on the ‘ethic of justice’ was first referred by Kohlberg (1969), Gilligan was
basically influenced by Walker (1984), who thought of gender differences in moral reasoning as
modest as inexistent; for, according to his research (1984), little evidence was found to support
the opposite as true (Walker, 2013). To Kohlberg’s ‘ethic of justice’, Gilligan (1982) introduced
the ‘ethic of care’. She could not ‘bear’ the ‘male theorists’ of ‘male moral reasoning’, which
included women as well. Gilligan (1982) ‘revolted’ against the idea that females are ‘deficient in
moral development’, contending that in previous experiments, participants were only or mainly
males (Rummery & Fine, 2012).
Although, at first sight, there seems to be a different methodological as well as theoretical
background, both, Kohlberg and Gilligan, launch their research from similar starting points. The
difference is that Gilligan’s one is presumably concerned with differing gender frameworks in
tendencies of moral directions (Crandall et al., 1999; Proios, 2014). According to Tagney &
Dearing (2004), Gilligan’s description of the ethic of care, implies that her discernment can be
called ‘theory of moral reasoning’, in contrast to Kohlberg’s consideration of ‘feelings of
sympathy and concern appreciation’, for she construes the cognitive-behavioural elements as
interpreting different developmental orientations in moral reasoning (Graham et al., 2012).
Gilligan & Attanucci (1988) revised the method set by Kohlberg (1984) and proposed a follow-
up orientation between male and female moral reasoning, the main argument of which was that
both men and women use justice and care in their everyday practices when dealing with issues of
morality in their social interactions (Cam et al., 2012).
The rational of this study is that Kohlberg raised the issue of moral reasoning by using
standardized dilemmas on only males, whilst Gilligan & Attanucci raised the same issue on both
genders without the use of standardized dilemmas. The hypothesis for this study is that gender
differences, in response to moral dilemmas, are found to exhibiting a moral orientation towards
justice-based reasoning for men, whereas towards care for women.
Method
Participants
Three hundred and twenty-seven participants were recruited for this type of study. Participants
came from a relevant demographic background similar to the researcher’s (Greeks living in
London). Their responses collected to form the analysis. Participants' age range was 17 to 58
years.
Design
The current study was designed to examine the two categorical variables of gender and moral
orientation. A 2x2 Chi-Square (χ²) analysis was employed for the reason to compare an actual
observation following the occurrence and/or distribution of an event (in this case that event was
the 'distribution of dilemmas') (McQueen & Knussen, 2006). The design was an association

between moral reasoning and gender. It was a within-participants design. The IV (independent
variable) was 'gender' and the DV (dependent variable) was 'frequencies on justice and care'.
Materials
Three moral dilemmas were presented to participants each one containing four standard
questions to be answered (Appendix 1).
Procedure
Participants were interviewed at home. It was explained to them that the experimenter was
interested in what people consider, when they face moral dilemmas. The dilemmas were
presented to them one at a time and in random order. After participants have read each dilemma,
were asked if they had any query; if they understood them clearly, whilst also, asked to answer
each dilemma one by one, by responding in every question of it, whether briefly or in full.
Participants were also encouraged not to answer ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ or ‘I don’t know’, so their answers
not to have a limited value. They were asked to answer honestly and that there was no right or
wrong answer. According to ethical considerations, they were told their responses will be
recorded and the reason for that is the experimenter to be able to recall what participants have
said. They were also told that their responses will be treated anonymously and they can withdraw
from the interview at any time. After completion of the interview participants were thanked for
their time, they have been debriefed about the study and asked if there were any questions left
unanswered.
When the interviews were completed, were transcribed in detail, so to be ready for
content analysis. Content analysis of both interviews consisted of highlighting any statement in
the participants’ answer that seemed to be indicative with the understanding of moral
orientation. The highlighted statements were coded as ‘Justice’ (J) or ‘Care’ (C), according to the
criteria provided by Lyons (1983) (Appendix 2).
The highlighted statements measured through using inter-rater reliability to ensure that
the data have not been influenced by personal interpretation or knowledge of the hypothesis. In
inter-rater reliability there was kept ‘blind’ the gender of each participant and were rated as
‘agree’ or ‘disagree’ by another fellow student researcher. After the inter-rater reliability measures,
the responses of each dilemma were coded whether as indicative of justice (justice predominant
in coding) or care (care predominant in coding) or both (justice-care), i.e. neither predominant.
After the responses were coded, were put in the SPSS, in order to be edited for chi-square
analysis.
Results
The overall frequency of dilemmas coded as justice, care or justice-care mixtures for both
genders were collated and put to the SPSS.
Descriptive statistics
Table 1
Justice-based orientation Care-based orientation
Males 103 41
Females 68 115
Total number of participants was 327. Males have scored 103 for ‘justice’ and 41 for
‘care’, whilst females scored 68 for ‘justice’ and 115 for ‘care’.

Table 2
GENDER
femalemale
Count 120
100
80
60
40
20
REASONIN
care
justice
In relation to both tables, the scores as they appear in both genders support the
hypothesis tested. Males tend to score higher in ‘justice’, whereas females higher in ‘care’.
Inferential statistics
There was employed a 2X2 chi-square (χ²) analysis to discover whether there was a
significant association between gender and moral reasoning.
Table 3
Value Degrees of Freedom Cramer’s V
Chi-square 38.158 1 .342
This suggested χ² (df(1), n=327)=38.158 (38.16), p<.001, Cramer’s V=.342.
This means that there is a significant relationship between moral reasoning and gender.
The hypothesis is two-tailed. Cramer’s V analysis (.342) has showed that the strength of the
effect size for χ² is medium. Although 12% is a relatively small chance, the relationship between
moral orientation and men and women is significant, meaning that the hypothesis is supported.
Discussion
The results support the hypothesis predicted. Males tend to react on moral dilemmas through
justice-based orientations, while females through care-based ones (Juújårvi et al., 2010). The
hypothesis is two tailed and its direction medium. The strength of it implies that there is a
significant association between moral reasoning and gender. The results show that the hypothesis
examined fits with the theory of moral reasoning in relation to genders. Males exhibit justice on
moral dilemmas, whereas females exhibit care. Gilligan’s and Attanucci’s (1988) revision on
Kohlberg’s male-oriented moral reasoning is maintained.
An alternative explanation of the results, in connection with Kaufman’s argument (1989),
shows that females are influenced by the way they respond on moral dilemmas, i.e. in view to
emotions and moral ethics; whilst males tend to behave according to demand characteristics,
such as the social balance, the social understanding of fairness and justification and the idea of
social upheaval if common-sense rules are not obeyed.

A possible weakness of the results is the looseness of using qualitative data to subjective
opinions. In other words, as Gilligan (1977) argues, a precarious relationship between
subjectivity and data is in use, when these are collected from friends or an environment which is
of a similar background with the experimenter’s, i.e. people of similar beliefs, people of similar
understanding of morality, people of similar demonstration of knowledge on academic issues or
moral dilemmas (Abramson, 2012).
An improvement, according to Kaufman (1989), could be to be examined in such a study
wider ranges of ages –divided by different decades, ethnic backgrounds, different cultural
understandings, in relation to the moral orientation or reasoning, as well as different family and
demographic backgrounds, such as upbringing in urban or rural areas, different educational
status, single mothers, people whom the parents have passed away during their childhood, or
divorced couples. According to Hogg & Vaughan (2005), there could also be examined different
classifications on the aspect of ‘moral dilemma’, focused on differing social statuses, on
considerations of prejudice and discrimination, along with the social framework, within which
the individual lives, plus taking into account the factor of a low to moderate income of a family’s
earnings (Sinno et al., 2014).
Eisenberg (1986) claims that, future studies should ask to revise the understanding of
moral orientation on the ethics of justice and care. Although, Eisenberg et al., (1989) argue that
Gilligan’s assertion that women are inclined to rely more heavily on an ethic of care, implies
some consideration of feelings of sympathy and concern, she nevertheless does not take into
account the aspect of moral decision which is related to behaviour, as well as to the emotions of
a person. Tangney & Dearing (2004) consider the latter as an integral part to understanding
moral reasoning. Otherwise, Gilligan’s theory, Tangney & Dearing posit, seems to be a general
interpretation of how males and females feel about moral dilemmas with no appreciation of
reasons, such as why the individuals are emotionally directed to weigh across either of justice or
care (Rynes et al., 2012).
In relation to that, Baumrind (1986) and Walker (1986) have argued that a mere
understanding on moral reasoning should not only be focused on gender differences of justice
and care, but also in the nature and the substantive content of the prerequisites that preface
them, such as attributes for and/or against pro-social/anti-social behaviour. In explaining the
latter, Walker (1984) contends that there is actually little evidence about gender differences in the
level of moral reasoning. According to Walker’s account, that little evidence lacks any systematic
consideration about moral emotion (Malti & Krettenauer, 2013).
Tangney and Dearing (2004), by expanding Walker’s consideration on moral emotion,
argue that there are two main issues which should be included in the discussion on moral
reasoning among genders. The first is the issue of motivation, which they claim ‘it has been
ignored up today’ (p. 133). The other issue relates to the ‘critical loss of information about
potentially competing motives operative in a given situation’ (pp. 133-134). The latter questions
whether there is a potential weight of empathy associated with shame, when moral dilemmas
appear and people are called to form or justify an opinion.
In order to have a theory on moral reasoning which will examine and also interpret the
aspect of emotional involvement in a moral dilemma, Blasi (1980) points out that such an
orientation should be considered in relation to an individual’s moral decisions and behaviour.
According to Blasi (1980) there are three broad factors which include the understanding of
emotional involvement in a moral dilemma: the moral standards, the moral background and the
moral orientation of an individual. Moral standards, Blasi argues, refer to moral norms and

conventions. Moral background discusses, for Blasi, the acquisition and expression of accepted
rules and ethical directions in an environment. Moral orientation represents, according to Blasi’s
account, an individual’s knowledge on the culturally defined social information(Kang &
Glassman, 2010). According to Skoe & Gooden (1993), the research on moral reasoning has
been largely processed today. Tavris (1992) postulates that, the understanding of Kohlberg and
particularly the understanding of Gilligan and Attanucci’s expands the knowledge about the
ethics of justice and care.
Conclusion
The research, replicated in this study, gives weight to the methodological criticism, both Gilligan
and Attanucci have addressed, in respect to gender differences, i.e. males exhibit a justice
orientation on moral dilemmas, while females a care-based one. However, according to White &
Manolis (1997), there is an immediate need today these ethics to be expanded towards a
systematic integration of how people tend to reason at higher levels of moral thought through a
range of moral cognitive and moral emotional factors. In such a direction, a study on moral
behaviour should not only be examined as an understanding of morality, but fervently more as a
universal aspect of the human behaviour within given societies and intercultural settings.
References
Abramson, C. M. (2012). From "either-or" to "when and how": A context-dependent model of
culture in action. Journal for the theory of social Behaviour, 42(2), 155-180.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2011.00484.x
Arnold, M. L. (1989): Moral cognition and conduct: A qualitative review of the literature. Poster presented
at the annual meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas City,
MO.
Bazerman, M. H. & Gino, F. (2012). Behavioural Ethics: Toward a deeper understanding of
moral judgment and dishonesty. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 8, 85-104.
doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102811-173815
Baumrind, D. (1986): Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning. Child Development,
57, 511-521.
Blasi, A. (1980): Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature.
Psychological Bulletin, 88, 1-45.
Cam, Z., Seydoogullari, S., Cardar, D., Cok, F. (2012). Classical and contemporary approaches
for moral development. Educational Sciences: theory and Practice, 12(2), 1222-1225.
Crandall, C. S., Tsang, J., Goldman, S., Pennington, J. T. (1999): Newsworthy moral dilemmas:
justice, caring and gender. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 40(3-4), 187-209.
Eisenberg, N. (1986): Altruistic cognition, emotion and behaviour. Hilldale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shea, C. (1989): Gender differences in empathy and prosocial moral
reasoning: Empirical investigations. In M. M. Brabeck (Ed.), Who cares? Theory, research
and educational implications of the ethic of care (pp. 127-143). New York: Praeger.
Ford, M. R. & Lowery, C. R. (1986): Gender differences in moral reasoning: A comparison of
the use of justice and care orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 777-
783.
Gibbs, J. C. (2014). Moral development & reality: Beyond the theories of Kohlberg, Hoffman, and Haidt.
Oxford UK: Oxford University Press.
Gilligan, C. F. (1977): In a different voice: Women’s conceptions of self and morality. Harvard
Educational Review, 47, 481-517.
Gilligan, C. F. (1982): In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Gilligan, C. F. & Attanucci, J. (1988): Two moral orientations: gender differences and similarities.
Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 223-237.

Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl., M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., Ditto, P. H. (2012). Moral
foundations theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. Advances in Experimental
Social Psychology, 1-64. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2184440
Hogg, M. M. & Vaughan, G. M. (2005): Social Psychology. Harlow Essex: Rearson Education
Limited.
Juújårvi, S., Myyry, L., Pesso, K. (2010). Does care reasoning make a difference? Relations
between care, justice and dispositional emapathy. Journal of Moral Education, 39(4), 469-
489. doi:10.1080/03057240.2010.521381
Kagan, J. & Lamp, S. (1990): The emergence of morality in young children. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Kang, M. J. & Glassman, M. (2010). Moral action as social capital, moral thought as cultural
capital. Journal of Moral Education, 39(1), 21-36. doi:10.1080/03057240903528592
Kaufman, G. (1989): The Psychology of Shame: Theory and Treatment of Shame-Based Syndromes. New
York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.
Killen, M. & Hart, D. (Eds.) (1995): Morality in everyday life: developmental perspectives. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Kohlberg, L. (1969): Stage and Sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to socialization.
In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347-480). Chicago:
Rand McNally.
Kohlberg, L. (1984): Essays on Moral Development: The Psychology of Moral Development (Vol. II). San
Francisco: Harper and Row.
Lyons, N. P. (1983): Two perspectives: On self, relationships and morality. Harvard Educational
Review, 53, 125-145.
Malti, T. & Krettenauer, T. (2013). The relation of moral emotion attributions to prosocial and
antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 84(2), 397-412.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01851.x
McQueen, R. A. & Knussen, C. (2006). Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology.
Pearson Education Limited: Harlow Essex UK.
Nunner-Winkler, G. (2008). Development of moral motivation from childhood to early
adulthood 1. Journal of Moral Education, 36(4), 399-414. doi:10.1080/03057240701687970
Paxton, J. M., Ungar, L., Greene, J. D. (2012). Reflection and reasoning in moral judgement.
Cognitive Science, 36(1), 163-177. doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2011.01210.x
Petrovich, O. (2011). Moral autonomy and the theory of Kohlberg. In Modgil, S. & Modgil, C.
(Eds.) Lawrence Kohlberg: Consensus and Controversy (pp. 85-106). New York: Routledge.
Piaget, J. (1952): The origins of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press.
Proios, M. (2014). Relationship between discrete emotions and moral content judgment in sport
settings. Ethics & Behavior, 24(5), 382-396. doi:10.1080/10508422.2013.869746
Rummery, K. & Fine, M. (2012). Care: A critical review of theory, policy and practice. Social Policy
& Administration, 46(3), 321-343. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9515.2012.00845.x
Rynes, S., Bartunek, J., Dutton, J., Margolis, J. (2012). Care and compassion through an
organizational lens: Opening up new possibilities. Academy of Management Review.
doi:10.5465/amr.2012.0124
Sinno, S., Schuette, C., Killen, M. (2014). Developmental social cognition about gender roles in
the family and societal context. In Leman, P. J. & Tenenbaum, H. R. (Eds.) Gender and
development (pp. 133-154). Hove, Sussex UK: Psychology Press.
Skoe, E. E. A. (2010). The relationship between empathy-related constructs and care-related
moral development in young adulthood. Journal of Moral Education, 39(2), 191-211.
doi:10.1080/03057241003754930
Skoe, E. E. & Gooden, A. (1993): Ethic and care in real-life moral dilemma content in male and
female early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 154-167.
Tangney, J. P. & Dearing, R. L. (2004): Shame and Guilt. New York: The Guilford Press.

Tavris, C. (1992): The mismeasure of woman. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Varvatsoulias, G. (2013). Kin selection and inclusive fitness in evolutionary biology and
psychology, Part I. Could they be related to New Testament explanations of altruistic
behaviour? European Journal of Science and Theology, 9(4), 139-154.
Varvatsoulias, G. (2014). Kin selection and inclusive fitness in evolutionary biology and
psychology, Part II. Could they be related to New Testament explanations of altruistic
behaviour? European Journal of Science and Theology, 10(1), 27-42.
Walker, L. (1984): Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review. Child
development, 55, 677-691.
Walker, L. (1986): Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A rejoinder to
Baumrind. Child Development, 57, 522-527.
Walker, L. J. (2013). Exemplars' moral behavior is self-regarding. New Directions for Child and
Adolescent Development, 142, 27-40. doi:10.1002/cad.20047
White, J. & Manolis, C. (1997): Individual differences in ethical reasoning among law students.
Social Behaviour and Personality, 25, 19-48.
Appendix 1
A.
Betty, in her late thirties, has been married to Erik for several years. They have two children, 8
and 10 years old. Throughout the marriage Betty has been at home, looking after the house and
the children. For the last few years Betty has felt increasingly unhappy in the marriage
relationship. She finds her husband demanding, self-centred and insensitive as well as
uninterested in her needs and feelings. Betty has several times tried to communicate her
unhappiness and frustration to her husband, but he continually ignores and rejects her attempts.
Betty has become very attracted to another man, Steven, a single teacher. Recently, Steven has
asked Betty for a more intimate, committed relationship. Imagine you are Betty:
What are the conflicts for you in this situation?
What would you do?
Do you think that is the right thing to do?
How do you know?
B.
William, a 26 year old man, had decided to live on his own after having shared an apartment with
a flatmate for the last three years. He finds that he is much happier living alone as he now has
more privacy and independence and gets more work and studying done. One day his father,
whom he has not seen for a long while as they do not get along too well, arrives at the doorstep
with two large suitcases, saying that he is lonely and wants to live with William. Imagine you are
William:
What would you do?
How do you know?
C.
Sartre [1957] tells of a student whose brother had been killed in the German offensive of 1940.
The student wanted to avenge his brother and to fight forces that he regarded as evil. But the
student's mother was living with him, and he was her one consolation in life. Imagine you are
that student:

What would you do?
How do you know?
Appendix 2
Justice-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning
1. REASON and LOGIC
2. EXPLICIT PRINCIPLES
3. IMPARTIALITY
4. FAIRNESS
5. AUTONOMY
6. RIGHTS/OBLIGATIONS
7. GOVERNS RELATIONS AMONG EQUALS
8. COMPETITION (CONFLICTING INTERESTS)
9. SELF-RELIANCE
Care-Based Criteria for identifying moral reasoning
1. EMOTIONS
2. RESPONSIVENESS TO SITUATIONS
3. PARTIALITY
4. COMPASSION, SYMPATHY OR EMPATHY
5. INTER-CONNECTEDNESS
6. RESPONSIBILITIES
7. GOVERNS RELATIONS AMONG UNEQUALS
8. COOPERATION (COMMON INTERESTS)
9. TRUST

International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
p-ISSN: 1694-2620
e-ISSN: 1694-2639
Volume 1, No 1, pp. 10-26, ©IJHSS
Viewing the influences of ‘the global’ on education in Ghana
from the lens of Human Rights Approach
Moses Ackah Anlimachie
Department for Educational Research, Faculty of Educational Sciences
University of Oslo, Norway
Abstract
The impact of globalisation on education at the national level in Ghana has been remarkable. In
view of this, researchers and scholars have tried to understand its features and influences from
various academic lenses. This is because the term, „the global‟ and its impact on „the local‟, especially,
as regarding educational evolution and development tend to defile a single theoretical basis for its
understanding. This in turn gives its dynamic nature. This paper however attempts to explain the
features and influences of „the global‟ on national educational policies and programmes in Ghana. By
so doing, the paper situates Ghana‟s educational evolution and orientation in the human rights
approach as it uncovers the features and influences of the global on her educational policies and
programmes. The explanation the paper gives seeks to deepen the understanding of the workings of
„the global‟. Importantly, its dialectic with „the local‟ to provide clue as to how „the local‟ will be
better informed and positioned in order to maximise the gains that accrue from globalization. The
paper concludes by suggesting how Ghana and Africa can maximise the positives of globalisation.
Keywords: globalisation, education, human rights, evolution, policies, programmes, Ghana, Africa.
Introduction
The impact of globalisation on education at the national level in Ghana has been remarkable. In
view of this, researchers and scholars have tried to understand its features and influences from
various academic lenses. This is because the term, „the global‟ and its impact on „the local‟, especially,
as regarding educational evolution and development tend to defile a single theoretical basis for its
understanding. This in turn gives its dynamic nature. This paper however attempts to explain the
features and influences of „the global‟ on national educational policies and programmes in Ghana. By
so doing, the paper situates Ghana‟s educational evolution and orientation in the human rights
approach as it uncovers the features and influences of the global on her educational policies and
programmes.
Notwithstanding, the huge literature that exist on education and globalization discourse, specific
examples on the Ghanaian context is limited, especially, when view the dialectic between the global
and the local from the lens of human rights. The paper, therefore, narrows down to the Ghanaian
context as it seeks find answers to the following questions; to what extent has the global educational
paradigm shape educational evolution in Ghana? In what ways does Ghana educational trajectory

mimic that of the global in the rights approach to education? And in what ways can Africa and
Ghana, in particularly, maximize the positives of globalization in education. As a methodological
approach the paper uses a theoretical analysis of existing literature on the subject to answer the
thesis of the paper. The choice of Ghana as the context for this paper is very significance for the
following reasons; First, there are geographical and gender dichotomy in educational opportunities
and experiences in Ghana. There is inequity in access and quality in education between the rural the
urban areas of Ghana. Furthermore, gender inequity in access, attendance, completion rate, and
achievement at all levels of education in Ghana is glaring. And also, the recent global educational
policy dissemination and Ghana educational policy orientation are very much ingrained in human
rights perspective. Hence the choice of Ghana, therefore, elicits explanations which deepens the
understanding of the workings of „the global‟ and its dialectic with „the local‟ to provide clue as to
how „the local‟ will be better informed and positioned in order to maximise the gains that accrue
from globalization.
The paper is structured into five sections. The first section espouses the concept of globalization
and its dialectic with the „local‟. The second discusses the theoretical framework which views
education as human rights issue. The third briefly highlights on Ghana‟s economic, educational
challenges and the inequalities that exist in her education. The fourth section situates the emergence
of Ghana‟s education in the perspective of human rights and points out some of the influences of
the „global‟.The fifth section juxtaposes Ghana‟s educational policies on the global MDGs and EFA
goals to see the interplay between the global and the national in policy making. In the final leg, the
rights/ justice approach was further used to discuss two key specific educational programmes in
Ghana in the as it further unfold the impact of the global on the local. This paper concludes by
suggesting how Ghana and Africa can maximise the positives of globalisation.
Concept of globalization and its dialectic with the local
According to Arnove (2013), in Arnove et al. (2013) globalization is “the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happening are shaped
by events occurring many miles away” (p. 2.). It is a borderless phenomenon and its tentacles
transcend through distance and time. It diffuses and spreads vertically and horizontally. This means
it breeds both equal and unequal relationships or positive and negative relationships Educational
globalisation can thus be defined as the spread of knowledge, ideas, paradigms and theories
programmes, polices practices, personnel and funding cross borders through policy borrowing,
hybridization, replacement, reinforcement, convergence, diffusion and adoption with the view of
improving educational systems locally (Meyer, Boli, Thomas and Ramirez (1997); Silova,
2012).There is, therefore, reciprocal relationship between education and globalization. Education
functions as a fuel for globalization and globalization also dictates the pace of education (Lauder et
al. 2006).
The dialectic of the „global‟ and the „local‟ has been well debated in literature by several schools of
thought. They are the hyper globalists, transformationalists and skeptists. According to the hyper
globalist school of taught, the nation/state has been rendered powerless by the global. For the
skeptists they hold the stance that the nation/state is untouched and still remains the driving force.
However, the transformationalists hold a middle view. For them, globalization has transformed the
nation-state (Lauder et al. 2006; Crossly & Watson, 2003).Whatever the perspective may be, the
effect of globalization on the nation -state is very real, especially, when it comes to educational
policies and funding in Africa and Ghana.

Theoretical/Analytical Framework
The paper used the social justice/human rights conceptual framework. According to the theory
every human being, no matter the race, socio-economic background has the right to education of
reasonable standard. It is premises on the goal that education should prepare the individual for
social, economic and political participation. It should enhance cohesion and socialise the young that
rights are naturally and sacredly inherent in the individual and that the rights to education is the
individual greatest assets independent of any other person (Tomasevski, 2003; 2005).
The justice approach to education and development emerged as a remedial reaction to the failure of
the economic growth theory and its counterparts in the human capital and capability theories. They
fail to achieve the much touted trickledown effect. But rather widened the gap between the rich and
the poor (World Bank, 2000; 2001). The global focus on education and development fromthe1950s
therefore shifted towards making more direct interventions in the socio-economic lives of the poor
in the periphery areas. Conditional cash transfer programmes became fashionable and Africa and
South America became the experimental sites of these programmes (Arnove et al., 2007)
The rights approach to educational discourse was formalised following the UN General Assembly
proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the year 1948. On the specific
provisions on education, Article 26 of the declaration states among other things that:
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental
stages… Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening
of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms...(UN,1948 Article 26,)
The rights/justice approach to education was further reinforced by the 1959 Declaration of Rights
of the Child. It declared that every child is entitled to receive free compulsory elementary education.
This was on the basis of equal opportunity without any discrimination. Significantly, it advocated for
a special provision for children with special needs in order for them to fully participate. . Another
relevant impetus which is also ingrain in the social justice theory is the Economic Cooperation of
West Africa States (ECOWAS) protocol on Education and Training which Ghana is a signatory to.
The protocol seeks to eliminate all forms of discriminatory acts against females. This is aimed at
ensuring equity and full access to education at all levels. The rights approach to education was
further invigorated by the World Declaration on Educational for All, Jomtiem (1990) & Daker
(2000). It aims at ensuring that every child has access to and complete free compulsory primary
education by the year 2015. It also aims at eliminating gender disparities and improving all aspect of
the quality of education for all. These sum up into the MDGs 2- Education as an anti-poverty tool:
targeting the poor (UNESCO, 2014).
In Ghana, the rights approach, especially girls education, has been championed by local NGOs like
the 31st December Women‟s Movement and Federation of International Women Lawyer (FIDA) -
Ghana chapter. Through seminars, workshops, fora, discussions, and lectures these organizations
rallied support from all sectors of the society including professionals, politicians, NGO's trade
unions, churches, women's groups, traders, autonomous indigenous groups, traditional rulers for the
rights approach to education( FIDA-Ghana, 2014). These activities culminated into the 1992
Constitution granting Free Compulsory Basic Education for all.
The Contrasting Views and Criticisms of the Rights Theory
The rights approach, from the ensuing literature, tend to place more priority on the intrinsic value
of education as it sees human rights as ends in themselves. This view contrasts that of the human
capital approach which is more tilted towards the maximisation of economic returns (materialistic

outcomes) in education as it sees human beings as input factor for economic production and
growth. This means that people such as the disable whose economic productivity may be seen as
unlikely to bring the needed return in education may be relegated to the background (Robeyens,
2006).To the human rights theorists, the dignity of every individual is paramount and must be
attained and preserved through education no matter the perceived returns. The right to education
for every child also implies that the government must mobilise the needed resources to offer a
reasonably quality education for every child at all cost (UNICEF, 2003). This view also goes beyond
the human capability theory as it makes it mandatory for the government to find the needed
investment into education; it is not an option like the case of the capability theory, but a must.
Robeyens (2006) criticises the justice theory as being overtly rhetorical. Many governments from
developing countries have pay a lip service of largely granted every child a right to education, but
still many children in their countries are out of school. He posits further that the justice theory is
obsessed and fixated with the issue of enrolment, at the expense of completion rate.
Notwithstanding , the justice theory was used by this paper because it sees human beings as the
ultimate ends of educational goals (Tomasevski, 2003) and it addresses the issue of inequity and
inequality in education like those dichotomy that has been highlighted in the case of access to and
quality of education in Ghana.
In view of the above, the paper examines Ghanaian educational evolution in terms of policy and
programme from the justice approach. This is done by reviewing some previous studies in line with
international policies and programmes in education. The paper does not intend to play down the
credibility of these studies but, seeks, to draw attention on issues in the context of Ghana that
have not be given the needed attention; especially as far as how Ghana should be positioned to
maximise the gains on globalisation.
Educational Challenges in Ghana and its dichotomy
There are many challenges confronting the education sector in Ghana. Some are lack of funds, poor
infrastructure, lack of teaching and learning materials, ill-equipped laboratory, lack of quality
teachers, poor motivation, poor professional development, and poor monitoring and evaluation.
These challenges are microcosm of Ghana‟s current economic predicaments. According to the
International Monitory Fund (2014), Ghana continues to face significant domestic and external
vulnerabilities. It cited large fiscal deficit, slow growth, rising inflation, weak revenue performance,
rising cost of debt servicing, large depreciation of the local currency, and weak export performance
as some of the evidence. These have serious implications on funding of equitable quality education
in Ghana.
More worryingly, there is a dichotomy in access of educational opportunities in Ghana between the
privileged and the less privileged. First, there is north and south divide in access to educational
opportunities. The northern regions of Ghana, which constitute the largest geographical area is very
deprived as compare to the regions in the south. Most of the active economic activities and
educational institutions, especially the tertiary ones are mostly concentrated in the southern part.
The southerners are therefore more able to access education than the northerners. There is also a
gender dichotomy as men dominate women in enrolment; completion rate and pursuing of
technology base programmes. Lastly, there is a rural and urban dichotomy. The urban centers have
more schools which are relatively better equipped in terms of infrastructure and teachers than the
rural areas. For example, the proportion of the population which has never attended school in the
rural areas (33.1%) is more than two times that of the urban area (14.2%). There is also a marked
difference between males (9.1%) and females (14.3%) who have never attended school.

Evolution of education in Ghana and the global
Colonization and its impact on education and development in Ghana
Formal education was introduced in Ghana in the 16th Century by two main groups, Merchants and
Christian Churches from Europe mostly Dutch, French and English who came into Africa for the
purpose of trading and evangelism. The Merchants aimed at training mulato children for
employment as administrative assistants or soldiers whilst the Christian Missionaries was aiming to
create an independent native church with a staff of well-educated local assistants, which was finance
by Charity Groups Abroad (Foster, 1963). Hence the type of education placed more emphasis on
literacy and numeracy at the expense of vocational and technical training (Adu Boahen, 1975).
Ghana became British colony following a British proclamation of the existence of the Gold Coast
Colony on July 24, 1874. Between 1821 and 1840 the British Crown authorities took control of the
education system by financing a number of government schools, including one for girls. Both
government and church-funded schools existed side-by-side and were based on the public
„monitorial‟ schools system then in England (Foster, 1963:49). Education became the privilege of a
small minority, largely elite, male and urban and residing in the South of the country. In general, the
social demand for education remained low. However, between the period 1911 and 1937, the
enrolment of pupils in government and aided schools increased from around 18,000 to 44,000
(Foster, 1963).
Like that of the pre-colonial education system, the colonial educational system also placed much
emphasis on literacy and numeracy acquisition. The aim then was to train people in arithmetic and
communicative skills to facilitate trade. There was no attempt on industrialization hence vocational
training was not given much attention. This colonial legacy in education still persists in 21st century
Ghana as evident in the poor vocational and technical education in Ghana (Adu Boahen, 1975). The
effect is that the country continues to be a mere exporter of primary products even after
independence (Adu Boahen, 1975; Kay & Hymer). Colonialism - the genesis of globalization in
Africa has fiercely been blamed as the bean of not only Ghana but African‟s socio-economic
systemic failure as it laid a very week foundation upon which the development trajectory of Ghana
and Africa has been erected. This position was further reechoed in the recent 23rd Ordinary Session
of the African Union Assembly of Heads of State and Government held in Malabo, on 26 June 2014
by the president of Equatorial Guinea, Teodoro Mbasogo. He argues that the neo-colonial
domination of Africa had impeded development and has now metamorphosed into unfair pricing
and western-imposed barriers to trade (Guardian Africa Network, 2014). However, in sharp rebuttal
Barack Obama has told African leaders to stop making excuses for ongoing economic problems in
their countries, and to look for solutions within rather than blaming the past. This position seems to
be supported by the example of the South Africa who got independence very late yet have recorded
significant successes, especially in education.
Post- colonial era and education
After independence in 1957 the focused was on making Ghana an industrialized country. A robust
programme dubbed „The Accelerated Development Plan for Education‟ was therefore set into
motion in the mid- 1950s by the first president of Ghana-Dr. Kwame Nkrumah (Little, 2010). The
aim was to provide rapid development of education at all levels. University of Science and
Technology, and Polytechnics were established to trained high technically skilled manpower for
industry. At the secondary school level several model Senior Secondary Schools were established
across the nation, and they were fairly distributed. Also in order to bridge north-south divide the
government introduced the northern scholarship as part of the program to increase access of the

poor communities in the northern regions of Ghana to Secondary School .This scholarship covers
boarding and feeding fees of students that hail from the three northern regions of Ghana. At the
basic level, education was made compulsory and free and it was geared towards access. There was
also an introduction of free text books at the primary and secondary levels. Many teachers‟ training
colleges were established to produce qualified teachers for the basic schools. „The Teacher Trainee
Allowance‟, a cash transfer policy, was also introduced in the mid 60s to attract more academically
brilliant students into teaching. The Ghana education trust fund and the Cocoa Marketing Board
were established in the 60s to provide funding for education in Ghana (Kay & Hymner, 1992). The
results were positive as there were increases not only in infrastructure, but also in enrolment and
access at all levels. For example, the enrolment at basic level increased by approximately 150% by
1965 (Kay & Hymner, 1992). Also, many middle level personnel as well as teachers were turn out to
fill gap in education and industries that were created by the exit of the British. The Accelerated
Development Plan for Education and the Education Act of 1960 were birthed out of relatively
wider consultations with stakeholders and with support from foreign experts. This may account for
the success story. However, a number of challenges emerged. First, there were inadequate numbers
of teachers to cope with the rapid increase in enrolment in the basic schools and the enrolment also
outpaced infrastructure expansion. These affected the quality of education (Pimpong, 2006).
Therefore, before 1970s Ghana educational policies had an orientation that seemed to be consistent
with human capital approach of investing in people in order to produce a knowledgeable and skillful
manpower to drive the wheel of socio-economic development. This in a way created inequality in
development as well as in educational experiences between the rural and the urban milieu as most of
the major infrastructures, school, teachers and factories were cited in the core centres of Accra,
Tema,Takrodi and Kumasi. However, latter remedial programs like the introduction of the „Teacher
Trainee Allowance‟ and the policy of equitable distribution of model senior secondary schools
countrywide, the northern scholarship and free basic school education are good examples of the
justice approach to education as it expanded access in education. Another significant feature of the
early post-colonial education system was that the nation has sufficient autonomy on the choice and
the direction of policies and programmes as compare to recent times. This was due to the fact that
education was mostly funded internally with little foreign support.
In 1966, the first military government (NLC) instituted the Kwapong Educational Review
Committee which brought into the middle school system a two-year pre-vocational continuation
classes (continuation schools) based on the industrial and farming needs of the country (Poku,
Aawaar , Worae, 2013). This was envisaged to prepare the middle school graduates for the world of
work. The academic track system was still based on the British system. However, this policy failed
woefully as the students in those schools were keen to enter into secondary schools rather than
vocational schools. The reason for the failure may be attributed to lack of sufficient consultation
with stakeholders, including students and teacher before the rolling out of the policy. The, total
expenditure in education during the NLC regime declined and there was also marked drop both in
the school aged children in schools and trained teachers (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). This may
be attributed to the unstable political, and the fact that the government refused to cooperate with
the international players.
In 1978, Ghana introduced full structural adjustment policies supported by the Bretton Woods
institutions. Public funding to education was massively cut and there was an increasing burden on
parents to fund education. The effects include a further drop in enrolment and trained teachers. For
examples, the high score of 75% of school enrolment for 6-14 years old and the 90.8% of trained
teachers in schools recorded in 1965 dropped to 69.9% and 72% respectively in 1979. Ghana‟s GNP

per capita fell by 23% between 1975 and 1983 (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). Severe economic
hardships and harsh revolutionary zeal of the military regime in 1981 caused many trained teachers
in both primary and secondary schools to leave the country.
Another reform occurred in 1986/87 that shaped the structure of basic education in Ghana even up
to today. The reform changed the basic and secondary education system from 17 to 12 years, with
six (6) years of primary school, three (3) years of junior secondary school (JSS), and three years of
senior secondary school (SSS). Basic education was reduced from eleven (11) to nine (9) years, but
still in tandem with the British educational system (Poku, Aawaar & Worae, 2013). The reforms was
intended to prepare the products from the JSS for further education, skill training, and to pursue
self- determined paths of interest to enable them play a functional role in the society as informed,
participatory citizens, and economic producers to improve the quality of their lives, the reforms was
not successful for want of sufficient resources for practical work at the JSS level (Ministry of
Education, 1996).
In recent times, the government‟s commitment towards achieving her educational goals line with the
global (MGDs and the EFA strategies) has been expressed in several policy frameworks documents,
text and reports including:
 Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy ( GPRS I) 2002 – 2004 & ( GPRS II) 2006 -2009
 The Government‟s White Paper on the report 2004
 Meeting the Challenges of Education in the 21st Century. (The report of the President‟s
Commission on Review of Education Reforms in Ghana, ERRC, October 2002).
 Education for All (EFA, UNESCO, Dakar, 2000) – international paper
 The Education Strategic Plan (ESP) covering 2003-2015 & 2010-2020
One of the three main thematic areas of the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I & II ) is
the development of the nation‟s human resources base through the creation of competent
manpower for development of the country whereby education is seen as an obvious impetus of
meeting the MDGs by aligning its educational policies to the EFA strategies (Ministry of Education,
2005).
In 2004 the Government of Ghana White Paper on Education Reform outlines a new portfolio of
major reforms and objectives aims to link schooling to the job market through alliances with private
and public sector agencies. The innovation of the Reform is the inclusion of Kindergarten
Education to the main stream of basic education in Ghana in line of the EFA strategy of improving
early childhood education. The Reform also proposes that the medium of instructions in
Kindergarten and Lower Primary were to be Ghanaian language complimented by English, where
necessary (Ministry of Education, 2005). This is also in line with the EFA action plan and the 2008
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous people which advocate for the rights of indigenous people
and children to be taught in their mother tongue at least in the early stages of their education. The
implementation of the reform objectives culminated in the Ghana Education Strategic Plan (ESP).
From this historical accounts, Ghana educational evolution has been continually shaped by a
number of policy makers (mostly motivated by change in governments) and donors working
together and compromising their original intentions in order to develop policies and programmes
that are compatible to the Ghanaian context. Her history points to the fact that there were greater
successes in policies and programmes that were based on wider consultations and inclusion of all

global partners. Another feature found is that Ghana educational evolution is ingrained in the
human rights approach as most of her policies seek to widen the frontier of education by hooking
every child anywhere in the country, especially the marginalized, into at least basic formal education.
The Accelerated Education Plan of the 60s and the FCUBE show that even before Jomtiem (2000),
Ghana had committed herself to universal access to basic education. However, it must be noted
that the issue of quality which is also pertinent to the rights approach to education has not been
sufficiently addressed for want of sufficient resources.
The Interplay between Ghana and the global in policy making strategies
The major stakeholders that shape educational policies at the national level according to Dale
(2007), include public consultations, parliamentary debates, governing parties, commissions and
councils, trade union representatives, employer organizations, professional associations, sectors of
civil society, bilateral cooperation and international organizations. At the international level the
major players are the UN and its specialized agencies, The World Trade organization(WTO), The
World Bank and the International Monitory Fund, multinational corporations/organizations,
regional and professional, organizations, International NGOs, bilateral cooperation, national
governments, research institutions, and individuals (Crossley & Watsson, 2003). Comparisons of the
two suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between the national and the global as each has a
stake and interest in the other. However, the global seems to have the upper hands as it can amass
resources more than the local. For example, being the first UN agency, UNESCO through its long
standing in championing the course of universal basic education and functional literacy, has had a
profound influence on global educational policies and thinking, especially as a right issue (Crossley
and Watsson 2003). According to Crossly & Watsson (2013), there is a strong collaboration among
donor organizations and national government with respect to educational development. For
example the association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA), which was founded
as Donors to Africa Education, brings together national, international and private donor agencies to
formulate policies and these policy directions are then disseminated through several publications.
Globalization, therefore, plays important role in national level policy making in term of funding and
technical expertise as nations response to the global changes in order to become competitive and
also ( in the case of developing countries) to attract more funding from donor agencies (Jacobi 2012;
Carnoy, 1999).
Dale (2007), suggests that the national education policy makers and planners interact with the global
through two main general policy mechanisms. These are the traditional approach to policy making
and planning which includes: Policy borrowing and Policy learning. The second one is externally
induced mechanisms such as Policy Harmonization as evident in the EU- Bologna declaration;
Policy Dissemination as seen in the OECD indicators- PISA; Policy Standardization as exemplifies
in the UNESCO EFA goals; Policy Interdependence as evident in the global commitment in
fighting climate change, global warming and terrorism. The last one is Policy Imposition as seen in
the IMF and the World Bank‟s structural adjustment policies such as cost sharing, full cost recovery
and privatization in education. The mechanisms of influence of the global on the local come in
the form of policy advice, technical assistant, common policies and architecture for educational
system, indicators, ranking, declarations, recommendations, guidelines, conventions, regional
agreements, loans linked to programmes and policies and conditioned aid (Jacobi 2012; Dale, 2007).
In terms of Policy Option and target setting, Ghana educational policy and reform goals are greatly
influenced by international and sub-regional policy frameworks and declarations. Ghana‟s
participation in, and endorsement of, international agreements like the EFA, the Declaration on the
Rights of the Child, the Beijing Declaration on Women‟s Rights, the Lome Convention; the African

Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and; the Convention on the Rights of the Child have greatly
inform her educational policy strategies and goals. This means that the government tries to draw a
balance between local interests and the bilateral and multilateral negotiations it had taken part in, as a
guide to her policy making. The broad policy goals of Ghana Education Strategy Plan (ESP) lay
strong emphasis on increasing access, equity and quality in education in consonance with the MDGs
2 and the EFA frammwork. The specific strategic goals relating to basic education are: to provide
equitable access to good-quality child-friendly universal basic education, by improving opportunities
for all children in the first cycle of education, that is, kindergarten, primary and junior high school
levels (Government of Ghana, 2010). The specific targets stated in the ESP 2003-2015 are that:
children everywhere, boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
by 2015; to eliminate gender inequalities by 2015; and to eliminate gender disparities in primary and
secondary education by 2005(Government of Ghana, 2003). From the above, we can say that
education is viewed by both the global and local policy makers as welfare and right issues as they are
premises on access, equity and quality.
In term of strategies the Ghana‟s ESP is greatly shaped by the global goals. The UN seeks to achieve
the MDG2 & EFA targets by promoting EFA policies within a sustainable and well integrated
sector framework clearly linked to poverty elimination and development through: ensuring the
engagement and participation of civil society in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of
strategies for educational development; developing responsive, participatory and accountable
systems of educational governance and management; implementing an integrated strategies for
gender equality in education and; enhancing the status, morale and professionalism of teachers in
order to achieve the MDGs (UNESCO, 2000). Further, Johannesburg, 1999 also identified good
practices and successful policies that are more appropriate to the African context to include: policies
that seeks to accelerated access, with particular reference to policies of equity and female enrolment,
including affirmative action; community involvement in school decision-making and administration;
employment of teachers in their own community of origin; curriculum reform toward locally
relevant subjects; the use of mother tongue as the language of instruction; evaluation based on an
action-research paradigm and; management/statistical information systems in planning among
others(UNESCO, 2000). Similarly, in the Ghana the guiding participles and strategies on basic
education ,for example, is to eliminate gender and other disparities that arises from exclusion and
poverty; cater for excluded children in mainstream schools whenever possible; improve the quality
of learning and teaching, and to promote the culture of lifelong learning at all levels and for all ages ;
develop an effective, efficient and properly rewarded teaching service; devolve delivery and fiscal
systems of 1st and 2nd cycle of education to District Assemblies; ensure periodic review of
education grants and allowances; and to strengthen monitoring , accountability management and
planning in the education sector (Government of Ghana, 2010).
Furthermore, the principle of consensus building in decision making at the global level has
influenced Ghana policy making process in recent times. According to Verger (2014), policy making
in education is a complex process that seeks to include regional interests and views of all major
stakeholders in international education, including businesses and private institutions. It involves
several underground preparation and consultations. As evident by the deliberations of the Secretary-
General‟s High-Level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda:
The deliberations of the Panel were informed by the broad consultative process … This
includes national and global thematic consultations under the aegis of the United Nations
Development Group (UNDG), regional consultations undertaken by the Regional
Commissions, consultations with businesses around the world under the guidance of the UN

Global Compact, and the views of the scientific and academic community as conveyed
through the Sustainable Development Solutions Network …more than 5000 civil society
organizations and 250 chief executive officers of major corporations who shared their
valuable ideas and views during a series of consultations, both in person and online (UN,
2013)
Likewise, the Dakar Framework of Action (2000) was birth out of amalgam of ideas and
reaffirmation of international stakeholders to commit themselves to the ten (10) EFA goals. Also, in
the Johannesburg 1999 Regional Conference on EFA for Su-Saharan Africa, governments and
representative of civil societies as well as the international development partners and agencies came
together to reaffirm the EFA goals for Su-Saharan that education is a basic rights and a basic need
for all African children hence the need of stakeholders to play their respective role in achieving the
MDGs and EFA goals. Ghana‟s policy making process has also been greatly influenced by the high
level of consultations and consensus building that occurs at the global level. For example, the 2006
educational reform process started with initiation of policy by Government (Ministry of
Education). This was followed by District and Regional consultation meetings to gather inputs from
the local people. This was followed by national forum where all stakeholders including international
players converge to discuss and make inputs. An improved draft was then approved by cabinet. This
was laid in parliament for the representatives of the people to make some inputs. Here Parliament
Special Committee on Education was very active. The document went to cabinet for final
considerations and the presidency issued a white paper on it to become the final policy document.
As a follow up to the recommendation of the 2006 reform Ghana Education Strategic Plan was
drawn to cover the period 2003 to 2015, According to Government of Ghana (2010), the two
volumes of the Ghana ESP are the outcome of year-long discussions and consultations between
numerous stakeholders in the education sector, particularly those in District education offices, those
in NGOs and our development partners. This interaction has provided assurance and confidence in
the plan. Also, as a further followed up of the ESP, Ghana has set up Education Sector Annual
Review (ESAR), which provide the opportunity for all stakeholders in the sector to work together
and participate in the review of the education sector performance annually. This is to ensure the
involvement of all stakeholders in the review and pool of resources to ensure harmonisation of
programs and activities for the realization of the goals and objectives of the education sector. This is
also to enhance accountability and transparency with the education sector (Government of Ghana,
2010). Therefore, as Haddad (1995) observes education policy making process in Ghana like that of
the international level take into account the interests and inputs of the various stakeholders in
education both at the national and international level. Hence the policies tend to enjoy high level of
popular support which is key to its successful implementation.
In term of the policy implementation process the influence of the global on Ghana is very evident.
UN ant its specialized agencies and donor countries, have supported decision-makers in Ghana to
develop solid and relevant education policies and strategies (such the GPRS, ESP the School
Feeding Programme among others) and in managing their effective implementation. These supports
come in the form of technical assistance in education policy analysis, the design of education sector
development plans, and donor mobilization in support of educational priorities. The support also
come in the form of institutional capacity-building in policy formulation, sector analysis, educational
planning, policy simulation and dialogue, resource projections, sector management, programme
monitoring and evaluation, and development cooperation (UNESCO, 2014). In Ghana, the
implementations of educational policies are, therefore, highly supported and dependent on aid and
loans from the global, hence they have a say in the direction of education in Ghana. The Ministry of

Education (MOE) is responsible for the formulation and implementation of educational policies in
Ghana. The Ministry ensures that the national policies on education harmonise with the overall
national development goals taking into cognizance the international paradigm on education. A
minister of State of Cabinet Status heads the Ministry. The MOE is followed by the Ghana
Education Service (GES) on the management structure which is the main agency for implementing
approved pre-tertiary education policies and programmes under the GES Council, in accordance
with the GES Act 1995 (ACT 506) (Republic of Ghana, 2002). The feature of Ghana educational
policy evolution is, therefore, greatly influenced by the global through policy imposition, borrowing,
harmonization and dissemination.
Discussion of some specific educational programmes in Ghana
The Directive Principles of State policy in Ghana envisages that basic education should be free,
compulsory and universal and higher education should be made progressively free (Ministry of
Education, 2008). This principle is rooted firmly in the rights approach and it is influenced by the
numerous international declarations on education as a rights. Although there is no tuition fees at all
level of public education, however, other fees, including hidden ones, made the issue of affordability
the main blockage to access. Due to the dichotomy in the Ghanaian society as highlighted earlier,
the Ghanaian educational programmes tend to focus more on the problem of access and equity.
Two major examples of educational progrmmes that have been introduced to address the issue of
access and equity in basic level are discussed below:
The Free Compulsory Universal Education Policy (FCUBE)
The 1992 Republican Constitution of Ghana promulgated free compulsory universal basic
education. According the specific provision (Article 38 (2) ), states that the government “shall
within two years after Parliament first meets after the coming into force of this Constitution, draw
up a programme for implementation within the following ten years, for the provision of free,
compulsory and universal basic education” (Constitution of the Fourth Republic of Ghana, 1992).
This provision added new impetus to the human rights approach to education Ghana.
The main objective was to improve access to basic education, especially of girls, improve the
teaching process, learning outcomes and school management through better planning, monitoring
and evaluation (Pimpong, 2006). The five strategic and integrated elements designed to remedy these
four deficiencies of access, equity quality and relevance were infrastructure development,
management reform, curriculum change, community participation and improvement of quality of
personnel who support basic education at all levels ( Little, 2010).
The successes of the programs are that gross enrolment ratio (GER) in primary education has
improved steadily. Prior to the FCUBE, between 1987 and 1991, the GER in primary education was
averaging 77% and it fell to 73% in 1995. By 2001 it had increased to 80%, but however, decline
again to 78% in 2003 (Little, 2010). An evaluation of educational progress undertaken by the World
Bank suggests that between 1988 and 2003 there was a ten per cent (10%) increase in enrolment at
the basic level, a reduction in dropouts and an increase in girls‟ enrolment. Primary school graduate
rates of illiteracy in English also declined from 66% to less than 20% while school infrastructure and
the availability of textbooks and other learning materials increased remarkably over the same period
(World Bank, 2004). Notwithstanding, many children were still not in school since the FCUBE only
covers tuition. The schools were permitted to charge other fees up to a ceiling amount approved by
the District Assemblies [Local Governments in Ghana] (Little, 2010). The abuse of this arrangement
led to the proliferation of all kinds of fees. In order to eliminate that government in early 2000s

introduced the capitation grant policy. This grant was to pay for all the other fees. The capitation
grant r pushed the enrolment figure further up. The programme was mainly founded by donor
support.
The FCUBE unfortunately, does not seem to have produced the overall expected outcome so far.
One of its important goals of making educational planning and management more effective has not
been achieved. Poor monitoring and evaluation persists and this has been blamed on the poor
performance of public Junior High Schools (JHS) in the Basic Certificate Examinations (BECE) as
compared to the well monitored private schools. Generally, the achievement level of pupils at the
JHS level, especially, in public schools has been abysmal and the trend keeps deteriorating. For
example only 46.93 per cent of out of the 375,280 candidates who sat for the 2011 BECE met the
criteria for placement into SHSs and Vocational Institutions in Ghana. Also, between 2001 to 2011
the performance of pupils who sat for the BECE dropped from 60.40% to 46.93% (Government of
Ghana 2013). There is also a problem of supply of qualified teachers to cater for the increasing
number of students. The student to trained teacher ratio in primary school worsen from 43: 1 to
63:1 and that of the Junior Secondary School 23:1 to 26: 1 between 1997 to 2006 (Little, 2010).
The dropout rate remains high as only few students end up at the SHS level.
Increase in access seems to have compromised the quality of education in Ghana. This has brought
about increasing in the number of private basic schools across the nation. From the human capital
point of view it may be argued that privatization of basic education in Ghana seem to be a better
remedial strategy to the low quality of basic education in Ghana as it is yielding a positive results in
term of pupils‟ educational achievements express in examination scores, hence may give Ghana the
highest returns in terms achievement and possibly increase the completion and progression rates
among students than public education as evidenced by the far better performances of private basic
schools than the public ones in the BECE every year. However, as argued by Tomasevski (2003)
human beings are the ultimate ends of educational goals and not the returns. Privatization may deny
many people the rights to education and the cost of that will be unbearable in the future. What the
government and stakeholders need to do is to expand infrastructure, teaching and learning materials,
and motivate teachers to accept postings into deprived areas. There must also be an establishment of
special monitoring and evaluation units within Ghana Education Service (GES). These will improve
the quality. Privatization may not be the answer for quality given the inequalities that exists in the
access to educational opportunities in Ghana.
The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP)
The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) was birthed through the New Partnership for
Africa Development/Hunger Task Force Initiative (NEPAD/HTFI) with the support from Dutch
government. The School feeding programme was introduced in 2005 as a follow up to the FCUBE
(MOE, 2012). It was basically targeted at the poor communities, especially, the rural areas and urban
slums. It aims at not only increasing enrolment, but more importantly attendance and retention. The
programme can be describe as a success as it has not only increase the enrolment and retention
levels, but it has also expanded from an initial number of 69,000 beneficiary students in 2005 to
697, 496 by the end of the first phase of the programme in 2010 (Lynch, 2013). At the beginning of
the 2013/14 academic year the coverage rate figure stood at 1,600, 000 pupils from 49,920 public
schools (Modern Ghana, 2013). However, the programme is now bedeviling with funding problems
following the withdrawal of the Dutch government support in 2011 (Modern Ghana, 2013). From
the justice perspective government has an obligation to her people to provide the means to

education no matter the cost. The government must therefore look for more innovative ways of
raising funds to sustain the programme as its impact has been very positive.
Funding, Aid Dependency and Vested Interest in Ghana’s Education
Educational policies and programmes in Ghana are largely donor funded. Perhaps one of the
positive impacts of Globalization on education in Ghana has been the inflows of funds and
technical assistant into the education sector. However, there seem to be overreliance on external
support at the expense of raising and prudent use of resources. The evidence is that any time there
is a delay or a withdrawal of such funds it triggers a stunt in the implementation of educational
programmes in Ghana. As noted by Samoff (2013), perhaps there is an internalisation within Africa
countries, including Ghana that improvement and change can only flourish on external support.
The donor organizations and countries have vested interest and expectations. For example, the over
liberalization of the Ghanaian economy through Structural Adjustment Programmes(SAPs) was as a
result of conditionality attached to grants and aid accessed by the country (Pimpong, 2006). This
has led to the influx of foreign goods and the gradual the collapse of local industries due to unfair
competition from the West, as well as privatization of key state- own industries most of whom are
now controlled by foreign and multinational companies. One of the effects is the current problem
of graduate unemployment in Ghana. Bonal, X. (2014, September 15) in a Globed lecture at the
University of Oslo summarizes the negative effects of „ the global‟ as evident in the impact of
SAPs on Africa countries to include decrease in educational funding at the expense of debt
servicing, increase in the opportunities cost of education, increase in dropout rates as a result of
increase user-fees, decrease in staff recruitment and salaries which further worsens the teacher-
student ratio, and even more alarmingly, the emergence of a new retreat towards the economic
function of education. Another concern observed by Pimpong (2006) is that most often Ghana
must use the funds from aids and loans to fulfill goals set by the loaning agency. These goals may
not be aligned with the goals of the nation. Although being aware of these hidden agenda most
often government accept, and even request for them as they want to be seen doing something
having the next elections in mind. The impact of the global on the education is therefore very real
when it comes to funding of education in Ghana in recent times, even to the extent that donor
partners have to make inputs into the national budget of the country. As observed by Meyer, J. W. et
al. (1997), the local is indeed gradually ceding its power and sovereignty to the global. From the
rights perspective loans and aids into educational programmes is good only when it seeks to broaden
the frontier of access and quality. However, it must be resisted if it comes with strings that seek to
espouse neoliberal agenda such as privatization, cost sharing and full cost recovery in education.
The Current State of Affairs in Ghana: Success and Challenges
After many years of educational trajectory in Ghana masterminded by the global, the nation has
chalked some modest gain, especially, in access and equity in education at all levels. The Gross
Enrolment Rate (GER) for primary school has improved from 76% in 1987/88 to 80% in 2002,
88% in 2005, 95% in 2008 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The GER gender gap in favour of boys
decreased from 10% in 1996/97 to 7% in 2012 (UNICEF, 2013). The literacy rate has increase from
54% in 2000 to about 72% in 2010 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The number of out-of-school
children (aged 6 to 11) fell by 46% from 513,000 in 2006 to 278,000 in 2011 and the completion
rates increased at both Primary and JHS, now at 112.4 and 70.1 respectively. Gender parity is almost
achieved at the Primary level, with a GPI of 0.99(Government of Ghana, 2013). Overall Ghana has
attained the EFA on gender parity in primary education and is on the verge of attaining that of the
access by the end of 2015. These improvements are attributed to the strategies adopted in line with

‟the global‟ such as the EFA and MDG goals and the inflow of support from donor countries and
the UN specialized agencies.
However, there is a still serious challenge which further needs attention. Ghana is still far a way in
achieving parity at the secondary and higher educational levels. For example, at the Junior High
School (JHS) the GPI is 0.93(Government of Ghana, 2013). Also, the country has not been able to
achieve her specific targets on equity in access, quality and outcome. For example, many more
children (about 23%) [of the population aged three (3) years and older have never been to school
(Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The inequality between the rural and the urban; and male and
female in terms of access still persists. According to 2010 Census report, the proportion of the
population which has never attended school in the rural areas (33.1%) is more than two times that
of the urban area (14.2%). There is also a marked difference between males (9.1%) and females
(14.3%) who have never attended school. Also the quality of education is low. The quality in
education is very low due to lack of adequate infrastructure, resources and personnel. For example,
the number of core textbooks per pupil stands at 1.2 and 0.9 for Primary and JHS public schools
respectively which is still some way off the target of 3 (Government of Ghana, 2013). Also
achievement level has been very low as evident in the dwindling performance of pupils in the Basic
Certification Examination (BECE). For example, the performance of pupils who sat for the BECE
dropped from 60% to 47% for the period 2001 to 2011(Government of Ghana, 2013) and many of
the schools who are in rural areas are among the poorly performed schools. Given the above
challenges and the inequities, the human rights approach to education will continue to be
appropriate in the Ghanaian context as she revamp her strategies in addressing the trends of the new
challenges.
Discussion of the research findings
Our discussions so far show that Ghana educational evolution, policies and programmes are dictated
by the global educational paradigm as evident in the MGD2 and EFA goals which approach is tilted
toward the justice approach to education. Our discussions further show that the quest of achieving
access, equity and quality have been the cardinal principles of Ghana‟s quest to meet global targets
of EFA. Funding of education in Ghana has been on major challenge in achieving access, equity and
quality although this is the area where the impact of global partners has been felt. Notwithstanding,
the fact that the country seem to be donor dependent, the role of global partners in supporting
education in Ghana is still crucial. However, for Ghana to maximise the positives of globalisation
requires a new approach to cooperation. The first of this should be t a deliberate effort of forming
stronger equal partnerships. This should first start with rallying support for stronger sub-regional
and regional integration and cooperation in education. Educational standardization and unification
across Africa will induce efficiency and massification of education and knowledge production. This
will create the needed wealth to fund education in Africa. A united and stronger Africa will be able
to strike a better and fair deal for the individual states in Africa in the global competition, than the
individual countries within Africa. However, there is the need for further studies as how a
borderless Africa can be achieved, given it diversity and history of colonial history and its current
neo-colonial nature which is hindering educational cooperation and integration in Africa.
Conclusion
Education programmes and policies in Ghana have largely been shaped by global issues especially,
the world‟s paradigm‟s shift to education as human rights as espouse in the Educational for All
goals. The dichotomy between the relatively privileged and the less privileged in the Ghanaian
society as regards access to educational opportunities tend to give credence to this approach. The

policies and programmes in Ghana are mostly geared towards achieving at least universal access to
basic education. The genesis of the global influence on the Ghana‟s education is traced to
colonization and latter to global cooperation and internationalisation and its several declarations on
education as a rights. In recent times, funding of education in Ghana has been the arena in which
the impact of the global is being felt most. Ghana educational evolution in the past was greatly
influenced by global stakeholders through policy imposition and borrowing. However, in recent
times, policy dissemination base on wide sectorial approach seems to be the main driver. The
discussions so far further widens the thesis of this paper: thus, having identified the features and
influences of globalisation on national educational policies how should Ghana or Africa position
herself within the global community in order to minimize the negatives and maximize the positives
of this intricate relationships and dialectics between the global and the local? Given the
characteristics of globalization that have been highlighted in this paper, especially, it borderless
nature; suggests that it is difficult for a country to thrive individually in this globalised world. As
postulated by Lauder et al. (2006), the nation state must reinvent itself, but a new global framework.
The way forward for Ghana and for that matter Africa is therefore the need to push for more
economic and educational cooperation within Africa. A united Africa, where all social, economic
and political boarders are nonexistent such that member states have access to a wider and even
market as well as educational opportunities will ensure that globalization breeds a new form of
relationships where there will be no losers but all winners.
References
Arnove, R. F., Franz, S., &. Torres, C. A. (2013). Education in Latin America from Dependency and
neo-liberalism to Alternative Paths to Development. In: Arnove, R. F., C. A. Torres & S.
Franz (Eds) Comparative Education. The Dialectic of the Global and the Local. Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers
Adu Boahen, A. ( 1975). Ghana: Evolution and Change in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries. Longman Group Ltd.
Africa should stop blaming history for its economic problems' – is Obama right?. (2014, July 30).
Guardian Africa Network: Retrieved from:
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jul/30/-sp-obama-africa-colonial-excuses-poll
[Accessed 26.09.2014]
Bonal, X. (2014, September 15). Competing Paradigms in Education and development
[PowerPoint Presentation]. Oslo: GLOBED lecture, University of Oslo
Crossley, M. and K. Watson (2003). Comparative and international research in education:
globalization, context and difference. London: Routledge Falmer
Ozga, The Routledge Falmer Reader in Education Policy and Practice. London: Routledge, (pp.48-
64)
Dale, R. (2007), Specif ying Globalization Effects on National Policy. In: Lingard, Bob and J.
Ozga, The Routledge Falmer Reader in Education Policy and Practice. London: Routledge, (pp.48-
64)
Declaration of Rights of the Child (1959). Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/1959 Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-the-Child.pdf
ECOWAS Protocol on Education and Training (2003). Retrieved from
http://documentation.ecowas.int/download/en/legal_documents/protocols/Protocol%20o
n%20Education%20and%20Training.pdf
Foster Philip, Education and Social Change in Ghana, 1965
Government of Ghana (2003), Education Strategic Plan, 2003 to 2015, VOLUME 1.

Policies, Targets and Strategies, Ministry of Education, Accra. May, 2003.
Retrieved from:
ttp://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Ghana/Ghana%20Education%20Strategic%20Plan.
pdf
Declaration of Rights of the Child (1959). Retrieved from
http://www.unicef.org/malaysia/1959 Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-the-Child.pdf
[Accessed on 24.09.2014
ECOWAS Protocol on Education and Training (2003). Retrieved from
http://documentation.ecowas.int/download/en/legal_documents/protocols/Protocol%20o
n%20Education%20and%20Training.pdf [Accessed on 09.24. 2014]
Government of Ghana (2013), Education Performance Sector Report, August, 2013
Government of Ghana (2010), Education Strategic Plan 2010 to 2020, VOLUME 1. Policies,
Strategies, Delivery and Finance. Ministry of Education. December, 2010. Retrieved from
:http://www.moe.gov.gh/docs/ESP%202010-2020%20Vol%201%20Final
Haddad and Demsky (1995), Educational policy-planning Process: and applied framework;
Paris, 1995 UNESCO: IIEP. Retrieved from:
http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/11_200.pdf on 15.11.2014
International Monitory Fund (2014) .IMF Staff Concludes Visit to Ghana. Press Release No.
14/439. Retrieved from: http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2014/pr14439.htm
[on 29. 09. 2014]
Jacobi, A. P. (2012). Implementing Global Policies in African Countries: Conceiving lifelong
Learning as basic education. In: Verger, A., M. Novelli and H. K. Altinyelken Global
education policy and international development: New agendas, issues and policies. London:
Bloomsbury Publishing, 119-136
Lynch A. (2013). Inaction or In Action, The Effectiveness of The Ghana School Feeding
programme: The Case of Ntranoa School, Cape Coast, Ghana (Masters‟ Thesis, University
of Limerick, Ollscoil Luimnigh Retrieved from:
http://www.ul.ie/ppa/content/files/Amy_Lynch.pdf [Accessed on 09.24. 2014]
Less than 50% pass BECE; GES says it is normal. (2011, August, 27). Myjoyonline
Retrieved from : http://edition.myjoyonline.com/pages/education/201109/73676.php
[Accessed on 24.09.2014]
Pimpong, E. (2006). Interactions between education, economy and politics: a case of Ghana’s
Educational system from a historical perspective. (Master‟s thesis, University of Bergen. Retrieved
from: http://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/handle/11250/167511 [Accessed on 09.24. 2014]
Ministry of Education Ghana [MOE] (2012). Education they say is Equalizer of Life‟s Chances.
Retrieved from http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/2012-02-08-08-32-47/features/4593-
education-they-say-is-equalizer-of-life-s-chances [Accessed on 24.09.2014]
Ministry of Education Science and Sports (MoESS) (2008) Education Sector Performance
Report 2008, Accra: MoESS
Meyer,
Boli, Thomas and Ramirez (1997). World Society and the Nation-State. American Journal of Sociology,
103 (1), 144-181. Retrieved from:
https://vpn1.uio.no/+CSCO+00756767633A2F2F6A6A6A2E77666762652E626574++/st
able/10.1086/231174
Lauder, J., P. Brown, J-A. Dillabough and A.H. Halsey. 2006. Education, globalization and social
change. Oxford University
Little, A. W. (2010). Access to Basic Education in Ghana: politics, policies and progress. Project

Report. CREATE, Brighton, UK. Retrieved from:
http://www.create-rpc.org/pdf_documents/PTA42.pdf [Accessed on 09 22, 2014]
Robeyens, I. (2006). Three models of education: rights, capabilities and human capital. Theory and
Research in Education, 4(69), 69-84.doi:10.1177/147787850606083
Samoff, J. with B. Carrol. 2013. Education for All in Africa: Not Catching Up, but Setting the Pace.
in: Arnove, R. F., C. A. Torres & S. Franz (Eds) Comparative Education. The Dialectic of the
Global and the Local. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
Silova, I. (2012). Contested Meanings of Educational Borrowing. In Steiner-Khamsi, G. and F.
Waldow (Eds.) Policy Borrowing and Lending in Education. London: Routledge,
UNESCO EFA global Monitoring Report (2003/4). Retrieved
fromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132513e.pdf [on 09. 28. 2014]
Tomasevski, K. (2005). Girls‟ education through a human rights lens: What can be done
differently? what can be made better? : Right Action. www.odi.org.uk/rights Retrieved
from http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-
files/4349.pd [Accessed on 09. 28. 2014]
Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948): Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ [Accessed on 25.09.2014]
Word Bank World Development Report (2000/2001). Attacking Poverty: Oxford University Press.
New York. Retrieved from: http://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/events-
presentations/703.pdf [accessed on 24.09.2014]
World Bank (2004) Books, Buildings, and Learning Outcomes: An Impact Evaluation of World
Bank Support to Education in Ghana. Washington DC: World Bank, Operations Evaluation
Department (OED). Retrieved from
:http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTISPMA/Resources/Training-Events-and-
Materials/report_28779_basic_education.pdf [Accessed on 07.10.14]

Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015

Similar to Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015 (20)

More from ijhssnet

More from ijhssnet (10)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Vol 1 No 1 - January 2015