Interviews (for example, structured; loosely structured; unstructured) Focus Groups Observation Ethnography Participant Observation Participatory Action Research Visual Methods (for example photo elicitation)

1. Qualitative
Methods
Dr Ryan Thomas
Williams

2. Key qualitative methods
• Interviews (for example, structured; loosely structured; unstructured)
• Focus Groups
• Observation
• Ethnography
• Participant Observation
• Participatory Action Research
• Visual Methods (for example photo elicitation)

3. Participant observation
• Participant observation is an approach that allows the researcher to participate in or
closely observe the lives and activities of those whom they are studying. It is used to
attempt to get to the root of ‘what is going on’ in a wide range of social settings.

4. Participant observation vs observant
participation
• One key variation between participant observation and observant participation concerns
field positioning. The most obvious difference in positioning might be between relative
“outsiders” (participant observation) and relative “insiders” (observant participation).

5. Interviews
• The research interview is a purposeful conversation between two or more people,
requiring the interviewer to establish rapport and ask concise and unambiguous
questions, to which the interviewee is willing to respond and to listen attentively.
• The research interview is a general term used for several types of interview
• The nature of any interview should be consistent with your research questions and
objectives

6. Structured, Semi-Structured, Unstructured
Structured interviews use questionnaires based on a predetermined and ‘standardised’ set of
questions
• As structured questionnaire used collect quantifiable data they are also referred to as
‘quantitative research interviews’.
Semi-structured interviews are non standardised. They are also referred to as qualitative research
interviews.
• In semi-structured interviews, the research has a list of themes and possibly some key questions
to be covered. The use of questions may wary from interview to interview.
Unstructured interviews are informal. These interviews are generally used to explore in depth a
general areas in which you are interested.

7. Structured interviews
How often do you use our product?
• Weekly
• Bi-monthly
• Yearly
How likely are you to recommend our services?
• Very likely
• Somewhat likely
• Highly Unlikely

8. Semi-structured interviews
• Some studies cannot employ the participant observation method
• E.g., Desroches’ study of bank robbers
• In-depth interviews allow participants to describe their experiences and the meaning of
events taking place in their lives
• Verbatim quotes capture the language and meaning expressed by participants
• Interviews are flexible and allow for probing
• Interview method is quite diverse, adaptive
6-8

9. Unstructured interviews
• What do you enjoy most about our product?
• What do you not like about our service delivery?
• How do you think we can improve our service delivery?
• Why do you use our product?
• What specific needs does our product meet for you?

10. Focus groups
• Interview format, but in a group setting
• 6-12 participants with common experience
• Dates back to the 1940s – used to assess effectiveness of morale-boosting radio shows
• 1970s onward – used by market researchers
• 1980s onward – used by academics
• Transcript of discussion is the data
• Plus accompanying notes
• Use content analysis or grounded theory approach to analyze the data

11. Visual methods- photo elicitation
• The application of photo-elicitation to the research area has highlighted what
Goffman (1971) refers to as a ‘back region’ where hidden elements of the ‘drama’
that is taking place
• Data collection through visual methodologies holds the potential to allow
researchers to gather material that would otherwise be harder to obtain via
traditional qualitative research approaches
• Social and emotional perspectives
• As an example, photographs can be used to stimulate discussions around topics
that may appear to be ‘uncomfortable’ in formally structured interviews
• Furthermore, by allowing the research participants choice, photo- elicitation can
empower individuals, and this helps in making the research process as inclusive
as possible (Ingleby, Currie and Williams 2022)

12. Stage Description
Thematizing The purpose of the research is decided at this stage. General goals and objectives are translated into more detailed
research questions.
Designing Research questions are translated into actual questions that will make up the main body of the interview schedule.
Construction of
schedules
The question types are decided at this stage. For example, open ended, closed, multiple choice.
Question
formats
Different question and answer types are examined at the stage. For example, a researcher may ask a direct question,
or adapt it following the respondents answer to a previous question.
Response
modes
Just as there are varied ways of asking a question, there are several ways a response can be soughed.
Conducting the
interview
In this stage, the interview is set up and conducted, including the consideration of people, the location, time, timing of
an interview (Mills 2001)
Transcribing This is a crucial step when interviewing as this becomes the record of data. There is potential for massive data loss
without transcribing.
Analysing Scoring, coding, or content analysis.
Verifying Validating results using reliability and validity tests.
Reporting The nature of the reporting is determined by the nature of the interview. For example, structured interviews that
yield numerical table may be presented in tables and graphs.

13. Qualitative questions
• Hypothetical – If you had the chance to ….. do you think you would/could…
• Provocative – Most people think that…. what do you think…..?
• Ideal – In your opinion what would be the most effective as to employee motivation?
• Leading – Do you think x would have more impact than y?
• Loading – Did you know that working environment has the biggest impact on employee
motivation.
• Multiple – Tell me the four factors that affect your motivation at work the most, why and
the affect they have.