Advances in feed milling technology and the development of SPF eggs and organic foods are summarized. Feed milling involves processing, preparation, quality control and storage of animal feed. Key equipment includes hammer mills, roller mills, mixers and pellet mills. SPF eggs are produced in isolator or FAPP facilities to be free of specific pathogens. Strict protocols govern feed, housing and testing to maintain SPF status. Organic foods are grown without synthetic chemicals and use alternative soil fertility methods.

1. Advances in Feed Milling
Technology

2. Feed milling technology
 Animal feed technology deals with
 Processing of feeds, fodders
 Preparation of formula feeds
 Quality control of the feed ingredients
 Feed plant management
 Storage of the feed ingredients

3.  Feed industry came into existence in India in1961
with the establishment of a feed plant in
Ludhiana, Punjab.
 CLFMA was formed on 8th June, 1967.
 It is the sole, national, representative body of
compound animal manufacturers in India.

4. 1.Intake hupper
2.bucket elavator
3.surge hopper(raw feed )
4.separator
5.surge hopper(feed for grinding)
6. Feeder and magnet
7.Hammer mill
8.Bucket elavator
9.Surge hopper(ground material for
mixing)
10.Molasses service tank
11.Molasses dosing tank
12. Horizontal mixer
13.Surge hopper(finished mash feed)
14.Magnet
15.Feed packer(gunny bag)
16.Dust bag

5. Mills commonly used
Hammer mills
 Consists of a cylinder or rotor made up of several
plates keyed to the main shaft or axel.
 Pins through these plates near the edge carry the
hammers which are attached to them.
 Outside the rotating cylinder is a perforated steel
screen.
 The holes in these screen may be as small as 1/32
inch or as large as 2-3 or more inches.
 The hammer tip is travelling at a minimum of 5000 to
7000m/min.
 Most common grinder used in feed industry

6.  Hammer mills can be single, double or triple
reduction type with either rigid or swinging
hammers.
 The double or triple reduction type have knives or
blunt disc on one side of the rotor to chop the
longer stemmed materials into smaller materials
before they come in contact with the hammers.
 The fan or blower is usually used for product
transfer after a grinding .
 The fan requires about 25-30% of horse power of
mill.

7.  The production of hammer mill depends upon
different factors
 Horse power
 Diameter & shape of screen opening
 Screen area
 Moisture content
 Peripheral speed
 Kind of grain
 Location of feed intake
 Hammer tip and screen clearance
 No of hammers
 Hammer width & design
 Air flow through the mill

9.  Roller mill
 Several potential advantages of a roller
mill over a hammer mill when grinding a
mash type of feeds.
 More energy savings
 Produce 15-40% more tonnes per hr at a
given hp than full circle hammer mills,
when producing the same
finished particle size.

10. Feed mixing
 Feed mixers are mainly of two types
 Vertical batch mixer
 Horizontal mixer

14. Attribute Vertical mixer Horizontal mixer
Cost Relatively inexpensive &
do a good job of dry mixing
Expensive & do a good job
of dry and liquid mixing
Use Not used in larger feed
mills
Used in small mills as well
as larger feed mills
Floor space Less more
Time 20 mins or more time per
batch to obtain maximum
mixing efficiency. & slower
3-5min per batch and
faster
Power req. Consumes less power More power
Discharge of mixed feed Opening at one place Opening at several places
along the bottom to aid in
more discahrge
Clean out Lesser extent 100% generally
Liquid addition Molasses, fats cant be
mixed
Can be mixed efficiently
Mixing effiiciency Lower Approaches 99%

15. Feed pelleting technology
 Pelleting can be defined as the agglomeration of
smaller particles into larger particles by means of
a mechanical process in combination with
moisture, heat and pressure.
 Pelleted feeds are agglomerated feeds resulting
from extruding either individual or feed mixture
by compacting and forcing through die openings
by any mechanical process and subsequent
cooling.

16. Pelleting system
 1.Storage bin
 2.Pellet mill
 3.Cooler
 4.Crumbler
 5.Elavating system
 6.Pellet scalper(screen)
 7.Steam supply

17.  Storage bin
Store mixed mashed feed for pelleting in
adequate quantity to ensure continuous operation
of the pellet mill.
This means a minimum of two beans each with a
capacity of not less than one and half times the
capacity of the batch mixer used to supply
conditioned feed to the pellet mill.

18.  Pellet mill
 Are available in wide ranges of sizes: 20 to 40 hp to
700hp.
 The inside diameter of the pellet die on the large
mill is 37 inches versus 12inch on the small mill.
Parts of the pellet mill
 Feeder
 Conditioning chamber
 Pelleting device
 Speed reduction device
 Prime mover
 Base

20.  Feeder
 Generally screw type with some variation in flight
arrangement such as single flight, double flight,
full pitch or one half pitch
 Feeder is equipped with some type of speed
control such as a variable speed electric valve or
a ratchet speed control device.
 purpose of the feeder is to provide a constant
even flow of feed to the mixing and pelleting
operation.

21. Conditioning chamber
 Is accomplished by addition of controlled amounts of
steam
 A mixer, low speed (up to 125 rpm) or high speed
(125 to 500 rpm) model, is provided in order to
properly condition the feed.
 Further this mixer can be used for the the addition of
molasses up to 15% without special attatchments and
up to 30% when properly equipped.
 The optimum conditions for pelleting are 13-17% moisture
and 170-190̊F (77-88̊C) as the feed enters the die.
 The normal moisture of the mass is 10%.
 1% moisture will be added to the feed as the temperture is raised
20 ̊F by steam addition

22.  The conditioned mash is forced through holes in
the die by roller pressure.
 Die thickness is a factor in the production of high
quality pellets and production rates.
 The die should be as thin as possible to increase
production efficiency.
 The difficult to pellet ingredients, such as fibre ,
urea etc are normally produced on a thin die as
compared to high grain products which would
normally produced on a thicker die.
 A thick die produce a better quality pellet than a
thin die but also reduce production rates.

23.  Prime over
 most pellet mills are installed with an electric
motor as the prime mover
 Base
 The pellet mill and motor are usually mounted on
a common base to maintain alignment of the
pellet mill and motor.
 Coolers
 Vertical or horizontal
 The cooler type will often decided by the plant
layout and the product mix

24.  Where the floor space is limited, the vertical
cooler is preferred.
 where height is limited horizontal cooler is
preferred.
 Vertical coolers are prefered for small diameter
pellets. Its design is simpler with lesser
maintenance and energy cost.
 Horizontal coolers are particularly used when
sticky feeds are manufactured. Best for fragile
pellets and cubes.

25. Crumblers
 The objective of crumbling is not merely to reduce
the size of the pellets but to control the reduction
to a specific particle size with a minimum of fines.
 In this process pellets of 10/64 inch or 12/64 inch
diameter are ground on corrugated rolls and the
resultant product is graded by shifting over
appropriate screen sizes.

26. Pellet elavating systems
 Pellets are usually elavated either by standard bucket
elavators or by air.
 Bucket elavators are exclusively used for cold pellets
as these are less expensive to install
 Pneumatic conveyors are generally used for hot
pellets.
 Pellets are most vulnerable to damage before being
cooled.
 Conveying equipment between the pellet mill and the
cooler creats fines.
 Conveying equipment should be operated as slowly
as possible.
 Belt conveyers and drag conveyers will normally

27. Shifting device
 Some type of shifting is necessary to remove
fines produced during pelleting and crumbling
and while passing through the cooler.
 Fines are returned to the pellet mill for
reprocessing.

28. Steam supply
 An adequate well regulated supply of steam is a
must for any efficient pelleting operation.
 As a general rule 5% moisture is accepted as a
maximum though in some cases this may b
exceeded.

29. Newer developments
 Feed pelleting technology made rapid strides in
1990s incoorporating advances upstream in
super conditioning as well as downstream in post
conditioning, cooling and micro liquid application.
 Systems for the automatic or remote adjustment
of the pelleting rolls or rollers can be considered
as a major advance.
 These system offers many advantages including
reduced labour requirements, faster start-ups,
increased capacity, more consistent pellet quality
and improved die and roller life

30. Expander technology
 Expanding , pressure conditioning and HTST
conditioning all describe a general technique of super
conditioning which can kill salmonella more efficiently
than pellet alone
 In super conditioning high temperatures above 90̊C
and moisture contents are applied for 15-20 secs prior
to pelleting.
 Expander is one type of super conditioner that is a
specially designed screw press in which the pressure
and temperature of a feedstuff or feed mixture
increases through friction and optional steam
injection.

31.  The expander is now a common equipment in
Northern-Europe primarily in order to satisfy
demands for better pellet durability and for
greater flexibility in the inclusion of liquids and
difficult to pellet ingredients.
 It is a method ensuring manufactured feed
contains very little salmonella or other pathogenic
organisms.

32.  The most serious challenges of expander
processing
 Expanded crumbles have a lower bulk density
and different flow behaviour.
 These characteristics may result in higher
transport cost.
 Less suitable for broiler or turkey finisher feed

33. Micro time conditioning and pelleting or pellet
cooker technology
 Pellet cooker technology was designed by
Wenger Manufacturing Company, USA to exceed
the performance of expander pelleting system.
 Feed is subjected to a very high temperature of
125-150̊C for only 3-4 secs to minimize the
destruction of valuable nutrients while feed gets
pasturized.

34.  Pellet sizes are in the range of 2-18 mm
 Change over down time is less than 15mins.
 A rotary cutter on the pellet head cuts pellets to a
specified length, depending on its adjustable
rotation speed. Faster rotation produces shorter
pellets.

35. SPF EGGS

36.  The term SPF has been defined by the international
committee on the labarotary animals (ILCA) as those
animals free from specific micro-organisms and
parasites but not necessarily free from others not
specified.

37. Facilities for SPF flock production
 Two types of facilities are currently in use for the
production of research flock for spf flock.
 The first type consisting of isolators was
developed by the Houghton poultry research
station in England.
 The second type is based on the concept of
filtered air positive pressure houses.

38. Isolators
 Each isolators requires eggs to be hatched in the
isolators and birds to be maintained for at least
18 months within the isolators.
 The units are made up of fibre glass or plastic
 Each unit can accomodate 12 hens with 1 male
 Each isolator has its own ventilation unit
consisting of prefilters and high efficiency
particulate air filter.

40. FAPP House
 The use of FAPP house differs from isolators
regarding the role of animal caretaker.
 In FAPP house the caretaker has direct contact with
the chickens unlike isolators.
 It is important to have walls and floors completely
sealed with a washable sealer to facilitate cleaning.
 Entrance to the either house is through a shower
facility and the care taker need to shower including
scrubbing under the finger nails and washing his/her
hair prior tp entry into the clean area.
 Materials such as syringes, tubes, clean clothing etc
are placed in air lock and fumigated with
formaldehyde and potassium permanganate prior to
entry into the clean area.
 There is no direct contact between the mechanical
room and clean room.

44. Feed for SPF flock
 Feeds are delivered to the departmental storage
facility in bags using departmental personnel and
the departmental truck.
 The truck is disinfected with sodium hypochlorite
solution prior to recieving the feed.
 The bags are entered through the feed room,
placed on slats, fumigated, turned around and
fumigated again.
 Pelleted feed are used for all the birds except the
chicks which recieves crumbled chick starter.

45. Ventilation system
 Both houses have prefilters which are changed
once a month and HEPA filters are changed in
every 4 months.
 It is important to change the filters to maintain
the pressure.
 Frequent changing of prefilters will change the
functional period of the more expensive HEPA
filters.

46. Development of SPF flock
 Long and costly procedure
 Eggs obtained from a flock without the possibility of
testing individual hens prior to receiving eggs, are
fumigated or disinfected at the outside on arrival and
dipped in a solution containing tylosin or erythromycin
to reduce the mycoplasma contamination.
 Albumin sample is tested for presence of ALV and
those eggs free from viruses are allowed to hatch.
 The presence of all known chicken viruses are
tested.
 Sera are collected at 8wks and frequently afterwards
and tested for the presence of antibodies.
 Fertile eggs of these birds are transferred into the
SPF FAPP house after fumigation and dipping in the
antibiotic solution.

47. Problems of SPF flocks
 Successful maintenance of SPF flock depends on
number of factors.
 The main risk is
 Introduction of pathogen
 Reduced reproduction caused by inbreeding

48. Introduction of pathogen
 Dalton catagorised the risk factors associated
with the introduction of pathogens into SPF flock
 Animal care taker(60%)
 Food (20%)
 Water (10%)
 Airborne pathogens (8%)
 Insects/ vermins(1%)
 Egg transmission(1%)

49. SPF Eggs most be free from
following pathogens:
 Avian Adenovirus Group 1&2,
 Avian Encephalomyelitis,
 Avian Leucosis,
 Avian Nephritis,
 Avian Rhinotracheitis,
 REO disease,
 Chicken Anaemia,
 Egg Drop Syndrome’76,
 Fowl Pox,
 Infectious Bronchitis
 Infectious Bursal Disease,
 Infectious Laryngotracheitis,
 Influenza Virus Type-A,
 Marek’s disease,
 Newcastle disease,
 gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae).

50.  Turkey Viral Rhinotracheitis (Avian pneumovirus),
 Avian Reticuloendotheliosis,
 Salmonella pullorum,
 Salmonella gallinarum,
 Salmonella enteritidis,
 Avian Paramyxovirus Type 2&3,
 Mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma)

51. Importance in testing and manufacturing poultry
vaccines
 Three kinds of “substrate” derived from SPF-eggs
are used for virus production:
 Embryonated and pre-incubated SPF-eggs,
 Primary cells (e.g. chicken embryo fibroblasts)
derived from pre-incubated embryonated SPF-
eggs
 Chickens hatched from SPF-eggs.

52. Organic food

53.  Organic farming can be defined as an approach
to agriculture in which the aim is to create
integrated, humane, environmentally and
economically sustainable agricultural production
system.

54.  Organic foods are grown without synthetic
pesticides, growth hormones, antibiotics, modern
genetic engineering techniques(including
genetically modified crops), chemical fertilizers, or
sewage sludge.
 Organic farming uses various methods to
enhance or maintain soil fertility, such as crop
rotation, tillage and cultivation practices, cover
crops, and natural products (such as natural
fertilizers, pesticides,and so on).

55.  The use of synthetic materials is not allowed in
organic farming unless the materials are on the
Natl. List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances.
 It takes several years to convert a field from
conventional farming to organic farming since
land can have no prohibited substances used on
it for 3 y before the harvest of an organic crop.
 Animal herds can be converted to organic by
feeding them 80% organic feed for 9mo, followed
by 3mo of 100% organic feed.

56.  Animals must consume only 100% organic feed
for their products to be sold as organic, but the
animals can receive vitamin and mineral
supplements.
 Preventive management practices such as
vaccinations can be administered when
absolutely necessary to keep animals healthy, but
those animal products cannot be sold as organic.
 Antibiotics cannot be used on products to be sold
as organic.

57. Organic Poultry Production

58.  The United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA), in cooperation with accredited
certification agencies, regulates the production
and labeling of organic poultry products under the
Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 and the
National Organic Program (NOP)
 In order to be sold as organic, NOP Final Rule
Section 205.236 requires that poultry or edible
poultry products must be from poultry that has
been under continuous organic management
beginning no later than the second day of life.

59. Feed & feed additives
 All agricultural components of the ration must be
certified organic.
 Fields, including pastures used for organic poultry
and lots used for outdoor access, must be
certified
 Non-synthetic (natural) substances, such as
oyster shells, calcium carbonate or fish meal; and
synthetic substances that appear on the National
List, may be used as feed additives and
supplements

60.  The only specific synthetic feed additive on the
National List for poultry is DL-methionine.
 FDA-approved trace minerals and vitamins are
allowed in poultry rations, so long as they are not
derived from slaughter byproducts and do not
contain any genetically engineered ingredients,
which are referred to as "excluded methods" in
the NOP Final Rule.
 No synthetic colorings, flavorings, dust
suppressants, or flowing agents are allowed,
since none appear on the National List.

61. Feed used for organic poultry production must not
contain:
 Animal drugs, including hormones, to promote growth;
 Feed supplements or additives in amounts above
those needed for adequate nutrition and health
maintenance;
 Plastic feed pellets;
 Urea or manure;
 Mammalian or poultry slaughter byproducts fed to
mammals or poultry;
 Feed, additives, or supplements in violation of the
Food and Drug Administration; or
 Feed or forage to which any antibiotic, including
ionophores, has been added.

62. Health care
 Selection of species and types of poultry that are suitable
for site-specific conditions and resistant to prevalent
diseases and parasites;
 Provision of a feed ration sufficient to meet nutritional
requirements, including vitamins, minerals, protein and/or
amino acids, fatty acids, and energy sources;
 Establishment of appropriate housing, pasture conditions,
and sanitation practices to minimize the occurrence and
spread of diseases and parasites;
 Conditions that allow for exercise, freedom of movement,
and reduction of stress appropriate to the species (no
caged laying hens);
 Physical alterations as needed to promote the poultry's
welfare, performed in a manner that minimizes pain and
stress; and
 Administration of vaccines and other veterinary biologics.

63.  Interestingly, mortality may be higher in large-
scale organic production than in conventional
production because medications are not
permitted.
 Necrotic enteritis is a common health problem in
large organic broiler flocks.
 Approved materials that are used for disinfection
and sanitation of the premises and equipment
include chlorine materials, iodine, hydrogen
peroxide, peracetic acid, phosphoric acid, and
alcohol.

64. Housing
 NOSB recommendation
advises the NOP to establish
the following avian
minimum space requirements:
 Laying hens and breeders:
2.0 sq ft/bird indoors, 2.0–5.0 sq ft/bird outdoors
 Pullets: 2–3 lbs/sq ft indoors, 2–3 lbs/sq ft outdoors
 Broilers: 1–5 lbs/sq ft indoors, 2–5 lbs/sq ft outdoors

65.  The NOSB has also recommended that:
 (a) ammonia levels should be less than 10 ppm
and must be less than 25 ppm indoors;
 (b) the confinement of birds in cages is not
permitted under any circumstance; and
 (c) minimum indoor and outdoor space
requirements be established for organic poultry.

66. References
 Nutrition and feeding of organic poultry by Robert
Blair
 The Experimental Animal in Biomedical
Research: Care, Husbandry ..., Volume 2By
Bernard E. Rollin
 Organic Foods ,CARL K.WINTER AND SARAH
F. DAVIS, Vol. 71, Nr. 9, 2006—JOURNAL OF
FOOD SCIENCE
 CONSUMER DEMAND FOR ORGANIC FOODS:
WHAT WE KNOW AND WHAT WE NEED TO
KNOW GARY D. THOMPSON , Amer. J. Agr.
Econ. 80 (Number 5, 1998): 1113-1118