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1. Main Features of
Early Medieval
Economy
Dr. Virag Sontakke

2. Main Features of
Early Medieval Economy

3. Introduction
• Early Medieval period consist various political changes.
• After the fall of Gupta empire, India divided in small political
states.
• Apart from central political system, feudatory states were also
increases.
• Growing quantity of land grants also made extra burden on
society.
• This period is also marked the development of Arabs in N-W
part of India.

5. Literary Religious
Foreign
Account
Archaeological
Sources

6. Literary texts
1. Harshcharita: Banbhatta
2. Jain Harivansh: Jinsenacharya (9th Century)
3. Gaudhavo: Vakpati (8th Century)
4. Kathasaritsagara : Somdev (11th Century)
5. Bodhisatavavadan kalpakta: Kshemendra
6. Manasollas: Someshwar
7. Ras Ratnnakar
8. Das Prakash Sudhakar
9. Dashkumarcharit: Dandi
10. Prabandhkosh: Rajshekhar
11. Rajtarangini: Kalhan
12. Agni Puran

7. Foreign Travelogue
1. Xuan chang : 7th Century CE
2. Abu Rayhan al-Biruni : (973-1050 CE)
3. Chau-ju-kuaa: (1170-1231 CE)
4. Marko-polo(1254-1324 CE)
5. Ibn Battuta (1304 – 1368/1369)
6. Abu Abdullah Muhammad
al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi
al-Hasani as-Sabti,
or al-Idrisi : (1100- 1165 CE)
7. Wassaf (1328 CE)

8. Archaeological Sources
1. Excavations
2. Inscriptions
3. Temples
4. Coins

13. Economical divisions
Agriculture &
Animal rearing
Art & crafts
Industry Trade & traders
Economy

14. Agriculture
1. Agriculture was main source of economy
2. Emergence of new class pressurize the agricultural
3. This period witnessed an agricultural fairs
4. Rajtarangini: Kashmir organized fairs of Jau and sesame
5. People of all castes are allowed and promoted for agriculture
6. Medhatithi: Agriculture included amongst the important subject of the
King.
7. Jinsena: State shall provide necessary items to farmers along with
irrigation supply and get tax as per the law.
8. R.S. Sharma: During this period Agriculture was the chief occupations
compare to trade and commerce.
9. R.S. Sharma: India again became a “Agricultural state”

15. Development in Agriculture
• During this period independent texts were written on Agriculture.
• Text like “ Vrukshayuved” (वृ#ायुवेद) tells the decease on various
plants and mentions steps to cure diseases of trees.
• Krushiparashar (क
ृ िषपराशर) has information about weather and
rainfall.
• Knowledge about weather conditions and their use in agricultural
operations is noticeable in texts like Gurusamhita (गु0संिहता) and
Krishinarashwara (क
ृ िषनर6रा).
• Jain texts: fields were fired before cultivations.
• Officers were appointed to see and measures the Agriculture land.

16. Agricultural & Implements
• Types of Land: Maru, Usar , Kedar and Urvara
• Traditional mode of Agriculture was practice.
• Somdev: the knowledge of fertilizers and the use of the compost was known.
• Harvesting of three crops and rotation of crops were known widely.
• Oxen were used for ploughing (generally a pair)
• Hard soil required more than a pair
• 10th century CE inscription from Ajmer refers to “big plough”.
• Separate implements are mentioned for weeding plants.
• Hoe, spade, sickle etc found in excavations.
• Care was taken to protect the filed from animals
• Compound wall and scarecrows were set up in the field.

17. Agricultural Produce
• More than one hundred types of cereals including wheat, barley, lentils, etc. are
mentioned in contemporary writings on agriculture.
• According to the Shunya purana more than fifty kinds of paddy were cultivated
in Bengal.
• Cash crops such as areca nuts, betel leaves, cotton, sugarcane, etc. frequent
mention.
• Rajashekhara (12th century CE) tells us about the excellent sugarcane of north
Bengal which yielded juice even without the use of pressing instrument.
• Production of coconut and oranges assumed special importance in peninsular
India during this period.
• Aadipurana: 7 variety of paddy
• Manasollas: praise for the Paddy of Kalinga
• Harshcharitra: large quantity of Sugarcane production in Thaneshwar

18. Irrigation: Technology
• Water lifting devices such as araghatta and ghatiyantra are mentioned in
inscriptions and literary works.
• It is mentioned that ghatiyantra operated by oxen is the best, that by men
was the worst.
• Flood control was achieved through breaching of rivers for canals and
mud embankments which ensured the regulated use of water resources.
• Lakes or reservoirs were more commonly used in semi dry and rain fed
areas.
• Constructions of water reservoirs was initiated by rulers and maintained
by local institutions like sabha and ur in Tamil Nadu.

19. Irrigation: Sources
• During this period increase in irrigation sources such as canals, lakes,
tanks (tataka, eri) and wells (kupa and kinaru).
• Keres or tanks in south Karnataka, nadi (river), pushkarini (tank), srota
(water channel) etc. in Bengal and araghatta-wells in western Rajasthan
were utilised.
• Water-lifts of different kinds operated by man and animal power were
also known.
• The step wells (vapis) in Rajasthan and Gujarat became extremely popular
in the eleventh-thirteenth centuries.
• They were meant for irrigating the fields as well as for supplying drinking
water.

20. Animal Rearing
• Expansion of agriculture also increase the animal raring
• Animals were used for dairy products, Agriculture, transportations etc.
• Leather work emerged as big industry during this period.
• Harshacahrit: in Thaneshwar animals like cattle, camels, sheep were
found abundantly.
• Horse riding was a special subject of teaching.
• Animals of this periods:
• Calltle, Ox, Horse, Elephants, Camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, dogs, hen
etc.
• Gwala, Gopal, Vrujapal: associated in animal rearing

21. Art and
Crafts

22. Classifications of Art objects
Pottery,
Items of furniture,
Baskets,
Textile,
Leather
Metal Items,
Terracotta,
Glass Items
Ordinary
Items
Ivory Items,
Semi-precious stone
beads
Shell bangles
Gold ornaments
Fine silk, muslin
Luxurious
Items

23. Textile
• Someshwar: Multan, Anahilapatan, Bengal, Pratisthan, Nagapattanam,
Cholcountry, Todmandala, Kaling were important centers.
• Bengal, Gujrat, Telangana and Malabar were famous for cotton.
• Vakpati: various types of women dresses.
• Kshemendra: thick and red blankets were made from Himalayan goats/sheep.
• Somdeva: cloth dyeing was important occupation.
• Marco Polo (1293 CE) and Arab writers praise the excellent quality of cotton
fabrics from Bengal and Gujarat.
• The availability of madder in Bengal and indigo in Gujarat might have acted as
important aides to the growth of textile industry in these regions.
• Manasollasa, (12th century CE) also mentions Paithan, Nagapattanam, Kalinga
and Multaii as important centres of textile industry.
• The silk weavers of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu also constituted a very
important and influential section of the society.

24. Oil Industry
• The oil industry acquired great importance during this period.
• From 10th CE onwards, we get more references to the cultivation of
oilseeds as well as to ghanaka or oil mills.
• An inscription from Karnataka refers to different types of oil mills
operated both by men and bullocks.
• It seem that the oil industry offered profits to its members.

25. Leather Industry
• In the field of leather industry Gujarat occupied an enviable position.
• Marco Polo mentions that the people of Gujarat made beautiful leather
mats in red and blue which were skilfully embroidered with figures of
birds and animals.
• These were in great demand in the Arab World.
• Marco Polo: Gujarat and Maharashtra (Thana) were the important
centres.
• Leathers was exported from Thana.
• Leather Items: beds, pillows, bags, hunters, slippers, shoes, mats etc.

26. Metal Industry
• Metal work reached a high level of excellence.
• Independent texts has been written on Metals and metallurgy
• Ras ratn sammuchay (13th century CE): Preparations of alloy of silver, copper, tin,
iron etc.
• Huen Tsang: mentions Gold, silver and iron and its melting practices
• A number of large beams at Puri and Konarka temples in Orissa indicate the
proficiency of the iron smiths of India during this period.
• Iron was also used to manufacture swords, spearheads and other arms and weapons
of high quality.
• Magadha, Benaras, Kalinga and Saurashtra were known for the manufacture of good
quality swords.
• Gujarat was known for gold and silver embroidery.
• Sculpture of this periods indicate variety of ornaments were in vouge.
• The existing specimens of Chola bronzes are superb example of high class knowledge
in metals and metallurgy.
• Abraham Bin Yiju was a Tunisian Jewish merchant who had set up a brass factory on
the Malabar Coast.

28. This was important
industry preferred in
this period.
In the list of donative
items of Rajraj to tanjor
temple; a ring with nine
gems was included.
Semi-precious stones
like carnelians, agate,
jasphers prominently
used.
Sea pearls were also in
high demand.
Gujrat was
important center
for wood
exporting.
Jinasennachary:
wooden chairs,
chariots, ships,
vehicles etc .
Somdeva: salt
sources.
Rasratnakar:
variety of Glass
pots.
Excavations
yielded
abundance of
monochrome
glass bangles
Chol were
masters in ivory
products.
Daily utensils
Abundance
variety of pots
are recovered
from excavations.
Stone
Beads Carpenter Potter
Salt,
Glass &
Ivory

29. Sculpture Art
• Gupta sculpture plastic arts seem to have encourage in this period.
• A large number of images have been unearthed in whole India
• Stone images of Brahmanical deities have been found at major cities of
India.
• Rupkar and shilpi were mentioned in inscriptions.

31. Architect
• New class emerged.
• Independent texts were written in this subjects.
• Large number of temple were contructed in length and breadth of the
country.
• architects were referred as Sthapati, sutradhar.
• Chandel inscriptions mentions numerous names of sculpture and
architects.
• Chalukya inscriptions also mentions the architects from Pallava
country constructed temples in Vatapi.
• Mason was known as rajgir.
• Mason marks were identified in various stones of the temples.

39. Trade

40. Commodities of Trade
• Inscriptions and literary sources refer to merchants carrying food grains, oil,
butter, salt, coconuts, arecanut, betel leaves, madder, indigo, candid sugar,
jaggery, thread cotton fabrics, blankets, metals, spices, etc. from one place to
another.
• Merchants were paying taxes and tolls on them.
• Benjamin Tudela, a Jesuit priest from Spain (12th century) noticed wheat,
barley and pulses, besides linseed fibre and cotton cloth brought by the traders
to the island of Kish in the Persian Gulf on their way home from India.
• Al Idrisi also refers to the transhipment of rice from the country of Malabar to
Sri Lanka in the twelfth century.
• The export of palm sugar and coir for ropes is noted by Friar Jordanus who
wrote in about 1330 CE.
• Marco Polo refers to the export of indigo from Quilon (on the Malabar Coast)
and Gujarat.
• High value items such as horses, elephants, jewellery, etc. also came to various
exchange centres.

41. Land Routes
• Earlier Land Routes still used
• A vast network of roads connected different ports, markets and towns
• Good road network is indicated by the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrim
Hiuen Tsang (7th c. CE) he visited various towns and capitals from
Kashmir in North to Kanchi in South and from Assam in East to Sindh in
West.
• Bilhana, an tells us about his travels from Kashmir to Mathura, and how
he reached Banaras after passing through Kannauj and Prayaga.
• Al beruni (1030 CE) mentions fifteen routes which started from Kannauj,
Mathura, Bayana, etc
• The route from Kannauj passed through Prayaga and went eastward up
to the port of Tamralipti, from where it went along the Eastern coast to
Kanchi in South. Towards the North-east, this route led to Assam. Nepal
and Tibet, from where one could go overland to China.

42. Maritime Trade
• In this period sea trade was between the two extremities of Asia viz. the Persian
Gulf and South China.
• The Asian trade during these centuries was largely dominated by the Arabs.
• Abu Zaid, an Arab author (10th c. CE) refers to Indian merchants visiting Siraf in
the Persian Gulf.
• Ibn Battuta (14th century) tells us of a colony of Indian merchants at Aden in the
Red Sea.
• A Gujarati text of the 14th century refers to a merchant Jagadu of Kutch who
traded with Persia-with the help of Indian agents stationed at Hormuz.
• The Cholas, took keen interest in maritime trade.
• The Tamil inscriptions found in Malaya and Sumatra indicate the commercial
activities of Tamil mercantile community in these regions.
• The Cholas also sent a number of embassies to China to improve economic
relations
• They even sent naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire in the eleventh
century to keep the sea route to China safe for their trade.

43. Commodities Exchanged
• Chinese texts indicate that the Malabar coast received silk, porcelain-ware,
camphor, cloves, wax, sandalwood, cardamom, etc. from China and South-east
Asia.
• Marco Polo informs us that the ships coming from the East to the ports of
Cambay in Gujarat brought, among other things, gold, silver and copper.
• In return for eastern products, India sent its spices, particularly pepper.
• According to Marco Polo pepper was consumed at the rate of 10,000 pounds
daily in the city of Kirisay (Hang-Chau) alone.
• Chart Ju Kua. a Chinese port official of the thirteenth century, tells us that
Gujarat, Malwa, Malabar and Coromandel sent cotton cloth to China.
• Ibn Batutta (1333 CE) tells that fine cotton fabrics were rarer and more highly
priced than silk in the cities of China.
• India also exported ivory, rhinoceros horns, and some precious and
semiprecious stones to China.

44. Items of export and import
Export
1. Variety of spices,
2. Cotton
3. aromatics,
4. dyes,
5. medicinal herbs,
6. bronze
7. brass vessels,
8. textiles,
9. pearls,
10. beads,
11. coconuts,
12. Teakwood
13. Rice
14. Leather items
Import
1. Horse
2. silk,
3. porcelain-ware,
4. camphor,
5. cloves,
6. wax,
7. sandalwood,
8. cardamom,
9. Gold
10. Silver
11. Tin
12. dates,
13. ivory,
14. coral,
15. emeralds

45. Horse
• Horse was the most significant item of import.
• Number of feudal lords and chiefs increased in the early
medieval period.
• Horses were brought both by land and sea.
• Ibn Battuta tells us that horse-dealers coming through the
North western land routes earned large profits.
• According to an Arab author, Wassaf (1328 CE) more than
10,000 horses were brought annually to the Coromandel coast,
Cambay and other ports of India in the thirteenth century.
• Horses were brought from places as Bahrein, Muscat, Aden,
Persia, etc.

46. Important Ports
1. Debal: On the mouth of the Indus, Debal was an important port which
according to Al Idrisi (12th century), was visited by vessels from Arabia as
well as from China and other Indian ports.
2. Somanatha: Somanatha had links with China in the East and Zanzibar (in
Africa) in the West.
3. Broach: ancient Bhrigukachha has had a very long history.
4. Cambay: Cambay is known as Khambayat in Arabic sources, and
Stambhatirtha in Sanskrit sources.
5. Quilon: chief port on the Malabar coast for Arab and Chinese. Ex. Chinese
sources of the (13th century) state that Chinese traders going to the country of
the Arabs had to change their ships at Quilon.
6. Nagapattinam:
7. Kalingapattam:
8. Tamralipti :

48. Safety Measures
1. Chalukyas of Gujarat (10th-13th centuries) set up a separate department of
harbours (Velakulakarana) under royal control.
2. Chola Kings managed their ports through royal officials who, with the, help
of local merchant organisations, looked after the foreign merchants and
collected the port-cesses.
3. The Arab writers unaninlously praise the Rashtrakuta kings for their policy
of peace and toleration towards the Arabs.
4. The Chalukyas of Gujarat also granted religious and economic freedom to
the muslim merchants in their state.
5. lbn Battuta tells us that whenever a foreign merchant died, his property was
not confiscated but kept in safe custody to be handed over to the next of kin.
6. An inscription of. A.D. 1244 found a Motupalli in the Guntur district of
Andhra Pradesh reveals that the King guarantee protection to the storm
strayed ships and promised to collect duty as per the law o- land in order to
win over the confidence of foreign merchants.

49. Decline of Trade
• Reduce of foreign trade with the West in this period.
• The decline of foreign trade was also caused by the expansion of Arabs
• Their presence in the region made overland routes unsafe for Indian
merchants.
• A story in the Kathasaritsagara tells that a group of merchants going from
Ujjain to Peshawar were captured by an Arab and sold. Later, when they
somehow got free, they decided to leave the North-western region forever
and returned to South for trade.
• The fights amongst the Tibetans and Chinese during these centuries also
affected the flow of goods along the routes in central Asia.
• Even the Western coast of India suffered dislocation and disruption of sea
trade as the Arabs raided Broach and Thana in the seventh century and
destroyed Valabhi, an important port on the Saurashtra coast, in the
eighth century.

50. Conclusion
• Early medieval economic organisation, was a predominantly agrarian and
self-sufficient village economy,
• This community also participated in wider inter-regional and inter-
oceanic trade.
• South Indian merchants specialised in the trade of specific commodities
such as textiles, spices etc.
• At the local level, regional markets called Nagaram were the centres of
exchange.
• Malabar Coast is evidenced by the Jewish, Indian, Arab and Chinese
communities.
• Arab traders were dominant on the coastal trade.