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Day three powerpoint
- 2. 1. Whakawhangatanga We are in this together: The ID Crisis
- 3. 2. Why are we here? More Knowledge = More Confidence
- 5. Sampling in Quantitative Research ✘Sampling to generalize about a population ✘Only a census asks everyone ✘Random vs Non-Random Sampling … bias ✘Why Sample Size and Response Rate is Important
- 6. Sampling in Qualitative (and some Mixed) Research ✘Sampling in qualitative research never seeks to generalize to an entire population; it wants to tell a story from that population ✘There is recognition of bias as the sample is non-random and often small ✘The sample MUST represent some aspect of the phenomena being studied in the research question
- 7. Sampling in Quantitative Research: Types ✘Simple random, ✘Systematic (using interval counting), ✘Stratified (looking at groups) which can be proportional, or disproportional ✘Cluster (selecting groups)
- 8. Sampling in Qualitative/Mixed Research: Types ✘Convenience/opportunistic ✘Quota (choosing groups and numbers) ✘Purposive/criterion-based ✘Snowball ✘Comprehensive
- 9. Sampling in Qualitative Research: Types ✘Maximum variation ✘Homogenous sample selection ✘Extreme case sampling ✘Typical case sampling ✘Critical case sampling ✘Negative case sampling
- 10. Your Turn ✘Positivist/Post- Positivist ✘Constructivist ✘Feminist ✘Ethnic ✘Marxist ✘Culture ✘Mixed ✘Select five sampling techniques ✘Describe what questions they could answer for each paradigm ✘Describe how they could be used particularly, ie what would the researcher do
- 11. 4. Time for a Break
- 12. It All Comes Down to a Question
- 14. The Setting ✘Experimental research vs Quasi-Experimental Research ✘The need for empirical data ✘Sampling is key (stratified random or purposive) ✘Key words are reliability and validity (internal and external) ✘Significance is important ✘Eliminate bias ✘Remember variables – dependent, independent (changing) and extraneous
- 15. Testing
- 16. Why Test? ✘Established tests tend to have measures of reliability and validity ✘Testing before and after an intervention can show evidence of change (and the direction of change) ✘Tests for significance can occur (ANOVA, Chi Square)
- 17. What to test ✘Psychometric variables ✘Biological/Physiological changes ✘Educational Changes (IQ etc)
- 18. How? ✘Don’t create your own test instead find established tests which have measures of reliability and validity
- 19. Survey Research
- 20. Survey Research ✘Types Cross-sectional surveys (inc. Census, Youth 2000) Longitudinal surveys (trend, cohort, panel) ✘How/What Text/Document Surveys (primary and secondary sources) Questionnaires inc open/closed items, branching and clear layout
- 21. Traps in Questionnaire Design ✘Ambiguity – unclear questions ✘Assumptions Multiple responses when really only one is wanted Memory stretching Knowledge demands ✘Double questions ✘Leading questions ✘Presuming questions ✘Hypothetical questions ✘Overlapping categories
- 22. Getting it right ✘Remember most people don’t want to write or type ✘So quick ticks and clicks work ✘Follow the KISS principle ✘Use likerts for measuring variability in responses ✘Connect the question to the response ✘NEVER ask two questions in one!!! ✘Keep the survey to under seven minutes ✘PILOT, PILOT, PILOT
- 24. Observation and Interviewing ✘Observation can have an important function in quantitative designs but tends to focus on descriptive elements – ie the mixed element ✘Interviewing needs to be structured ✘Both observation and interviewing should only be used for triangulation of data and results
- 25. The role of statistics
- 26. ✘Nominal =/ ≠ (yes/no) Dichotomous (Gender)/Non-dichotomous (nationality) Mode (number of responses) Bargraphs ✘Ordinal (order without a measure of REAL difference, only opinion) =/ ≠, </> Dichotomous (truth, beauty, health) Non-dichotomous (opinion) Median (psychological tests do tend to break this rule) (the middle number) Bargraphs, Pie Graphs with caution
- 27. ✘Interval (degrees of difference but without a clear starting point) =/ ≠, </>, +/- Date, Latitude, Temperature Arithmetic mean (average using sum – what usually happens) (the average number) Line Graphs ✘Ratio – FYI ONLY =/ ≠, </>, +/-, ×/÷ Age, mass, length, duration, energy etc. Geometric mean (average using product and the nth root) (the average number)
- 29. 6. Lunch
- 31. The Reseacher’s Role “Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking Over Others’ Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)
- 32. The Reseacher’s Role Being a learner ‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field Reflecting on your own experiences
- 33. Fieldnotes
- 34. Fieldnotes ✘Sit alongside other techniques ✘Detailed notes and reflections of the field ✘Three types Descriptive Methodological Reflexive ✘Occur after/before – rather than during
- 35. Descriptive Fieldnotes ✘Include observations ✘Describes the field – including maps, setting descriptions, and individuals
- 36. Methodological Fieldnotes ✘Reflections on methodological approaches being used ✘Notes on any changes to any approach being used
- 37. Reflexive Fieldnotes ✘Journaling of own learning/experiences/ thoughts throughout the process ✘May sit within or alongside descriptive and methodological notes ✘Technically seen as journaling of experience
- 38. Dilemmas ✘What dilemmas and issues to research does the practice of observation bring? ✘How can fieldnotes counter these issues and dilemmas? ✘What else can the researcher do to ensure that the story makes sense intrinsically (on an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic level)?
- 39. Observation
- 40. Why Observe? ✘To develop a theory ✘To prove/disprove a theory ✘Making use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott, 1995) ✘Provide a thick description to analyse ✘Provide an instrument of triangulation (alongside interviewing and fieldnotes)
- 41. What to observe ✘Interactions Between people Between people and settings Between people and yourself ✘Behaviours Reactions Routines Interactions ✘The Context/Setting ✘The overt and the covert
- 42. How? ✘Traditional Eyes, pen, and paper ✘Technological Cameras/Video/ICT ✘Combination Trad+Post Even the post involves a level of the traditional
- 43. To what degree/level ✘ Four phases of observation 1. Scoping 2. Descriptive 3. Focused 4. Selective ✘ Each involves a different focus/depth
- 44. Phase One: Scoping ✘Familisation with the setting Setting mapping Apparent rules/structures General impressions Your own reactions Any thoughts/hypotheses ✘A reflexive tool ✘Jottings and diagrams
- 45. Phase Two: Descriptive ✘Detailed descriptions of settings, interactions, and behaviours ✘Focuses on questions that can be addressed through observation - the inquisitive eye ✘Uses delimiters and descriptors for current details and future reference
- 47. Phase Three: Focused Observation ✘Descriptive observation focusing on specific descriptive questions: Space Objects Time Behaviours Individuals
- 48. Descriptive Questions Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling From Spradley (1980)
- 49. Descriptive Questions Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
- 50. Phase Four: Selective Observation ✘The focusing down of ‘focus observations’ ✘Looks at filling in the gaps ✘Providing other dimensions to focused observations and the phenomenon in question ✘Focuses on the specifics Individual Event Behaviour Context
- 51. Observation and Technology ✘What are the strengths of involving technology as an observation tool? ✘What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using technology as an observation tool? ✘Do paper and pen still have a role to play alongside technology? ✘What is this role?
- 52. Interviews
- 53. Research Interviewing ✘Unstructured Conversation Central to ethnography ✘Semi-structured Broad open questions with prompting Fits within most qualitative paradigms ✘Structured Tight questions with limited or already given responses Quantitative/positivist research Mixed paradigm research Technology-based methodologies (phone interviewing, ICT research)
- 54. Unstructured Interviewing ✘Conversations in the field ✘Ideally recorded on tape or after the research ✘Requires the researcher to be skilled: In holding conversations In listening In focusing/re-focusing conversations ✘Requires time
- 55. Semi-Structured Interviewing ✘Guided conversations ✘Uses broad opening questions which can be redirected by interviewee or interviewer ✘Uses verbal prompting ✘Allows for the development of conversation/research skills ✘Generally piloted beforehand ✘Recorded on tape and on paper
- 56. Structured Interviewing ✘Focused conversations ✘Uses tight questions which require set responses (sometimes given) ✘Reflects survey research ✘Allows for collection of theme-driven data ✘Requires piloting with similar sample ✘Recorded on Paper
- 57. What leads to a good interview ✘Rapport Before the interview The first question/opening comments ✘Reciprocity You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview ✘Acceptance of the unexpected Unanswered questions ✘Self-Confidence Practice and faith in oneself
- 58. Ann Oakley (1981): The Central Dilemma ✘Who holds power in the interview process? ✘Who gains from research? ✘What is false about ‘rapport’ in qualitative research interviewing? ✘When does the relationship finish?
- 59. Interviewing a Group: Focus Group Interviews ✘Works at providing further information and context to a researched phenomenon ✘Tends to not stand as a single methodological approach but sits alongside other data-gathering strategies ✘A form of triangulation ✘Requires a particular type of questioning and facilitation skills
- 62. Focus Groups: Fitting them in ✘Sitting within a multi-method approach Providing more depth Enabling future discussion ✘Typical research designs include Evaluation research Mixed design research Case study research
- 63. Recording Focus Groups ✘Pen/Paper ✘Two researchers ✘Technology Audio Video ✘Each has its own dilemmas and issues
- 64. Asking the Questions ✘Questions Importance of ice-breaking Open questions that create a communicative atmosphere Rapport building Semi-structured and provocative ✘The role of the researcher Facilitator and guide Guides discussion by using directive questioning and prompting
- 65. Guiding the Discussion ✘Group discussion has particular dilemmas Dominant speakers Silent groups ✘Effectively using prompts ✘The little things Names Relationships
- 67. Text Analysis ✘Used across the paradigms differently To gather analysable statistics positivist To provide a historical analysis Feminist and ethnic research To provide a history of the present – a deconstruction of knowledge Cultural studies
- 68. Peach-skinned Bailey Junior Kurariki killed at 12, Kararaina Makere Te Rauna at 14. Their faces are too young to be giveaways for the violence that festered and flared and struck out. They look disturbingly like the kids next door, like kids who skateboard and learn their maths and play on computers. Are our children worse than they used to be? Is this the onset of a wave of hideous child crime, payback for some creeping national deficiency? Who will be the next person going happily about their business to be belted over the head and murdered for nothing? Kurariki and Te Rauna were not alone. Other kids were there at the kill. Are we becoming a society rotten at birth where doors need to be locked not just against ingrained criminals but children of trick-or-treat age? (Dekker, 2002, p.F1)
- 69. Assignments
- 70. Hit the Target Where are you at now?
- 72. Credits Special thanks to all the people who made and released these awesome resources for free: ✘ Presentation template by SlidesCarnival ✘ Photographs by Unsplash