Female plus size fashion

Dissatisfaction with the Female Plus-Size Apparel Industry
By
Ogochukwu Stephanie Onyemachi
17100310852
Design and New Media Department
School of Media and Communication
Pan-Atlantic University
March, 2020

ii
Dissatisfaction with the Female Plus-Size Apparel Industry
By
17100310852
A project submitted to the School of Media and Communication, Pan-Atlantic University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Science
(Information Science and Media Studies) of Pan-Atlantic University.
March, 2020

iii
ABSTRACT
The problem of female plus-size clothing consumer dissatisfaction has become a popular
experience with most plus-size women. This has Plus-size women often marginalized in relation
to fashion as the fashion industry does not largely cater to the fashion needs of plus-size women.
This project, focused on plus-size fashion for females only, as it set out to find causes of
this dissatisfaction and possible solutions by means of review of various literature, analysis of
current systems in place in the industry and execution of a survey.
From the analysis of current systems, it was found that the leading dress form maker in
America, Alvanon, uses plus-size 3D scans that wrongly assumes a linear grading of an hourglass
shape upon increment in the manufacturing of plus-size apparel resulting in improper fitting on
plus-size apparel consumers, which has been proven to be highly inaccurate as 98.46% of the 3D
plus size body scans did not match the existing size charts used by most desired and familiar
clothing retailers around the world.
It was also discovered that Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) software that
was created to identify and sort the scans into various body shapes (Hourglass, Top Hourglass,
Bottom Hourglass, Spoon, Rectangle, Diamond, Oval, Triangle, and Inverted Triangle) was also
inaccurate as there were mismatches between the body shape categories the formulas sorted the
scans to and what shapes were obviously identifiable by mere looking at them. The FFIT
software did not also have formulas for sorting scans into oval and diamond shape were not
included which are the body shapes of most plus size women, as they usually have larger
abdomen. Modifications aimed at fixing the shortcomings of the FFIT software were made to the
FFIT sorting formulas to get a better and more accurate definition of plus-size shapes to make
clothes that fit plus-size apparel consumers better.

iv
The survey in this study also found that the major determinant of satisfaction for plus-size
apparel consumers was fitting problems. Fitting here refers to the ability of clothes made to fit
right on the wearer without having to manage it or constantly adjust it.
Taking all of this into consideration, in the final stage of this project, various outfits were
designed for plus size women using the specialized 3D visualization software for fashion
designing, Marvelous Designer, while implementing findings made from review of literature,
analysis of current system and the conducted survey.

v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my Supervisor, Mr. Chuka Uzo, for
his unending support, guidance, understanding and encouragement before, throughout
and beyond this research project. It would definitely be difficult to find someone like him
who cares about their students’ lives, success and happiness beyond academic
performances. I would also like to give special thanks to my mom, Mrs. Lawrencia
Onyemachi for her active support in distributing the questionnaire used in this study to
her friends and colleagues. Lastly, I would like to thank the participants in this study -one
hundred and twenty-one of you- for sharing their apparel struggles and experiences. I
appreciate every single one of you.

vi
DEDICATION
This Project is dedicated to God for the strength and grace he granted me to complete this
research and to all the beautiful ladies that participated in the survey.

vii
STUDENT'S DECLARATION
I have read and understood the School of Media and Communication Policy on
plagiarism. I declare that this project is my own work and that all sources are fully referenced. I
also declare that I have not submitted this work for any other purpose.
__________________________
17100310852
Date: ______________

viii
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work was carried out by Ogochukwu Stephanie Onyemachi with matriculation
number 17100310852, in the School of Media and Communication, Pan-Atlantic University,
under my supervision
________________________________
Supervisor: Mr. Chuka Uzo
School of Media and Communication
Pan-Atlantic University
Lagos, Nigeria
Date: ______________

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract.............................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................................v
Dedication...........................................................................................................................vi
STUDENT'S DECLARATION.........................................................................................vii
CERTIFICATION............................................................................................................ viii
Table of contents.................................................................................................................ix
List of Tables....................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures.....................................................................................................................xi
Chapter One: Introduction............................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the Study......................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................3
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Project Work............................................................. 4
1.4 Significance of Project Work............................................................................... 4
1.5 Scope of the Project Work....................................................................................5
1.6 Limitations of the Project Work...........................................................................6
1.7 Definition of Terms..............................................................................................6
Chapter Two: Literature Review......................................................................................7
2.1 Theory of Planned Behavior................................................................................ 7
2.2 Principles of Color Psychology..........................................................................11

x
2.3 Plus-size Fashion................................................................................................16
2.4 Apparel Consumers Buying Behavior............................................................... 17
2.4.1 Apparel Consumers Buying Behavior – Plus-size Women.......................18
2.5 Retail Satisfaction Factors..................................................................................21
Chapter Three: Systems Analysis, Design, and Production...........................................24
3.1 Analysis of Existing/Present System................................................................. 24
3.1.1 Female Figure Identification Technique for Clothing.............................. 26
3.2 Methodology, Data Collection, and Analysis.....................................................31
3.2.1 Data Collection............................................................................................. 31
3.2.2 Analysis of collected data.............................................................................32
3.3 Proposed Production Pipeline............................................................................ 39
Chapter Four: Implementation.................................................................................. 42
4.1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS............................................................................42
4.1.1 Hardware Requirements............................................................................. 42
4.1.2 Software Requirements..................................................................................43
4.2 SYSTEM EXECUTION/OUTPUT................................................................... 48
4.2.1 The Model Creation Process..........................................................................48
4.2.2 The Garment Making Process........................................................................48
4.2.3 Output Video Editing Process........................................................................ 65
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations........................................................66

xi
5.1 Conclusion..........................................................................................................66
5.2 Recommendations..............................................................................................67
References..........................................................................................................................69
Appendices.....................................................................................................................74
I. Questionnaire......................................................................................................... 74

xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------20
Table 2 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 3 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------25
Table 8 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------27
Table 9 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------28
Table 10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------30

xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------11
Figure 2 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Figure 3 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------15
Figure 4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Figure 5 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------26
Figure 6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------32
Figure 7 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------33
Figure 8 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------34
Figure 9 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------35
Figure 10 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------36
Figure 11 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Figure 12 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------38
Figure 13 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------44
Figure 14 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------46
Figure 15 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------47
Figure 16 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------48
Figure 17 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------49
Figure 18 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Figure 19 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Figure 20 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------52
Figure 21 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------53

Figure 22 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------54
Figure 23 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------55
Figure 24 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------56
Figure 25 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------57
Figure 26 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------58
Figure 27 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------59
Figure 28 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
Figure 29 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------61
Figure 30 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------62
Figure 31 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------63
Figure 32 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------64
Figure 33 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------65

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
This first chapter introduces the project study and gives an overview of the entire study. It
consists of the study background, problem statement, aims and objectives of the study, its
significance, scope, limitations and definition of key terms.
1.1 Background to the Study
Fashion in its basic units, clothing, and textile, date as far back as 7500 B.C. Later in 5000
B.C., Egyptians made linen cloth from flax plants, and thousands of years later, locals of
Pakistan, India, and America made cloth out of cotton. As time went on, the art of spinning,
weaving, dyeing, and garment making was learned and soon became popular. Early civilizations
that contributed significantly to ancient fashion include: Egypt, Minoan, Greece, Roman Empire,
China, and Japan (The Complete History of Costume & Fashion, 2001). Needless to say, fashion
has evidently evolved over time as it has made significant growth and development.
In 2018, it was estimated that after the fashion industry had faced a decline in economic
profit growth consecutively for four years since 2012 (McKinsey & Company, 2019), the industry
had finally started to make progress in economic profit, making an approximate growth of 35%
from the previous year 2016, 21% increase in 2018 and yet another increase of 4% in 2019.
(McKinsey & Company, 2020). With this consecutive growth, one would think it would only be
upwards from there. However, Due to the economic and political drawbacks of the pandemic, the
industry was estimated to have experienced a whopping 93% decrease in economic profit.
Fashion executives already anticipate that the Covid-19 pandemic is going to be the biggest
challenge to the fashion industry (McKinsey & Company, 2020). However, there is a silver lining.
Fashion executives have also seen adopting digital channels as their biggest opportunity to thrive
amid the pandemic (McKinsey & Company, 2020).

2
Despite these growths and development of the fashion industry, there is a huge, overlooked
market -the plus-size fashion market. The plus-size individual lacks options in clothing and,
therefore, a lack of options styling her self-identity (Peters, 2014). The neglect of plus-size
fashion in the industry indeed merits examination. The fashion industry refers to the plus-size
body as 'non-normative’ as they simply exceed the conventional measurements of standardized
sizing in the industry (Peters, 2017).
Truly just as Adrienne Hill said, Fashion history and media clearly tell us the
representation of plus-size people wavers between "invisibility" and "hyper visibility" (Hill,
2009). "Invisibility" meaning their very noticeable absence in positive and even just neutral
context and, on the other hand, their very conspicuous presence in the representation of plus-size
people as disabled or like a taboo that needs to be corrected (Peters, 2017). For example, the
representation of plus-size people in advertisements of slimming products or fitness centers.
Indeed, there promotes a strong prejudice against plus-size people as lazy or unattractive. With
that, fat (in the words of Lorraine Gamman) is "the repressed of fashionable femininity" (2013).
The only positive, remarkable acceptance and inclusion of plus-size women in high fashion
were between 1986 and 1988 when American Vogue ran a series of advertorials titled "Fashion
Plus," offering exposure to an overlooked historical moment in the history of plus-size dress as
well as an entrance into plus size fashion for Vogue (Peters, 2017).
As shown by Karen Jaffe (2008), a fat studies scholar, fatness can be best understood as a
dual construct. It can be seen as a biological truth and can be seen as a personal and social
experience. She further explains that fat identities are ill-defined, not completely dependent on
BMI or other certified weight classifications, but are also formed significantly through social
channels. When it is formed through the latter, fatness can be understood as a learned

3
psychological and physical identity. One that is, as she would say, "all-encompassing," or one
that permeates nearly all aspects of a fat person's life (Jaffe, 2008).
Following from Jaffe’s studies, if social channels are powerful enough to conceive this fat
identity, why not it be conceived in a positive or at least a neutral light. This forms a part of what
this research project hopes to achieve i.e., the normalization of plus-size fashion brought about
by inclusive sizing (allowing plus-size women to keep up with fashion trends), to cater to the
fashion needs of plus-size women, maximizing their satisfaction and publicizing found solutions.
What better time to do that than now when the use of digital channels such as social media are
employed as major marketing channels in the face of the pandemic (McKinsey & Company,
2020)?
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Consumer dissatisfaction in female fashion largely due to non-inclusive sizing, leaving
out the huge market of the plus-size community, causing apparel non-wear or discard, shortage in
fashion retail revenue and in the global fashion industry at large.
Plus-size women are often marginalized in fashion as the very well-developed industry
still somehow does not cater to the fashion needs of plus-size women (Scaraboto & Fischer,
2013). Research shows that well-known brands in the U.S. such as GAP, H&M, J.Crew do not
usually make clothes in plus-sizes and when they do, clothes of that size can only be found
online (Krupnick, 2013). This does not allow plus-size women to have many clothing options or
keep up with fashion trends, hence the marginalization.
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Project Work
Aim

4
This project aims to solve the problem of dissatisfaction faced by plus-size female
consumers in the fashion industry by understanding their needs, shopping experience, consumer
perception, and purchasing behavior, in order to provide inclusive desired style and sizing for
plus-size females.
Objectives
- To carry out research on consumer perception theories (such as color psychology,
theory of planned behavior) and on factors affecting consumer
satisfaction/dissatisfaction to understand and meet the fashion needs of female plus-
size consumers.
- To conduct questionnaires to better empathize with the plus-size female audience in
order to understand even better their fashion needs, purchasing behavior and causes
of dissatisfaction.
- To use findings to create better and more size inclusive styles in female fashion.
- To create digital 3D visualization of these designs with Marvelous Designer and
upload designs online.
1.4 Significance of Project Work
This project will be useful to:
- Fashion Designers: findings from this project would be made available online for
designers to make use of when creating new designs for not just plus-size women but
all female clothing consumers. This should help fashion designers understand their
audience more and create what is desired by them and as a result boost sales and
revenue.

5
- Plus-size women: With the use of the findings from this project, when adopted by
fashion designers, more desirable and inclusive styles would be made for all women,
especially plus-size women who have been excluded long enough from fashion trends
due to non-inclusive sizing.
- Finally, when plus-size clothing consumers are more satisfied with their purchase, it
brings a boost in fashion retail, which will mean an increase in revenue and industry
GDP, causing a growth in the fashion industry.
1.5 Scope of the Project Work
- This project will cover theories of consumer perception such as Color Psychology,
Theory of Planned Behavior and Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Determinants
and their impact in consumer fashion choices. Apparel purchasing behavior will also
be looked at in a general sense and later narrowed down to that plus-size women.
- For this Project, focus will be on plus-size fashion for females only.
- This project will make use of questionnaires that would only be answered by females.
The questionnaire will not have any age limitation. It would be made available to
plus-size females of all ages, as long as they are capable of answering the questions.
The questionnaire would be used to gather firsthand data on purchasing behavior of
plus-size females and factors affecting it, their shopping experience and consumer
satisfaction/dissatisfaction, as well as their fashion needs.
- This project will make use of findings to simulate clothes for plus-size women using
Marvelous Designer software.

6
1.6 Limitations of the Project Work
- This project will be limited to just female fashion. This is because our problem
statement is built around female fashion and there are not enough studies related to
the course of this project topic that include or focus on men
- The lack of research papers focused on dissatisfaction in the Nigerian fashion
industry has created a limit to how well the Nigerian fashion industry can be studied
and findings added to this project.
- Due to the fact that the questionnaire would be created using Google Forms (so as to
reach a wider audience irrespective of their geographical location), and distributed
online, it is likely that there would be a relatively lower response rate than if physical
copies are handed out, filled and retrieved on site.
1.7 Definition of Terms
- Fashion: the production and marketing of new styles of clothing.
- Plus-size: denoting or relating to clothes of a size larger than those found in standard
ranges.
- Perception theories: theories backing our way to recognize and interpret information
we’ve gathered through our senses.
- Purchasing behavior: Consumer buying behavior.
- Color psychology: study of colors as a determinant of human decisions or behavior.
- Theory of Planned Behavior: theory used to study and understand premeditated
actions of humans.
- Marvelous Designer: 3D modeling software for clothes.
- 3D Visualization: the process where graphical content is created using 3D software.

7
2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is an overview of studies and research papers related to this topic that was
conducted by several scholars.
This chapter aims to give a general understanding of the plus-size fashion industry, its
shortcomings, purchasing behavior of female plus-size apparel consumers, as well as the
determinants of their satisfaction/dissatisfaction and will be broken down into subheadings to
help give a better understanding of this study. This chapter consists of two theories, namely,
Theory of Planned Behavior and Color Theory/Psychology, a robust explanation of plus-size
fashion, apparel consumers buying behavior, plus-size apparel consumers buying behavior, as
well as retail satisfaction factors for plus size females. All these were considered relevant in the
understanding of the thought process of consumers and factors considered before they make a
purchase, up to when they make a purchase decision and factors that determine if they will be
satisfied or not.
2.1 Theory of Planned Behavior
The history of the theory of planned behavior dates back to the 1960s and has evolved from
another theory which was the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Before the
Theory of Reasoned Action was developed, researchers and psychologists had spent years
unsuccessfully trying to understand premeditated human actions and why people behave the way
they do. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) was first developed in the late 1960s by Martin
Fishbein and later revised by Fishbein and Icek Azjen (1975). Theory of Reasoned Action is a
theory used to understand and predict an individual's behaviors at specific times and places
(Lezin, 2005). The theory was intended to explain controllable actions and behaviors in people.
The most important aspect of this model is intentional behavior which implies premeditated

8
actions and behavior (Lezin, 2005). According to this theory, these intentional behaviors can
predict an outcome and the subjective evaluation of the risks and benefits of that outcome.
Theory of Planned Behavior extended from the Theory of Reasoned action and has
successfully been used to predict and influence behaviors including shopping, substance abuse,
weight loss, among others (Lezin, 2005). In this research, the Theory of Planned Behavior is used
to determine and influence how consumers (in this case, women) choose and shop fashion items
and brands.
To further explain, TRA and TPB focus on a person's intention to behave a certain way.
An intention is a plan or, in other words, premeditation to behavior in specific situations
(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In this study, which has to do with fashion shopping by women, we
will use the case study of a woman who is thinking about shopping with a particular brand but
may or may not actually follow through on that intent.
To understand premeditated behavioral patterns, TRA is used in this paper to look at
women's current attitudes towards fashion choices as well as the subjective norms of influential
people and groups that could influence those attitudes.
Let's say that our example in this study is a 31-year-old female considering buying the
new IVY PARK line by Beyonce. In order to try to predict if she will eventually go through with
her purchase, the TRA would explore her relationship with shopping and fashion brands in the
past in order to try to predict whether or not she would actually go through with her purchase.
The TRA would explore her attitude about Beyonce or brands like IVY PARK and the norms
perceived from people around her (e.g., her friends/followers on social media, her friends, etc.)
about whether or not this would be a good thing to do. According to the TRA, attitudes and
norms are the main influences on intention, which, in turn, is the main motivator of behavior.

9
In regards to where our attitudes and habits come from, according to TRA&TPB, our
premeditation towards particular behaviors is influenced by two related factors: the most likely
outcome of the behavior and our evaluation of the outcome whether it will be favorable or not
(Lezin, 2005).
In this case study, the 31-year-old female's attitude would be shaped by whether or not
she believes buying the IVY PARK brand will make her more socially relevant or add to her
fashion self-expression or whether or not it would be beneficial to her. The case study's attitude
could be based on a number of different factors — her past experiences wearing brands, her
sense of whether or not the outfit would look good on her, or if she would be deemed socially
relevant. From the TRA perspective, the important aspect of attitude is whether it is positive,
negative, or neutral.
Subjective norms are influenced by how we perceive the beliefs of those around us in
relation to their approval/disapproval of our behaviors. This is entirely variable depending on
how much we care about what they think (Lezin, 2005).
Since the Theory of Planned Behavior is used to understand, control, and predict the
behavior of individuals, According to Lezin, it has eight given subsets that collectively represent
a person's actual control over the behavior (2005). They are as follows:
- Attitude
The potential consumer's positive or negative evaluation about performing a specific
behavior (Lezin, N., 2005). For example, (buying IVY PARK).
- Behavior

10
A particular behavior is defined by action, context, and time. In our aforementioned case
study, the action is buying IVY PARK, the target is the 31-year-old hypothetical buyer, the
context is shopping online, and the time is during the IVY PARK 6 – 8-month campaign.
- Behavioral Intention
This is the motivation to make premeditated and intentional behavior and the factors
behind this action.
- Behavioral Belief
The belief that certain behavioral patterns would yield certain results.
- Evaluation
Evaluation is the consideration given to potential results on premeditated action, which
includes considering the value attached to the outcome of behavior.
- Subjective Norm
These are the external reinforcements of premeditated behavior, usually by close social
structure but can also be by secondary social structure and their approval or disapproval.
- Social norms/ Normative Beliefs
These are the customary codes of behavior in a group of people or a larger cultural
context.
- Compliance Motivation
The possibility of the person's behavior being affected by other people’s beliefs.

11
Figure 1
. Theory of Planned Behavior (Azjen, 1975).
2.2 Principles of Color Psychology
What is Color psychology, and primarily, how does it affect the purchasing behavior of
female clothing consumers? Color has been studied to be very powerful in fashion, marketing,
and advertising, leading to a brand of psychology called color psychology (Casas &
Chinoperekweyi, 2019). Color psychology is essentially the relationship between how humans
perceive color and how our brains react to these colors, reflecting in our actions (Casas &
Chinoperekweyi, 2019). According to research, color can have an effect on our moods, and our
personalities gravitate more or less strongly towards different colors (Kolendo, 2016). While
color is an aesthetic that can only be visually perceived, these visual perceptions can influence

12
consumer behavior in branding and marketing, and in fashion can make fashion more or less
appealing to consumers (Andrew and Markus, 2014).
In this subsection, we can identify and create the historical context on how color affects
psychology, citing the years of study and research that have been done in both marketing,
communications, and branding and how this relates to fashion and influences the Theory of
Planned Behavior. A brief view of color will show that color traditionally has meaning (white for
weddings, black for funerals) and can also have an important impact on people's perception,
cognition, and behavior. We will include a hypothetical case study as well as data gathered by
those who study color psychology.
It has been suggested by researchers that man's associations with color were likely
formulated in early human history when man correlated bright yellow with sunlight and arousal
and dark blue with night and passivity (Grossman & Wisenblit, 1999). The principle of color
psychology essentially dates back to as far as the beginning of time as Humans have always been
able to perceive color through our eyes. In prehistoric painting, early man found ways to infuse
color in paintings by crushing flowers, mixing Sulphur with oil, and use of blood (Rudner, 1983).
Theories abound as to why blue and cooler tones are more appreciated by men whilst
warmer pink and red are more appreciated by women (Kolendo, 2016). These are theories that
have dated back for a long time. As early as renaissance art, humans understood the impact of
color, and during these times, there were colors that rose to symbolize purity, royalty, and death
(Kolendo, 2016). The study birthed a theory that seeks to explain why people are attracted to
certain colors based on their gender. The name of this theory is the Gender Schema Theory (Bem,
1981). This theory basically explains why males have a stronger preference for the color blue and,
for females, the color pink. Bem, in his theory, suggests that once children make sense of what

13
gender is and what gender they are, they seek for and actually begin to notice gender-related
information and reinforcements (1981, Pp 354-364). For example, when we give boys blue toys or
dress them in blue and give girls pink toys and dress them in pink, we reinforce these stereotypes
on their gender.
Today, brands capitalize on color psychology in developing branding logos and
communications by using these long-reinforced color symbolisms to associate emotions and
sentiments to their products (Andrew and Markus, 2014). According to Kolendo, this may vary
according to culture, experience, and context. Meanings of colors may differ across various
cultures, people may perceive different meanings to a color based on their experience (the color
green could be associated with vegetables by a farmer and to money by an investor), and may not
consider certain meanings depending on the context (E.g., when a person buys a black spatula for
cooking, at that time, they do not associate that color to death or mourning) (2016, Pp 23-26)
This shows the importance of studying you target audience crucially before choosing a color
scheme for your brand.
Studies in color psychology have been able to put together what various colors symbolize
and the associated emotions they ignite in individuals, as shown below in figure 2. Color
psychology continues to be expanded upon within colleges and in offices as brands spare no
effort in expanding their customer base by trying to use suitable colors to invoke the right
emotions in their target market audience. How these colors are used to portray brand image and
strike the right emotions in their target market is seen in figure 3.

14
Figure 2. Colors and their associated meanings and emotions (Kolendo, 2016).

15
Figure 3. Colors and Brand Personality (Kolendo, 2016)

16
Since color has so much impact personality-wise and gender-wise, fashion brands often
make this a priority both in marketing to their target demographic and in product design to
understand their target market well, prior to deciding on a color scheme for their brand. As
related to premeditated habits and decision making, color psychology often plays an important
role in the Theory of Planned Behavior, especially when it comes to fashion. In this paper, we
can take an example in a popular brand such as Kylie Jenner Makeup which often sticks to the
color scheme of baby pinks and coral hues in both its marketing and product design since it is a
brand that targets young women.
2.3 Plus-size Fashion
"Obese" and "overweight" are now terms that popular media would rather use to refer to
a fat person. This is mainly because these are medical terms (standardized by BMI) and are
deemed less derogatory than the term "fat." (Peters, 2014). As defined by WHO, Obesity is
excessive fat accumulation which presents a risk to health. Body mass index (BMI) is also used
for this classification. BMI is obtained by dividing a person's weight (in kilograms) by the square
of their height in meters (m²). Now, if this derived figure is greater than 25 and 30 in adults, the
person is considered overweight and obese, respectively. (World Health Organization, 2013).
The International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education conducted a
study which showed that the average American clothing size of women is size 16-18 (Deborah,
Christel, Susan, 2017). This means that sizes above the average sizes, 16 and 18, could be
considered plus-size and for a brand to claim to be inclusive in sizing, their cloth sizing must
span all the way up to size 24 or larger without, of course, leaving out cloth sizes for customers

17
who are petite or really small. However, most desirable and familiar brands still refer to size 16
and up as plus size (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020).
Due to increased stress, unhealthy diets, sedentary lifestyles as a result of long desk
working hours, the rate of obesity is reported to be on the rise in most societies (Peters, 2014).
Resultantly, there is an increase in the need to provide clothing for such people, hence the
terminology, "plus-size fashion."
2.4 Apparel Consumers Buying Behavior
A study showed that there is a positive relationship between internet usage and online
shopping experience and the preference of a consumer to buy more products online, despite
perceived risks (Soopramanien et al., 2007). This simply means that people who spend long hours
on the internet and have shopped online in the past are most likely to choose e-commerce when
buying products again. In the case of shopping specifically for clothes online, a study proved that
people like to physically scrutinize the clothing items, checking for color, size, fit, design or
pattern, fabric, and quality as a result of perceived high risk of apparel shopping dissatisfaction.
This study also found that, however, people of higher income earnings, innovative people, higher
education, and occupation earnings are more likely to take that risk over again. Another study
found that there is a close relationship between the clothes people buy and what they have about
themselves, their body, and the image of themselves they want to portray (Hammond, Kohler,
2000). In the course of this same study, it was also found that known brand names gave buyers
some kind of assurance of okay quality just as basic clothing items which all had similar feel and
quality did, eliminating the surprise of dissatisfaction and encouraging future purchases
(Hammond, Kohler, 2000). Hammond and Kohler also found that the availability of similar body

18
size charts across several online clothing stores made online shopping easier and made people
more willing to try it.
In yet another study, major determinants of online apparel shopping behavior are (in
ascending order of influence): perceived risks, perceived benefits, and individual's attitude
towards buying clothes online (Orzan, Iconaru, Macovei, Popescu, 2003). According to Orzan G.
et al., in as much as shopping for clothes online has risks, they also have benefits, and these
perceived benefits have a stronger influence on the consumer's online purchasing decision. Also,
even when an online apparel store or clothes online are recommended to a consumer, there is an
even greater sway on the online purchasing decision of consumers, which is their precedent
attitude towards purchasing clothes online (2003, Pp 362–367).
2.4.1 Apparel Consumers Buying Behavior – Plus-size Women
Various researches have been carried out to study the buying behavior of plus size women
in the fashion industry, the determining factors influencing their purchase decision, and if they
are the same with the "nonplus-size" persons. As mentioned above in the limitations of the
project work, this paper will limit itself to female fashion because that is what our problem
statement is built around, and there are very few studies related to the course of this project topic
that includes men. (Akgöz, 2005).
In 2015, a survey was carried out in Izmir, Turkey, with a sample size of 267 participants
and a confidence of 95% to study the online purchasing behavior of plus-size clothing consumers
(Acar, E. et al., 2017). The findings of this study showed that the majority of the participants had
the preference of purchasing plus-size clothes online, on websites that sell plus-size clothes of
multiple brands, to websites that sell only their brands. It also found that 81% of the participants
(mostly made up of women) would rather buy plus-size clothes that hid their weight and that

19
84% of them would like and actually lookout for clothes that are fashionable and fit their body
shape, but do not find such clothes easily. (Acar, E. et al., 2017). It was also discovered that Plus-
size clothing consumers didn't easily find clothes that suit their dressing styles or preferred color,
pattern, and fabric and, as a result, remodeled the clothes they had to settle for to fit their style.
This was most common among women (Acar, E. et al., 2017). This study suggests that plus-size
clothing consumers are attracted to fashionable clothes that suit their style and still conceal their
weight. Other results from this survey show that plus-size clothing consumers would time and
are, in fact, attracted to online stores where they use plus-size models and size charts. The
participants reported being more at ease when shopping online once they saw these two things on
apparel shopping websites and were, in fact, encouraged to shop more online. (Acar, E. et al.,
2017). This is a clear power of representation in marketing and advertising. According to the
participants of this survey, they look out for introductory information about plus-size clothes
being sold online, and about 50% of them reported that most plus-size apparel shopping websites
did not have enough of this information. However, the results of the study did not state clearly if
this is the reason the majority of the participants preferred to shop in physical stores where they
can try on the clothes and feel the fabric. From the results of this study, it can be said that online
plus-size clothing stores can attract plus-size clothing consumers to make purchases online by
providing enough and well-detailed introductory and descriptive information on each clothing
item (Acar, E. et al., 2017).

20
Table 1
Average agreement levels of participants on findings. (Acar, E. et al., 2017).

21
Figure 4: Participants' agreement of statements in Table 1. In percentages. (Acar, E. et al., 2017).
2.5 Retail Satisfaction Factors
A theory to understand what determines the satisfaction of consumers was developed in
the year 1973 by Renoux, hence the name of the theory Renoux's Theory of Retail Satisfaction
(Renoux, 1973). Renoux, in his theory, indicated that there are three dimensions of retail
satisfaction, which are: shopping system satisfaction, buying system satisfaction, and consuming
system satisfaction (Renoux, 1973).
Shopping system satisfaction places focus on the number of retail stores made available
to the consumer and how easy it is for them to access them. It looks at the ability of the
consumer to locate a retail store in order to buy a product. In the case of apparel, it is the ability
of the apparel consumer to locate an apparel retail store in order to buy clothes.
The buying system satisfaction, in relation to apparel, sheds light on the availability of
choices as a result of different available sizes, colors, and styles, as well as an affordable price. It
is concerned with the ease of making purchase decisions once the consumer has gotten to an

22
apparel retail location. This means that if a consumer can locate and get to an apparel retail store
quite alright but cannot make a purchase because they could not find an outfit in their desired
style, color, and size, and at an affordable price, then they are faced with buying system
dissatisfaction, but if they can make a purchase on getting to the store and seeing what they like,
then they may feel buying system satisfaction.
The last dimension is the consuming system satisfaction. This dimension encompasses
how the apparel works for the consumer after it has been bought when it is being consumed. It is
concerned with the fit and look or aesthetic. It is possible that a consumer can see what they like,
but in the actual consumption of the clothing, they start to feel otherwise probably because it
does not fit as they expected.
2.5.1.1 Retail Satisfaction Factors -Plus Size
A study was conducted in 2015 to study the experience of and determinants of satisfaction
for plus-size apparel consumers. In the course of the aforementioned study, a survey was
conducted using semi-structured interviews that employed Renoux's theory of retail satisfaction
(Ipaye, 2015). In this study, it was found that satisfaction for plus-size apparel consumers was
strongly determined by fit and not necessarily the design, as thirteen participants out of twenty
agreed to this. Eight participants out of this sample said the price of the outfit was, in addition to
the fit, a major determinant of their satisfaction with the apparel. Another determinant of plus-
size apparel satisfaction that was noted was the feeling it gave them as they wore the outfit. Eight
participants said in addition to fit which was most important, that they would have to feel good
and happy in the outfit for them to be satisfied.
Having explored and understood the process that leads up to the purchase decision and
beyond (consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction), this research project (in the production stage) will

23
apply these findings including those from the following chapter in order to design clothes for
plus-size women that would meet their fashion needs.

24
3 CHAPTER THREE: SYSTEMS ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND
PRODUCTION
This chapter analyzes existing systems in place that are used in the creation of female
plus-size apparel, looking at its capabilities, weaknesses, modification and application as well as
a proposed design. This chapter also contains an analysis on the data gathered from a
questionnaire which studied the purchasing behavior of plus-size females, their fashion needs as
well as the factors that determine their satisfaction/dissatisfaction.
3.1 Analysis of Existing/Present System
Thanks to studies by Size North America and other companies, 3D female body scans of
different sizes were created, giving the opportunity to analyze these bodies and how figure types
change with size as opposed to the assumption that plus-size bodies increase in a linear grading
from the small hourglass size 4 or 6 (U.S.), retaining the hourglass shape. This was done to help
manufacturers understand these body types and produce clothes that will fit plus size customers
better by not only proper sizing but also proper thought on the types of materials, placement of
materials and openings/fastenings as well as patterns (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020). It has
been proven that most desired and familiar clothing retailers are not consistent and reliable with
their sizing and also make the mistake of assuming that plus-size bodies retain the hourglass
shape of smaller females (Sokolowski, Griffin, & Silbert, 2020). This inconsistency across
different retailers is shown below in Table 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7, while the incorrect plus-size 3D scans
(used by most apparel manufacturing companies) that show a linear grading protocol from a
smaller hourglass shape is shown below in Figure 5.

25
(Sokolowski, Griffin, & Silbert, 2020).

26
Figure 5. Women's dress forms a size range (Alvanon,2020).
Asides from the inconsistency and the false assumption of an hourglass linear grading, it was
also found that up to 98.46% of the 3D plus size body scans did not match the size charts in the
above tables, and only size 18 was a match.
Sokolowski and Bettencourt carried out another study in which they found that none of the plus-
size 3D scans were hourglass nor top-hourglass, and only 8.7% of the scans matched the bottom-
hourglass figure (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020).
3.1.1 Female Figure Identification Technique for Clothing
A software for sorting body shapes was created in 2004 by Simmons, Istook, and
Devarajan to sort 3D body scans into classes and to also identify these body shapes. This
software is called Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) (Simmons, Istook, &
Devarajan, 2004). The FFIT software sorted 3D body scans into the following body shapes:
Hourglass, Top Hourglass, Bottom Hourglass, Spoon, Rectangle, Diamond, Oval, Triangle, and

27
Inverted Triangle, with the use of the scientific study of the bust, waist, and hip measurements
and proportions of the female human body. (Simmons et al., 2004). For identifying and sorting
the scans to the oval and diamond shape, stomach and abdomen measurements were used. The
descriptions of the aforementioned body shapes are seen below in Table 8.
3.1.1.1 Mathematical formulas for FFIT and its Challenges
Lee, Istook, Nam, and Park conducted a study in 2007 which compared body shapes of

28
women from the U.S. to those women from Korea. For this study, they used the measurement
data from SizeUSA and SizeKorea as well as the FFIT system (Lee et al., 2007). In order to
properly sort the gathered plus-size body measurements of U.S. and Korean women, Lee et al.
created mathematical formulas through a visual examination and mathematical Analysis to do
that. These formulas were based on the original description of the various body shape classes.
Lee et al. made use of bust, waist, high hip, and hip measurements to sort the body
measurements into their appropriate shape categories stated above (Lee et al., 2007).
Table 9
Mathematical Formulas for Female Figure Identification Technique in inches (Lee et al., 2007).
3.1.1.1.1 Challenges
The mathematical formulas did sort the 3D scans into shape categories quite alright.
However, there were some shortcomings. Firstly, formulas for identifying and sorting the scans
into oval and diamond shape were not included in the 2007 study as opposed to that of Simmons
et al., included those two shape categories. This was a major flaw of the formulas, as the plus
size 3D scans obviously showed the presence of a larger abdomen (Sokolowski & Bettencourt,
2020).

29
Another flaw of the formulas for FFIT was the fact that there were mismatches between
the body shape categories the formulas sorted the scans to and what shapes were obviously
visually identifiable (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020). The formulas sorted most of the plus-size
3D scans into the rectangle and inverted triangle shape categories. Meanwhile, through visual
examination, the clear presence of a larger abdomen or larger waist circumference suggests an
oval or diamond shape. This simply means that the FFIT formulas, just like most desired and
familiar clothing retailers, assume that the circumference of the waist still is smaller than that of
the bust and/or hips in plus-size bodies (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020).
3.1.1.2 FFIT Formulas Modification
With the flaws identified of FFIT formulas, there was a need to modify those
formulas so as to achieve correct identification and sorting as well as get apparel manufacturers
to understand body shape over increase in size in order to make clothes that fit plus-size
consumers properly.
No modification was made to the formulas for the hourglass, top-hourglass, bottom-
hourglass, and spoon shape. This was because these shapes were not matched with most of the
plus-size measurements of the 3D scans, having none at all match with the hourglass shape
category, which entails having a defined waistline with a bust and waist circumference difference
(bust-waist) greater than 9 inches which also applies to the top-hourglass shape category and a
hip and waist circumference difference (hip-waist) greater than 9 or 7 inches to match the
bottom-hourglass shape and spoon shape respectively. (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020). Most
of the plus-size models didn't fall into any of these four categories as their bust-waist and hip-
waist differences generated a negative value which points out the presence of a larger abdomen
in comparison to the bust and/or hips (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020).

30
Many plus-size scans were wrongly sorted into the triangle, inverted triangle, and
rectangle shape categories. Their respective formulas make the assumption of a waistline smaller
than the bust and/hip. To correct this, negative value indicators were added to the formulas for
the triangle, inverted triangle, and rectangle body shapes were added (Sokolowski & Bettencourt,
2020). The formulas for the triangle and rectangle shape category were modified to rule out scans
with a defined waist and a larger abdomen and check for a negative difference between the bust
and the waist for triangle body shapes. In contrast, the formula for identifying a rectangle body
shape was modified by adding a new calculation that would check for a negative circumference
difference between the hip and the waist (hip-waist) (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020).
Another modification that was made to the FFIT formulas was the reintegration of the
oval and diamond body shape that was previously introduced along with other body shapes by
Simmons et al. and later removed by Lee et al., in order to correctly sort plus-size 3D scans with
bigger abdomen in comparison to their bust and hips measurements (Sokolowski & Bettencourt,
2020). The modifications made to the FFIT formulas are shown below in Table 10.
Table 10. Modified FFIT formulas (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020, adapted from Lee et al.,
2007).

31
3.2 Methodology, Data Collection, and Analysis
Discoveries from literature review and analysis of current systems in the course of this
study, have in one way or the other, proven insufficiency in the designing and manufacturing of
plus-size apparel and, as a result, dissatisfaction of plus-size apparel consumers. However, it was
discovered that the major determinant of satisfaction for plus-size apparel consumers was fit
(Ipaye, 2015). It was also discovered in another study that the leading dress form maker in
America, Alvanon, uses plus-size 3D scans that wrongly assume an hourglass shape in the
manufacturing of plus-size apparel resulting in improper fitting on plus-size apparel consumers
(Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020). Modifications were made to the FFIT sorting formulas to get
a better and more accurate definition of plus-size shapes to make clothes that fit plus-size apparel
consumers better (Sokolowski & Bettencourt, 2020). There is, however, no documentation of
apparel manufacturing companies adopting the modified FFIT formulas. Therefore, it is
uncertain how many (if any) apparel manufacturers have adopted these modified formulas. The
only way to prove the adoption of the modified formulas in apparel production is to study the
satisfaction/dissatisfaction of plus-size apparel consumers with the fitting. For this reason and
others which include understanding the needs and other determinants of plus-size clothing
consumers, a survey in the form of questionnaires was conducted.
3.2.1 Data Collection
To gather data on the issues above, a questionnaire was distributed to plus-size women to
directly get information from them on their purchasing behavior, factors influencing their
satisfaction/dissatisfaction, and their apparel needs. The questionnaire was set up and answered
using Google Forms and had a sample size of thirty plus-size women. The sampling method used

32
for this survey was the snowball sampling method. The questionnaire was first emailed to
students at Pan Atlantic University, who then shared the forms with other plus-size females by
posting the link to the google form on their Whatsapp status or direct messaging. The
questionnaire regarded plus-size as sizes from 16 and above and consisted of 7 compulsory
questions and one optional question.
3.2.2 Analysis of collected data
Statistics of collected data are shown in the figures below.
Figure 6. Age of respondents.
Out of the 82 respondents, 13 were below the age of 18 (15.9% of the sample), 38,
between the ages of 18 and 24, (46.3%), 5, between the ages of 25 and 40 (6.1%), and 26
respondents, 41 years and older (31.7%). In this survey analysis, some behavioral patterns were
noticed among individuals in the same age group. For example, it was found that younger plus
size women are more likely to risk shopping for clothes online. Twenty-two respondents reported
that they buy clothes online, and of these 22 respondents, two are below 18 years of age, 19 are
between the ages of 18 and 24, and 1 is 41 years old or above. This agrees with the results of the

33
research done by Soopramanien et al. (2007), which showed that younger people who spend
more time online are most likely to shop online.
Another noteworthy finding was the pattern of influential factors on the purchasing
decision of plus-size females from different age groups. It was discovered that respondents
below the age of 18 are more concerned with the fashionability of clothes when purchasing, other
factors as 76.92% of respondents below age 18 (10 out of 13) have fashionability in their top
influences on purchase decision, making it the most influential factor for clothing purchase to
this age group. For respondents within the age group of 18-24, the most influential factor on their
purchase decision is sizing. 76.32% of participants within this age group (29 out of 38) have
sizing as one of the top influences on their clothing purchase decision. While the results showed
that sizing, fitting, and fashionability are the most influential factors on the purchasing decision
of participants between the ages of 25 and 40 (as 100%, 80%, and 80% of participants within this
age bracket report respectively), quality/texture are the most influential factors on the purchasing
decision of participant 41 years old and above as 88% of participants within that age range (23
out of 26) have quality and texture selected as one of the top influences on their purchasing
decision.
Figure 7. Respondent's clothing size.

34
Results gathered show that the majority (56.1%) of the respondents are of the size range
16-20. This means 46 respondents fall within that clothing size range. 20.7% of the respondents
(17 respondents) are of U.K. size 14 while 14 respondents who make up 17.1% of the sample, are
between clothing sizes 22-26 and 6.1%, which is made up of 5 respondents, fall in the infinite size
range of size 28 and above. A deeper look into these responses showed that of all the respondents
who shop online (21), women on the smaller end of the sizes were more willing than those on the
bigger end to take the risk of buying clothes online. Nineteen respondents (out of 22 respondents
who shop online), who were between the sizes of 14-20, reported that they shop for clothes
online most of the time, while just two respondents who were between size 22-26 and no
respondent of size 28 and above, buy clothes online.
Figure 8. preferred shopping manner
From this chart, it is proven that despite the advancement in technology these days, most
plus-size women still prefer to shop in physical stores. Out of 82 respondents, 60 (73.2%) prefer
to and most often buy their clothes from physical stores, as opposed to the 21 respondents (26.8%)
who prefer to shop online. From previous studies reviewed in this paper, this could be due to

35
inability to try on the garment and take note of its texture, lack of sufficient introductory
information about clothes they wish to purchase, no use of plus-size models, or the brand is not
well known for making quality and accurate clothes for plus-size females. (Acar, E. et al., 2017).
It is also important to note that of the 22 respondents who prefer to shop online, 21 are 24 years or
younger. This proves that younger people are more willing to risk clothing shopping
dissatisfaction than older people.
Figure 9. Influences on purchase decision
As seen in the bar chart above, sizing, fitting, and quality of a garment are the biggest
influence on consumer purchase decisions, with percentage agreement among respondents at
67.1%, 63.4%, and 57.3%, respectively. This shows that apparel manufacturers need to fix sizing
and fitting issues on plus-size garments. This could be done by firstly adopting the modified
FFIT formulas to understand better the plus-size body, secondly, taking into serious
consideration types and quality of materials, placement of materials and other features like

36
fastenings and openings, and lastly, adopting accurate size charts in order to create clothing that
fit plus-size consumers better.
Figure 10. Role of color in a purchase decision
From this result above, it is evident that color most definitely plays a role in the purchase
decision making for plus-size women, and only 3 of the respondents (3.66%) claimed it didn't at
all. 38 out of 82 participants (43.9%) confirmed that color was a consideration in their purchase
decision, while 36 respondents (43.9%) and five respondents (6.1%) affirmed that it sometimes
and most times was, respectively. This means that plus-size females consider what they think
about certain colors of clothing (for example, if they like/dislike the color, associated meaning of
the color, how they feel wearing that color, or how other people perceive them in that color)
before making their purchase. This significant agreement to the consideration of color when
purchasing plus-size clothes could also result from 'style scarcity.' As suggested by Ipaye, serious
consideration is also given to color when plus-size women buy clothes as a result of 'style
scarcity,' which makes plus-size females actively pick multiple colors of clothes with styles they
like because of the uncertainty of when next they will find something like that (2015).

37
Figure 11. Causes of dissatisfaction in apparel purchase.
The results in Figure 11 show that the leading causes of dissatisfaction in apparel
products for plus size women are fitting, sizing and quality as 59.8%, 57.3%, and 53.7% of the
respondents, respectively, included them as causes of dissatisfaction in their response. Given
these as the major causes of dissatisfaction for female plus-size clothing consumers, it shows that
there is still massive room for improvement in the female plus-size clothing industry regarding
the aforementioned causes of dissatisfaction. As stated above, corrective changes can be made by
adopting the modified FFIT formulas to better understand the female plus-size body by taking
into serious consideration types and quality of materials, placement of materials, and other
features like fastenings and openings and lastly, by adopting accurate size charts. It is also
important to note the high rate of dissatisfaction in fashion retail faced by plus-size women as
only one respondent out of all 82, reported that she had no cause of dissatisfaction with her
apparel consumption, meaning that 98.8% of respondents have experienced consumer
dissatisfaction one way or another.

38
Figure 12. Improvement areas raised by respondents
Again, sizing fitting and quality emerge as areas of concern to plus size females when
buying clothes, and would like these areas to be as close to perfection as possible, hence the
callout for improvement in these areas. 64.6% of the sample would like more accurate sizing
systems and charts. 58.5% of the sample would like plus-size clothes to be made with better
fabrics of better quality, while 57.3% of the sample would like clothes made to fit right without
having to manage it or constantly adjust it. Fashionability, with agreement from 37.8% of the
sample, would like plus-size clothes to be more fashionable and, just like smaller clothing sizes,
keep up with fashion trends. While sizing, fitting, quality, and fashionability have been
significantly highlighted as improvement areas, a few respondents raised other improvement
areas. They include:
Respondent 39 & 42: “Representation with models.”
Respondent 4, 5, 54, 58 & 81: "Size charts should be more accurate."
Respondent 77: "Stylish and trendy clothes should be more size-inclusive."
Respondent 31: "Making better, sexier styles for plus size sisters!"

39
Respondent 8: "Affordability"
Response 59: "More elaborate description of clothes for online stores."
Respondent 68: "Accurate description of clothes, especially for the quality of material for online
stores."
Respondent 55: "Stores need to stay true to their size chart."
Respondent 47: "Variety of designs for plus size women."
Respondent 72: "For online stores, description of clothing items and size charts should be more
accurate."
Respondent 41: "Fitting is very important because without the dress fitting your body, the
beauty will not make you look good and comfortable in it."
Respondent 82: "More colorful clothing options."
3.3 Proposed Production Pipeline
This survey has helped in proving that apparel manufacturers still have a long way to go in
order to get more satisfaction for consumers, especially the plus-sized ones. To sum up this
chapter, serious attention needs to be paid to the modification of the FFIT formulas and adapted
by apparel manufacturers, making it the new leading dress form maker approach not only in the
U.S. but all over the world. This would help apparel manufacturers understand the plus-size body
and how it changes over increment as opposed to a linear grading of the hourglass shape, which
is the mistake the leading dress form maker for apparel companies in the U.S., Alvanon, makes.
When manufacturers understand this, they would also give careful thought and consideration to
the placement of features on clothing like openings and fastenings, patterns, as well as the type

40
of material, drastically improving fitting on plus-size women and subsequently their satisfaction
and industry profit, while reducing apparel discard.
This research project will implement all of such findings from this research in the
production stage when designing clothes for plus size women through 3D visualization.
Production stages include:
1. Creation of custom avatar in MakeHuman: Marvelous Designer comes with
integral female, male and kid avatar/models. However, none of these models are
plus-size. This will give rise to the need to create a custom avatar using the 3D
visualization software, MakeHuman. The model created here will then be imported
into Marvelous Designer.
2. Research on pattern drafting for garment making: Personal research and self-
training was implored greatly in the production of this project. Techniques like
pattern drafting will be studied and applied. This will be done mostly through review
of garment making catalogues and tutorial videos on YouTube. Marvelous Designer
works similarly to real-life garment making where patterns have to be drafted and cut
out before they are sewn together to make up a garment.
3. Drafting of patterns: In garment making or fashion design, patterns are templates
from which parts of garments are traced and cut out before they are sewn together to
create a whole garment. Patterns for the bodice, sleeves, trousers, skirts, etc., will be
drafted first in the Marvelous Designer 2D window before the sewing simulation is
done in the 3D window.
4. Simulation of cloth sewing: After the patterns have been drafted, they will be placed
close to their final positions on the model using the ‘arrangement points’.

41
Arrangement points are features on Marvelous Designer that enable the user snap a
piece fabric in the right position to a part very close to the avatars body to get ready
for simulation, making the simulation process smoother and easier
5. Creation of output video: The model in her various outfits would be exported from
Marvelous Designer, into Blender for animation, and back to Marvelous Designer for
simulation of clothes with animation. This animation as well as screen recordings
and screenshots showing snippets of the production process in Marvelous Designer
will be compiled and edited using Adobe Premiere Pro to give a complete video
output.

42
4 CHAPTER FOUR: IMPLEMENTATION
Certain factors were taken into account before and during the development of this
production. The major factors considered were the hardware and software requirements. It was
also crucial to make sure that the software used could run on the available hardware.
4.1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
This accounts for all needed software used in the execution of this production, as well as
the required hardware on which the needed software would run.
4.1.1 Hardware Requirements
The interaction of the system CPU (central processing unit) and GPU (graphic processing
unit) is required for the simulation process of garments. This process involves the importation of
custom models, simulation of garments, texturing, and rendering of 3D productions for display
on a computer graphics system.
Any production that involves simulation of garments applies clothing physics technology
which requires a lot of computational power. The computer used in executing this production is
the OMEN by HP laptop 15-dc1xxx which is a laptop with great processing power. This system
is well suited for running all required software applications needed in the course of this
production. Prior to the execution of this production, I had researched the system requirements
for each software application needed to carry out this production. They include: MakeHuman,
Marvelous Designer and Adobe Premiere Pro.

43
4.1.1.1 MakeHuman Hardware Requirements:
This software requires an Intel or AMD Dual Core Processor 3 Ghz processor, 512 MB RAM,
Geforce FX series (2003) graphics card, and 1000 MB available hard disk space for installation.
4.1.1.2 Marvelous Designer Hardware Requirements:
Smoothly running Marvelous Designer requires a 64-bit Intel® or AMD® multi-core processor
Intel 6th-Gen i5 or higher, AMD 3rd-Gen Ryzen 5 or higher, memory of a minimum of 8gb RAM,
an Nvidia® GeForce GTX 960or Quadro P1000or equivalent GPU, asMarvelousDesigner
utilizes Nvidia CUDA acceleration technology for GPU-Simulation, hard drive space of at least
2GB for installation of the software, a minimum of 1920x1080 screen resolution and a three-
button mouse.
4.1.1.3 Adobe Premiere Pro Hardware Requirements:
Running Adobe Premiere Pro smoothly would require at least an Intel® 6th Gen or newer CPU –
or AMD Ryzen™ 1000Seriesprocessor, a Microsoft Windows10(64-bit) version 2004operating
system or later, 8GB RAM, available hard-disk space of 8 GB of for installation, 1920x1080
screen resolution for clear display and 2 GB of GPU VRAM.
As stated above, the ‘OMEN by HP laptop 15-dc1xxx’ is capable of running all above-mentioned
software applications.
4.1.2 Software Requirements
As stated above, the software applications used in the course of this production are:
MakeHuman, Marvelous Designer, Blender and Adobe Premiere Pro.

44
4.1.2.1 MakeHuman
MakeHuman is a software application that allows users to create any custom 3D models of the
human body. Due to the fact that this project is centered around female plus-size fashion, it was
only right that I created a plus size female model, one who carries weight in her abdomen and
doesn’t possess an hourglass figure, in accordance with the findings made in the third chapter.
Figure 13: Screenshot MakeHuman Default Workspace

45
4.1.2.2 Marvelous Designer
Marvelous Designer is a program for realistic garment making for 3D artists. It is the application
that was used for the creation and simulation of the clothes in this project. Just like garment
making in the real world, Marvelous Designer allows designers to draft 2D bodice patterns of
every garment and simulate the sewing in the 3D window. In this production, creative clothing
styles were created for the model as a visualization of the fact that just as clothes can be made to
fit other body types properly, the same can be done for plus-size women. The designs also show
features such as the type of materials (mostly elastic) and openings and fastenings that indicate
ease of wear-and-take off as well as proper fitting. Below are screenshots of the designs created
in Marvelous Designer.

46
Figure 14: Marvelous Designer Workspace (3D window on the left and 2D window on the right)
4.1.2.3 Adobe Premiere Pro
Adobe Premiere Pro is a video editing software that allows users to create videos by means of
photo and video compilation and editing, audio editing, 2D animation of characters (can be text,
images, etc.), as well as color correcting/grading. In the course of this production, Adobe
Premiere Pro was used to produce the output video which is a compilation of sound, screen
recordings of the garment making process, and clips showing off the designed outfits.

47
Figure 15: Adobe Premiere Pro Workspace

48
4.2 SYSTEM EXECUTION/OUTPUT
4.2.1 The Model Creation Process
As mentioned above, the software, Marvelous Designer does not have any plus-size models
that fit the requirement of this project, hence the reason to create a custom model in an
application that allows users to choose all body features of the desired model -MakeHuman.
Figure 16: Model made in MakeHuman
4.2.2 The Garment Making Process
After creating the custom avatar in MakeHuman, production proceeded to the garment
making process in Marvelous Designer. This subsection simply shows screenshots of all
outfits created for this project. These outfits address the fitting and sizing problem raised
in earlier chapters by visualizing how clothes should sit properly on plus-size women
who have larger abdomen or waist circumference. It also visualizes the use of elastic

49
fabric materials or adjustable features that help fitting like belts and laces. Strategic
placement of fastenings was also implemented for easy wear and take-off of clothes. To
avoid loading this document with too many images, the same outfits created in different
colors and views will be shown in the output video.
4.2.2.1 Images of Designs Created in Marvelous Designer
Figure 17: Jeans and Kimono

50
Dark loose kimono which hides body contours specially created for our reserved ladies,
paired with flare pants which create the illusion of a curvy lower body and a black belt which
gives the illusion of a smaller waist. The choice of color scheme here was influenced by
principles of color psychology as seen above and would appeal to consumers who like an elegant,
sophisticated, and cool look. Other colors of this outfit shown in the output video are created for
different consumer preferences.

51
Figure 18: Pattern Block for Kimono and Jeans outfit.
Figure 19: Matching Two-piece
This ‘exotic-vibes’ two-piece, with an elastic waistband and ruffles below, giving the illusion of a
thinner waist and fuller hips/lower body. Notice the use of the sweetheart neckline, which is very
flattering on with broader shoulders. The extra texture on this set was externally sourced and

52
added to give a more attractive and exciting look, while the color scheme here was influenced by
the theory of color psychology, to appeal to consumers who are going for a daring or arousing
look.

53
Figure 20: Pattern Block for Matching two-piece
Figure 21: Corset Dress
This elegant corset dress which gives the illusion of a thinner waist by use of a darker

54
color. Corsets naturally help exaggerate busts and hips as they cinch the waist. The added gathers
help to exaggerate the bust and hips even more, giving the illusion of an hourglass figure. The
green color scheme gives off a calm relaxed and soothing look.
Figure 22: Pattern Block for Corset Dress

55
Figure 23: Corset top and pants.
Chic top with flattering sweetheart neckline and corset waist to give the illusion of a
thinner waist, paired with black elastic pants that make the large abdomen less conspicuous. The
extra texture on this set was externally sourced and added to give a more cheerful and soft look,
while the color scheme here would appeal to consumers who are going for a feminine or gentle
look. The black elastics pants also serve as a nice contrast to the pink top.

56
Figure 24: Pattern Block for Corset and pants

57
Figure 25: Trending Shein scrunched-leg pants and distress top.
This elastic bold and beautiful combo embodies confidence as it is made with bright
neutral tones which do not hide any body contours, while the flare pants give the illusion of a
curvy lower body frame. This design advocates for inclusive sizing as this design is currently
trending, but mostly available in smaller sizes.

58
.
Figure 26: Pattern Block for Trending Shein scrunched-leg pants and distress top

59
Figure 27: Gathered top and mini gathered skirt.
This sophisticated look uses dark colors to make body contours less conspicuous. The
skirt is lighter to make the hips look bigger. Also, the looseness of top coupled with the
fitted waistband of the skirt and its ruffles at the bottom, give the illusion of an hourglass
figure. The color scheme here suggests elegance and power.

60
Figure 28: Pattern Block for Gathered top and mini gathered skirt.

61
Figure 29: Ruffled Floral Dress.
A party dress made with dark colors to conceal body contours and ruffles to exaggerate
the hips, thereby creating a curvy illusion, while also adding pizzazz. A party dress made with
dark colors to conceal body contours and ruffles to exaggerate the hips, thereby creating a curvy
illusion, while also adding pizzazz. The floral pattern is an externally sourced texture which adds
a sophisticated element to the outfit and appeals to customers who want to look and feel
glamorous

62
Figure 30: Pattern Block Ruffled Floral Dress

63
Figure 31: Sweatshirt and Scrunched bottom pants
This casual pair shows comfortability without a lack of style. The dark color of the
sweatshirt helps to conceal body contours, while the black and white flare pants give the illusion
of a curvy lover body. The zip at the front of the sweater helps for easy wear and take-off. This
set is currently trending, but has not been made sufficiently in Plus-sizes, hence the inspiration to
design this look.

64
Figure 32: Pattern Block for Sweatshirt and Scrunched bottom pants

65
4.2.3 Output Video Editing Process
Animations of the model in her outfits, screen recordings of the garment making process, clips
showing off the designed outfits and background music were then imported into Adobe Premiere
Pro for compilation and editing.
Figure 33: Output Video in the Adobe Premiere Pro Workspace

66
5 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This fifth chapter sums up the entirety of this project, identifying the findings, conclusions
and recommendations.
5.1 Conclusion
This research has helped in proving that serious attention needs to be paid to the
modification of the FFIT formulas and adapted by apparel manufacturers, making it the new
leading dress form maker approach not only in the U.S. but all over the world. This would help
apparel manufacturers understand the plus-size body and how it changes over increment as
opposed to a linear grading of the hourglass shape, which is the mistake the leading dress form
maker for apparel companies in the U.S., Alvanon, makes.
Apparel manufacturers should also avoid cutting corners in terms of due diligence and
professional rigor when producing apparel especially when it comes to plus-size clothing. Asides
adopting the modified FFIT formulas that would help in manufacturing clothes that would fit
plus-size women better, Apparel manufacturers should also make all styles more size inclusive
and more plus-size clothes in a variety of colors and designs.
Until apparel manufacturers realize this and adapt the modifications, they are still a long
way from getting more satisfaction for consumers, especially the plus-sized ones. When
manufacturers understand all these issues raised, they would be able to give careful thought and
consideration to the placement of features on clothing like openings and fastenings, patterns, as
well as the type of material, drastically improving fitting on plus-size women and subsequently
their satisfaction and industry profit, while reducing apparel discard.

67
In the course of this project, findings made from review of literature, analysis of current
system and the executed survey were successfully implemented in the production stage where
various outfits were designed for plus size women through 3D visualization.
5.2 Recommendations
The biggest challenge throughout the course of this production was the animation of the
model. The main reason for this was because the avatar/model used is not a Marvelous Designer
incorporated model, in which case would have been animated directly in marvelous designer.
Some attempts to animate the model, ended up distorting the model or the outfit one way or
another. Finally, the model was exported from Marvelous Designer, uploaded to Mixamo (an
online character rigging and animation website), rigged and animated there, downloaded and
imported into blender, keyframed in blender, and finally imported back into Marvelous Designer
for simulation with the outfits. This however could only work by removing the texture of the
model. Asides animation on Marvelous Designer software, there are many other features of the
software that cannot be applied to custom made models. For example, poses, motion, hair, shoes,
etc.
Another challenge faced in the early stages of the production was creating
and using a custom model made outside of Marvelous Designer. The software, Marvelous
Designer, does not have any models/avatars that would be considered plus-size among all its
incorporated models/avatars on the application. As a result, I took to MakeHuman to create a
plus-size model which was later imported into Marvelous Designer. A disadvantage of doing this
is that imported custom made models do not have ‘bounding volumes’ or ‘arrangement points’
which are important features that allow users to put clothes on models/avatars. Figuring out how

68
to get past this caused some delay in the progress of my production as the error or issue was not
stated neither was there sufficient information online that addressed how to fix this issue. Also,
asides the inability to animate a custom made model on the Marvelous Designer software, there
are many other features of the software that cannot be applied to custom made models. For
example, poses, motion, hair, shoes, etc.
One recommendation when importing custom made models/avatars into Marvelous
Designer would be to note that you have to take all ‘bounding volumes’ from incorporated
Marvelous Designer avatars and transform them to fit perfectly on your avatar when placed on
them, then save the avatar and its rigged pose. This will enable proper simulation and placement
of clothes on your model as well as provide the opportunity to load your custom avatar again.
Also, when working with custom made avatars, ensure the hair style is relatively short or does
not come in contact with the avatar’s back, otherwise clothes will sit over the avatar’s hair that
rests on its back, which will cause the user to struggle. I would also recommend that Marvelous
Designer recognize the great variety of body types and incorporate corresponding avatars/models
into their application.

69
REFERENCES
 Acar, E., Ofluoğlu, P., Kanat, S., Ünal, Z., Atilgan T. (2017) Analyzing buying behavior of
plus-size clothing consumers in e-commerce. Research Gate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321666556_Analyzing_buying_behavior_of_plu
s-size_clothing_consumers_in_e-commerce
 Akgöz, E. (2005). The factors that affect the design of plus-size, Gazi University, Institute
of Education Sciences, Department of Apparel Industry and Fashion Design Education,
Master Thesis, 135 p.
 Alvanon. (2020). Alvaform Measurements & Specs. Retrieved from:
https://alvanon.com/resources/alvaform-measurements-specs/
 Amed, I., Balchandani, A., Berg, A., Hedrich, S., Jensen, J. E., Rölkens, F. (2020). The
State of Fashion 2021: In search of promise in perilous times. McKinsey & Company.
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/state-of-fashion
 Amed, I., Balchandani, A., Berg, A., Hedrich, S., Jensen, J. E., Rölkens, F. (2019). The
State of Fashion 2020 Report: In Troubled Times, Fortune Favors the Bold McKinsey &
Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/state-of-fashion
 Andrew, J. E. and Markus, A. M. (2014). Color Psychology: Effects of Perceiving Color
on Psychological Functioning in Humans. Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 65: Pp 95-
120.
 Bem, S. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological
Review, 88(4), 354-364

70
 Casas, M. C., & Chinoperekweyi, J. (2019). Color psychology and its influence on
consumer buying behavior: A case of apparel products. Saudi Journal of Business and
Management Studies, 4(5), 441-456.
 Deborah A. Christel, Susan C. Dunn. (2017) Average American women’s clothing size:
comparing National Health and Nutritional Examination Surveys (1988–2010) to ASTM
International Misses & Women’s Plus Size clothing. International Journal of Fashion
Design, Technology and Education 10:2, pages 129-136.
 Fishbein, M and Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An
Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
 Gamman, Lorraine. 2013. “Female Slenderness and the Case of Perverse Compliant
Deception—Or Why Size Matters.” In Fashion Cultures Revisited, edited by Stella
Bruzzi and Pamela Church Gibson, 296–304. New York: Routledge
 Grossman, R. P. and Wisenblit, J. Z. 1999. What we know about consumers' color choices.
Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, 5(3): 78–88.
 Ha, Y., Stoel, L. (2004). Internet apparel shopping behaviors: The influence of general
innovativeness, In: International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, vol. 32,
issue 8, pp. 377–385.
 Hammond, J., Kohler, K. (2000). E-commerce in Textile and Apparel Industries,
http://projects.iq.harvard.edu/ files/hctar/files/ec01.pdf
 Hill, Adrienne. 2009. “Spatial Awarishness: Queer Women and the Politics of Fat
Embodiment.” PhD diss., University of Bowling Green.
 Ipaye H. (2015). Exploration of plus size women's apparel satisfaction, non-wear, and
discard. University of Missouri-Columbia. https://hdl.handle.net/10355/50174

71
 Jaffe, Karen. 2008. “Forming Fat Identities.” Doctoral dissertation. Retrieved from
Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3335536).
 Kolenda, N. (2016). The psychology of color. Kolenda Entertainment Llc.
https://www.nickkolenda.com/pdf/color-psychology.pdf
 Lee, J. Y., Istook, C. L., Nam, Y. J., and Park, S. M., (2007). “Comparison of body shape
between USA and Korean women”, in International Journal of Clothing Science and
Technology, Vol.19, No.5, https://doi.org/10.1108/09556220710819555
 Lezin, N. (2005). Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). Scotts Valley, California, ETR
Associates, Resource Center for Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention [ReCAPP].
 Orzan, G., Orzan, M., Iconaru, C., Macovei, O.I., Popescu, I.C. (2003). PLS based SEM
analysis of apparel online behavior: the importance of eWOM, In: Industria Textila, vol.
64, issue 6, pp. 362–367
 Peters, L. D. (2014). You Are What You Wear: How Plus-Size Fashion Figures in Fat
Identity Formation. Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture, 18(1), 45–71.
https://doi.org/10.2752/175174114X13788163471668
 Peters, L. D. (2017). “Fashion Plus”: Pose and the Plus-Size Body in Vogue, 1986–1988.
Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture, 21(2), 175–199.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1362704X.2016.1252520
 Renoux, Y. (1973) Public Policy and Marketing (ed. F.C. Allvine), pp. 53-56, American
Marketing Association, Chicago.
 Rudner, I. (1983). Paints of the Khoisan Rock Artists. Goodwin Series, 4, 14-20.
doi:10.2307/3858097

72
 Simmons, K. P. Istook, C. L. and Devarajan, P., (2004). “Female Figure Identification
Technique (FFIT) for apparel part I: Describing female shapes”, in Journal of Textile and
Apparel, Technology and Management, Vol.4, No.1.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286985579_Female_Figure_Identification_Tech
nique_FFIT_for_apparel_part_I_Describing_female_shapes
 Simmons, K. P. Istook, C. L. and Devarajan, P., (2004). “Female Figure Identification
Technique (FFIT) for apparel part II: Development of shape sorting software”, in Journal
of Textile and Apparel, Technology and Management, Vol.4, No.1.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238103641_Female_Figure_Identification_Tech
nique_FFIT_for_apparel_part_II_Development_of_shape_sorting_software
 Sokolowski S. L. & Bettencourt C., (2020). How Understanding Female Plus Size Body
Shapes Throughout a Size Range Can Affect Apparel Grading and Design Attributes,
International Textile and Apparel Association Annual Conference Proceedings 77(1).
https://doi.org/10.31274/itaa.11894
 Sokolowski, S. L., Griffin, L., & Silbert, J. (2020). The Variability of U.S. Women’s Plus
Size Product Sizing and Self-Identified Size 18 Bodies. In C. S. Shin (Ed.), Advances in
Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Design - Proceedings of the AHFE International
Conference on Interdisciplinary Practice in Industrial Design, 2019 (pp. 124-133).
(Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing; Vol. 968). Springer Verlag.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20470-9_15
 Sokolowski, S.L., & Bettencourt, C. (2020). Modification of the Female Figure
Identification Technique (FFIT) Formulas to Include Plus Size Bodies.

73
 Soopramanien, D.G.R., Fildes, R., Robertson, A. (2007). Consumer decision making, e-
commerce and perceived risks, In: Applied Economics, vol. 39, pp. 2159–2166.
 The Complete History of Costume & Fashion (Book Review). (2001). Book Report, 20(2),
74.
 Wirtz, V. J. (2013). Update on 2004 Background Paper, BP 6.18 Obesity. World Health
Organization.
https://www.who.int/medicines/areas/priority_medicines/BP6_18Obesity.pdf?ua=1

74
6 APPENDICES
I. Questionnaire

Female plus size fashion

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Female plus size fashion

Similar to Female plus size fashion (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Female plus size fashion