this presentation deals with feed technology of animal feeds and fodder

1. FEED TECHNOLOGY
Dr. Manju G U
Assistant Professor

2. AFT defined as the application of
physical, chemical, biochemical,
biological and engineering techniques
to enhance the nutrient utilization of
feeds and fodder in animal system for
improving the health and productivity
of livestock.

3.  Feed is the largest single item of expenditure in
animal production
 Challenge of feed industry is to formulate
manufacture and distribute feed to farmers that
enables quality production
 Feed Technology requires
 Knowledge of nutritional requirements of various
livestock,
 Quality control of feed ingredients,
 Feed plant management
 Storage of feed ingredients and feeds.

4. Majority of the farmers have still not left the
traditional way of management and feeding their
animals.
They mainly fed animals on available
feeds/fodder resources and a very little conc.
ingredients are offered to them.
Genetic potential, deficit and imbalance nature
of nutrients when available/staple crop residues
are fed without supplements.

5. Ways to Improve Productivity of Animals
Strategic supplementation of basal ration with
suitable, cheaper and locally available
supplements.
Processing of feedstuffs using various
technologies (Physical, chemical & biological)
for improving their nutritive value.
Use of pre- & pro-biotic / biotechnological
tools for improving feed utilization.

6. History of feed technology
Mills were first built for grinding wheat and
maize for human consumption than for livestock
Waste material were dumped into river
Chemical analysis gave good result hence got
market value
But there was variability in cost of product and
quality of product which led to formation of
AAFCO (Association of American feed control
organization) which defined more than 230
different ingredients acceptable for sale in 1969
Urea was accepted in 1930’s due to shortage of
protein due to wars

7. Development of feed industry in India
1st feed mill established in Ludhiana in 1961
During early times there were many constrains
like 1. High cost of ingredients
2. Non availability
3. Low productivity
4. Ignorance
5. Lack of legal control

8. CLFMA (Compound Livestock Feed
Manufacturer Association) was Established In
June 8th 1967
It is recognized by central and state
governments
Its views are considered while formulating and
implementing policies concerning feed
industry
It publishes ‘Feed Trends’ a quarterly
magazine

9. Objective of feed Technology
 To increase digestibility and utilisation
 To improve content of nutrients
 To improve amount of feed consumed
 Destroy pathogens, toxins and weeds
 Improve storage life and prevent oxidation
and destruction of nutrients
 Improve handling
 Allow proper mixing
 Improve feed odor
 Easy transportation

10. Various Treatment Methods
 Physical methods: Soaking, grinding, pelleting,
extrusion, steam under pressure and irradiation.
 Chemical methods: Use of NaOH, anhydrous
and aqueous NH4, H2O2 and urea ammonia
treatment of crop residues.
 Biological methods: Use of certain micro-
organisms that are very efficient for lignin
breakdown but with slow degradation rates of
cellulose and hemi-cellulose.

11. Particle Size reduction in feed processing
 Size reduction procedures
 Cutting:
 Cutting is reduction accomplished by forcing a thin sharp knife
through the materials to be reduced. Eg :- Cutting will be used
to prepare hay.
 Crushing:
 Crushing is accomplished by applying a compressive, force to
the particle to be reduced.
 Various mechanisms may be used to apply the compressive
force .
 The roller mill is most frequently used for grinding feed.
 This process usually produces a product which is relatively
uniform in size.

12. Shearing:
Shearing is a combination of cutting and
crushing.
An ensilage cutter or a rotary type knife and
stationary bar cutter might be classified as
equipment using the shear principle.

13. Impact grinding:
 Impact grinding is most commonly used for reducing
particle size in the feed industry.
 Hammer mills are the machines generally used to produce
the impact.
 For extremely fine grinding jet mills have been used.
 Jet mills:
 In jet mills the material to be reduced is carried in air or gas
through a nozzle against an impact plate. The impact
produces fine particles.
 The velocity of jet usually corresponds to hammer mill
peripheral speed of 27,000 to 36,000 feet per minute.
 The efficiency of the jet mill would depend on
 (i) The velocity of the air or gas stream
 (ii) The quality of the material being reduced
 The quality and conformation of the impact surface.

14. Centrifugal input mills:
The centrifugal input mills consist of two
parallel horizontal disks with rings of hard steel
impactors at the circumference.
The disks form a rotor into which the stock is
centrally fed and is conveyed outwardly by
centrifugal force between the disks.
In the flour milling industry this mill is used
because of its fine grinding capabilities.
In the feed milling industry it can be used as a
blender for mash containing agglomerates.

15. Various steps involved in feed compounding
 Selection of locally available ingredients based
on price and nutrient density
 Quality check of raw materials
 Formulation of balanced ration
 Weighing the ingredients according to
formulation.
 Processing such as Grinding, mixing, etc.
 Quality check of processed feed
 Packing and storage of mash feed
 Further processing for preparation of other
forms of feed (Pelleting, Crumbling etc.)

16. RECEIVING OF RAW MATERIALS
Feed ingredients arrive in gunny bags, or other
small containers and in bulk.
Ingredients in gunny bags are checked physically
for moisture, contamination, smell and for
soundness of the material.
Ingredients must then be stored in a dry location
with proper protection from rodent and insect
infestation.
Sacked stocks are then rotated regularly to
minimize moldiness, product degradation, and
insect infestation.
Liquid ingredients, such as oils and molasses, are
generally stored in bulk tanks.
Proper storage temperature is maintained and the
filter screens are checked periodically.

17. Grinding: The first and important processing method.
Advantages of grinding
The particle size reduction increases the surface
area exposed to enzymes, resulting in better digestion
Grinding helps mixing of ingredients and prevents
segregation
Pelleting can be done only if the feed is ground uniformly
Selectivity of feeds is not possible by the animal and so the
nutrient intake will the optimum
Palatability is improved
Feed intake is increased
Improves digestibility
Improves growth rate
Improves feed efficiency
Grinding of some ingredients contributes to ease to
handling

18. Types of mills:
1. Hammer mill – Impaction
2. Attrition– cutting, crushing and shearing
3. Roller mill – cutting, crushing and shearing

19. Hammer mills:
 The hammer mill is used for the grinding of both
grain and forages.
 It has been used for farm, commercial and custom
grinding for many years.
 The hammer mill consists of cylinder or rotor made
up of several plates keyed to the main shaft or axle.
 Outside the rotating cylinder is a perforated steel
screen.
 The screen may be half circle or full circle.
 The holes in the screen may be as small as 1/32
inches (0.8mm) or as large as 2 or more inches.

20. Hammer mills may be of single, double or triple
reduction type with either rigid or swinging
hammers.
The double or triple reduction types have knives
or blunt disks on one side of the rotor to chop the
longer stemmed materials such as maize fodder or
alfalfa into smaller pieces before they come in
contact with the hammers.
This type of mill is usually fed from a central
opening so the material being reduced will come
in contact with the knives and disks first.
There is also a combination type mill which
employs a rotary knife mounted above the mill.
This type of mill is well suited for forage type
material.

21.  The hammer tip may travel at a speed of 7,000 to
25,000 feet per minute.
 A fan or blower is usually used for product transport
after grinding.
 The fan may be connected to the same shaft that drives
the hammer mill or it may be driven separately.
 In either case the fan requires about 25 to 30% of the
horse power of the mill.
 Pneumatic conveyors after hammer mills require
cyclones or other devices for removing the material
from the conveying air.
 This frequently leads to problems of air pollution or
relatively expensive filter systems.
 Many hammer mills are now installed which utilize
mechanic conveyors, such as bucket elevators

22. Factors affecting hammer mill performance:
1. Diameter and shape of screen opening:
2. Screen Area: The production and efficiency will be
significantly lowered when one half of the screen area was
blanked. Capacity varies directly with the percentage of
open screen area.
3. Moisture content: It is reported that the power
requirements in KWH (Kilo watt Hours) per ton increase
rapidly at higher moisture content and that the capacity in
tons per hour is inversely related to moisture. It is
uneconomical to grind grains at moisture content higher
than 12-14%.
4. Peripheral speed. Peripheral speed refers to the speed of
die hammer tips and not the revolutions per minute of a
mill. Lower speed produces a coarser product and the
product fineness is directly proportional to the peripheral
speed. All researchers agree that a slower speed produces a
coarse product.

23. 5. Kind of grain: Since grain composition varies as to
starch and fibre content, and generally cereal grains
with higher starch contents are easier to grind.
6. Location of feed intake:
Central feeding is shown to decrease capacity up to 20%
with corresponding reduction in efficiency
In the case of tangential feeding, the product aided by
incoming air falls directly into the zone of greatest
hammer velocity.
7. Hammer tip and screen clearance: It is reported that
product fineness is proportional to the clearance
between the hammer tip and the casing or the screen. It
will vary from 1 /8 to 3/8 in. Depending on the material
being ground and the optimum clearance has been
shown to be 8 mm (0.31 in.).

24. 8. Hammer width and design: The wear usually occurs at
the tip of the hammer. Some hammers are
manufactured so that they may be turned edge to edge
and end to end.
9. Number of hammers: As the number of hammers is
increased the no-load requirements will rise
10. Feed rate: An increase in the rate of feed is associated
with a coarser end product, also capacity and therefore
feed rate is directly proportional to the applied power
within the mechanical limitations of a given unit.
The feed rate in most feed mills is controlled by an an
meter showing the current the motor is pulling. All
motors have a rated amperage above which they should
not be operated. This value is used as the maximum rate
of feeding for the mill.

25. 11. Air flow through the mill: The amount of air
flowing through the mill may affect the
manner in which particles strike impact
surfaces. An optimum value of about 4,000 cu
meters/sq meters for each unit area of screen
surface is sufficient
12. Mechanical condition of the mill: Unworn
screens and hammers, with their sharp comers,
are more efficient.

26. Burr mills and Attrition mill :
 Burr mills or plate mills consist of two roughened
plates, one stationary, the other rotating.
The material is fed between the plates and is
reduced by cutting, crushing and shearing.
The attrition mill is a heavy-duty precision plate
mill used in the commercial preparation of feed
and food products.
Each plate rotates and is driven independently,
speeds are higher and design and construction are
more precise than the burr mill.

27. Production and granulation of the attrition mill
is affected by
Speed of plates
Rate of feed
Design of plates
Spacing of plates
Wear of plates
Type and moisture content of the grain.
In general it can be said that an attrition mill is
more efficient when producing a coarser product
and the hammer mill is more efficient when
producing a finer product.
The attrition mill also produces a more uniform
grind than the hammer mill.

28. Roller mills:
Roller mills are used in feed processing for the
crimping or crushing of grains.
The double roller mill used for this purpose
consists of two rollers rotating in opposite
directions at the same speed; the material is
crushed between the rolls.
Rolls are usually corrugated or serrated. The
roller mill used in the flour milling industry
have a slow roll and fast roll and may or may
not be corrugated.

29. Feed Mixing:
The process of uniform distribution of
different feed ingredients in the compounded
feed is known as feed mixing.
Hand Mixing
This method is used by the farmers and small
scale local feed compounding units. Such
feeds are mostly prepared from the locally
available ingredients and often do not contain
any mineral mixture or vitamin supplement.

30. Mechanical Mixing
The machine used for the mixing of feed
ingredients is called mixer and several designs
of vertical and horizontal mixers have been
developed in different countries.

31. Vertical Mixer Horizontal mixer
Have single or double screw elevators Have horizontal ribbon blenders
Relatively inexpensive and useful for dry
mixing
Expensive but mix both dry and liquid
ingredients
Requires 20 minutes or more per batch Mixing time is 3-5 minutes per batch
Only one opening for the discharge of
feed
Gates may be provided at several places
for faster discharge
Less efficient clean out Complete clean out (100%)
Consumes less power and floor space Consume more power and space
Can not be equipped with surge bins and
ingredient hopper scales
May be equipped with surge bins and
hopper scales. Hinged drop bottom help
cleaning ribbons and tub

32. Determination of feed mixing efficiency of a mixer
(production per hour)
For the determination of feed mixing efficiency of a feed
mixer, it is necessary to determine the following values.
A -Filling or feed loading time in minutes.
B -Feed mixing time in minutes.
C -Emptying time after mixing in minutes.
D -Dead time in minutes (it is the time between the
emptying and reloading which is not utilized for feed
mixing).
E-The loading capacity of a mixer in tonnes.
F- Efficiency index depends on the use of mixer to its
maximum capacity with minimum cycling time.

33. Then, the production of mixed feed per hour, i.e.
in 60 minutes will be determined by the use of
following equation.
Producion / Hr =
60 × E × F
= tonnes/hr
(A+B+C+D)

34. Pelleting of Feeds
The processing of densification of a single feed,
concentrate mixture or complete feed in the
cylindrical shape is known as pelleting and the
compressed or agglomerated feed thus produced
is called pellet.
The ground feed ingredient or compounded feed
mixture is extruded by compacting and then
forced to pass though the die of a desired diameter
by a mechanical device.
The pelleting is done by either cold or hot
process, and with or without use of a binder.
In cold process, moisture and pressure are applied
whereas in hot process the moisture is replaced by
live steam.

35. The diameter of pellets is determined on the basis
of the animal species to be fed.
The diameter of pellets prepared from the
concentrates ranges from 5 to 15 mm with length
size 7 to 20 mm.
The pellets of roughages are larger in size with 10
to 20 mm diameter and almost similar length.
The feeds are also agglomerated in oval,
triangular, square and rectangular shapes.
The triangular shaped compressed feed is called
prism and small size square and rectangular
agglomerated feed are called wafers.
Maximum cross size of wafers is about 35mm.
Rectangular agglomerated feeds of larger size are
known as blocks and bricks.

36. Types of Pellets
Two types of pellets generally prepared are
hard pellets containing either no molasses or
less than 10 per cent molasses as binder, and
another are soft pellets containing 30 to 40 per
cent molasses.
Bentonite, calcium oxide or calcium carbonate
may be required as a binder for soft pellets.
In addition to these chemical compounds
starchy ingredients and molasses are the
common binding agents in the preparation of
compact feeds.

37. Steps in the Preparation of Hard Pellets
1. Rolling or grinding of the feeds to desired
fineness.
2. Weighing and mixing of the major feed
ingredients.
3. Blending of a supplement and /or additive in the
mixture.
4. Conditioning of the feed mixture.
5. Loading of the pelleting chamber and
distribution of mixed feed ingredients by means
of gravity, centrifugal force and mechanical
deflectors.
6. Pushing of feed by the pressure of rollers
through the perforations on the rotating die for
giving the shape of pellet by compression

38. 7. Cutting of pellets to desired length with the
help of adjustable knives fitted at the end of
the die.
8. Pushing and-spreading of pellets in cooling
chamber for drying either by forced air or by
drier.
9. Packaging in weighed quantity in bags and
labelling for type, nutritive value, quantity,
date of manufacture and batch or lot number
etc. along with the name or identity of feed
manufacturing company.

39. Advantages of pelleting
1. Reduces wastage.
2. Improves palatability.
3. Increases the density of feed: – less storage
space.
4. Transportation: Saves cost on transportation.
density is reduced to six times. Hence six times
more fodder can be transported and cost of
transporting is also less.
5. Gelatinization, heat, pressing increases the
digestibility.
6. It breaks the binding of cellulose and lignin so
enzymes act on cellulose more easily and more
cellulose is digested.

40. 10. More uniform feed: – Hence there is no question
of segregation.
12. There is no selection on the part of the animal.
13. Some waste material can also be incorporated
effectively.
14. There will be sterilization of the feed.
15. Food passage time is reduced in the animal.
Disadvantages of pelleting
1. Cost involved is more.
2. Non-availability of machinery and equipment.

41. Processing of grains
Dry processing methods
1. Grinding: A process of particle size reduction
by hammer. It is a simplest processing
method and pre-requisite step for mixing,
pelleting and extruding.
2. Dry rolling: Coarse grinding of grains by
roller mill. Wheat and barley are dry rolled
for beef animal feeding

42. 3. Popping/ puffing: Sudden expansion of grains
when subjected to dry heat at 370-425 0C for 15-
30 seconds leading to rupture of endosperm/ starch
granules making it more digestible.
4. Micronizing: Similar to popping except that heat is
furnished in the form of infra-red energy.
5. Extruding: application of heat and pressure as
grain passes through a tapered screw. Process
produces ribbons that break into small flakes.
Common in pet foods, fish foods and laboratory
animal feeding.
The method helps in gelatinization of starch,
destruction of microbes such as salmonella.

43. 6. Roasting: In this method grains are passed
through flame at 148.9 0C and has oily, puffed,
slightly caramelized (brown) appearance..
This method is used in the manufacture of
poultry and swine feeds.

44. Wet processing methods
1. Soaking: Grains and concentrates are soaked
for 12-24 hours before feeding which may
increase the palatability.
Toxic substances are reduced when mustard
cake, neem cake are soaked and filtered.
2. Steam rolling: Grains subjected to live steam
to raise the temperature of the grains to 100-
150 0C followed by rolling will reduce dusting
and increases digestibility of starch.
3. Steam flaking: After steam treatment grains
are passed through roller mill to obtain flakes.

45. 4. Pressure-cooking: grains are cooked with live
steam at 50 psi for 1.5 minutes. Grains are cooled,
dried and flaked.
5. Exploding: Grains exposed to very high pressure
steam (250 psi) followed by sudden decease to
atmospheric pressure lead to rapid expansion of
grain producing popped grain
6. Reconstitution: Grains are added with excess
water to raise the moisture content to 25-30%
followed by ensiling for 2-3 weeks.
Reconstituted grain proteins have higher solubility.
7. Pelleting:

62. Forage Processing Methods
 Chopping, Grinding, Shredding
easier to handle
less storage area required
less waste
better production
 Chopping
cut down to 2”
dusty
leaf loss possible in field chopping

63. Forage Processing Methods
 Grinding:
less than 1” lengths
more costly
swine and poultry
not desired for ruminants (quickly pass through
rumen)
add molasses to control dust

64. Forage Processing Methods
 Shredding:
similar to chopping, stems cut longitudinally rather
than crosswise
coarse forages (fodder, stover)
 Cubing (wafering):
 Compressing coarsely cut hay into cubes 1 1/4” square by
2” long
 30-32 per cubic foot
 Relatively coarse material
 Horses can choke on cubes

65. Forage Processing Methods
 Pelleting: ground forage forced through a steel die
& compressing in round or rectangular mass & cut
to length.
 add binding agents
 requires fine grinding
 improves quality of poor forages
 easier handling

66. Miscellaneous Processing Methods
 Ammoniation: low nitrogen feeds.
 Animal Waste Processing: chicken waste fed to
ruminants.
Deep Stacking: heat kills microbes.
Ensiling: heat kills microbes.
 Protection of Grain/Fat
 Irradiation: ultraviolet light prevents rickets (sun
cured hay).

67. Expander-extruder processing
 This is a system which combines the features of expanding
(application of moisture, pressure and temperature to gelatinise
the starch portion) and extruding (pressing the feed through
constrictions under pressure).
 The mash containing 12–13 per cent moisture and at room
temperature is reconstituted with the required quantity of water
to get 17–18 per cent moisture in the mixer and then sent to the
hopper above the expander-extruder from which it passes
through a screw in which it attains 90–95 °C by the time it
comes out of the die openings.
 Otherwise, the mash without reconstitution can be sent to
hopper and steam is added to get the required moisture while
the feed is passing through the screw of expander-extruder.
 The pellets coming out of the expander- extruder are cooled
and collected into sacks.

68. Urea Molasses Mineral Block
 Overcome urea feeding by UMMBs.
 Slow ingestion of urea provided through such licks
ensures its efficient, non-toxic utilization.
↑ intake of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF with
UMMB has been reported by Gupta and Malik
(1991).
↑ 30 to 50 DMI in UMMB suppl. groups.
↑ daily milk and fat yields and also ↑ lactation
length.
 Helps in maintaining optimum health and
reproductive functions.

69.  Suppl. of cattle grazing on natural pastures can
enhance higher live weight gains & growth rate
(Mubi et al., 2012).
 Formulated moringa MB as dry season feed suppl.
in ruminant nutrition appear quite promising, with
possibilities of on-farm adoption due to the
simplicity in its production technology (Asaolu,
2012).
 37.0% wheat offals,35.0% moringa leaf powder,
with 13.0%cement as the binder, lime powder, urea
and salt inclusions-5.0% each.

70. Concept of Compressed Complete Feed Block
 CCFB can be formulated by using straws and diet
supplements such as molasses, concentrates,
minerals and salt.
 Such feed blocks can be stored over a long period of
time and transported economically over long
distances.
 CCFB system has recently been introduced in
feeding system in most of developed countries with
the objective of simplifying the feeding of high
yielding dairy cows.
 Indian farmers are practicing this system by feeding
mixture of straw/bhusa , oil cakes and brans soaked
in water for few hours and fed to animals at the

71. ADG, intake & utilization of nutrients
 Complete feed blocks ensured significantly (P<0.05)
higher live weight gain in crossbred calves fed on
complete feed block than those mash fed calves (Singh
et al., 2007) & about 35% higher live weight was
noticed in block form of complete diet than mash
form.
 Singh et al. (1998) also noticed significantly (P<0.05)
higher live weight gain in growing buffaloes fed on
complete feed blocks.
 Increased DM intake from complete feed block than
conventional method of feeding the buffaloes was
reported by (Lailer et al., 2010).

72.  Dwivedi et al. (2003) also reported increased intake of
DM from dry roughages in complete feed block than
conventional method of feeding.
 Afzal et al. (2009) reported that dry matter intake in
terms of kg per day, per cent body weight or g per kg
W0.75 was higher in sheep fed on complete feed block.
 The digestibility of DM, CF, and EE did not differ
significantly among complete block feeding and
conventional feeding in buffaloes (Lailer et al., 2010),
but, CP and NFE digestibility was higher in the
buffaloes fed on complete feed block.

73. Advantages of feeding CCFB
 Ensures that animals consume desired proportion of
all feed ingredients (roughage, concentrate and
minerals).
 Increases total dry matter and organic matter
intake.
 Increase milk production and body weight gain.
 Allows greater use of feed ingredients having low
palatability by uniform blending, which helps to
mask bad odour.
 Increases bulk density and storage capacity of
feedstuffs.
 Easy transportation of bulky feed materials.

74. Constraints of CCFB
 Handling of huge quantities of roughages.
 Uniform mixing of ingredients having different
densities.
 Standardization of technique of expander- extrusion
processing and / or block making needs to be done
before using it on large scale.
 Establishing market linkage and creating awareness
amongst dairy farmers to use complete feed.

75. Biological Methods
 Based on the use of certain micro-organisms that are
very efficient for lignin breakdown but with slow
degradation rates of cellulose and hemi-cellulose.
 White rot fungi have the capacity to attach lignin
polymers and open aromatic rings to release low
molecular weight fragments (Zadrazil et al., 1995).
 The two stage Karnal process developed for biological
treatment of straws involved treatment of straw with urea
during first stage for 25 days followed by inoculation
with Coprinus fimetarius spawn for 5 days (Gupta,
1986).

76.  Fungal treated straw contained higher CP as
compared to urea-ammoniated straw but it showed
reduced DM digestibility with lower TDN value
compared to urea ammoniated straw (Walli et al.,
1990).
 Steaming of WS for 30 min. before inoculation with
Pleurotus ostreatus caused maximum improvement
in nutritive value of straw.
 Supplementation of yeast culture@1-2kg/ton of feed
increases feed intake, digestibility of nitrogen and
fibrous material and thus, improving the nutritive
value of feeds.

77.  A study was carried to determine the impact of
treating peanut husk, an economically important cash
crop in Nigeria with white rot fungi: Pleurotus
ostreatus (POT) and Pleurotus pulmonarius (PPT).
(Akinfemi, 2010)
 Solid SF improved the CP from 7.39% (CON) to
9.29% for POT and 16.10% for PPT.
 Fungal treatment depleted the CF from 26.2% in
CON to 16.9% for POT and 18.7% for PPT. But
increased NDF & ADF significantly.

78.  Faster rates of gas production were also observed in
the treated peanut husk compared with the untreated.
 Gas volume was significantly higher at all incubation
period in the fungal treated substrates.
 The estimated ME, OMD and SCFA also increased
with fungal treatment.
 Fungal treatment of peanut husk have the potential to
be used as feed supplements for ruminants especially
during the dry season when feedstuffs are lacking and
the only available feedstuffs are crop residues.
 (Akinfemi, 2010)

79. Other Feed Processing Technologies
 Grains processing of conc. by grinding, rolling, cracking,
heat treatment, steam treatment and other processes is
used for increasing palatability, nutrient utilization,
removal of anti-nutritional factors and improvement of
overall performance.
 Method of conc. processing-selected on the physical and
chemical characteristics of the feeds.
 Coarse grinding-commonly used but very fine grinding
makes feeds dusty, lowers palatability resulting in poor
animal performance from reduced feed intake or due to
loss of fine material containing essential nutrients.
 It avoids segregation of feed ingredients/nutrients.
 It minimizes selective feeding so min. wastage of feed.

80.  It improves palatability of ingredients and
decreases energy losses due to mastication.
 Steam rolling (SR) of barley significantly improves
digestibility and availability of nutrients.
 SR improves the ADG, FCE, dressing % and also
reduces the frequency of rumination.
 HT improves nutrient utilization and FCE by
affecting partial or complete destruct. of anti-
nutritional factors.
 Autoclaving of cotton seed meal destroys
considerable amount of gossypol by converting free
form to bound form.
 Thus, significantly improves the digestibility of OM
& CF.

81. Conclusion
Economical, cheaper and suitable feed technologies
like soaking, grinding, chopping, protected fat &
protein, UMMB, CCFB, etc can easily be adopted by
the livestock owners depending up on locally
available feed resources.
The adoption of these technologies would certainly
improve the health and productivity of ruminants.