This is the curriculum I designed for Classroom Matters' AP Advantage Review Program

1. AP Advantage: AP Biology
Classroom Matters
Instructor: Shashank Patil
May 6-7, 2017
Exam Day:
Monday, May 8 @ 8:00AM
Exam Structure:
Time: 3 hours
Section I: Multiple Choice | 69 Questions | 1 hour and 30 minutes | 50% of Exam Score
 63 Multiple Choice Questions
 6 Grid-In Questions (Integration of Science & Math)
Section II: Free-response | 8 Questions | 1 hour and 30 minutes | 50% of Exam Score
 Long Free-response (2 questions, one of which is lab/data-based)
 Short Free-response (6 questions, each requiring a paragraph-length argument/response)
 Note: Times includes 10-minute reading period
Overview of Content Topics:
Big Idea 1: The process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life.
Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to
reproduce, and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
Big Idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit, and respond to information essential to life
processes.
Big Idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex
properties.
Content Review:
1. Chemistry of Life
a. Organic Molecules in Organisms
i. Organic = Composed of Carbon
1. Carbohydrates: Sugars
a. Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
b. Monosaccharides: Glucose and Fructose
c. Disaccharide: Sucrose (Table Sugar)
d. Polysaccharides: Cellulose (Structure, plants), Starch
(storage, plants), Chitin (structure, animals) & Glycogen
(storage, animals)
2. Proteins
a. Many functions: structure, signaling, transport, catalyzing
reactions, etc.
b. Composed of amino acids joined together through peptide
bonds to create polypeptide chains

2. c. Four levels of protein structure
1. Linear Sequence of amino acids
2. Alpha Helices or Beta-Pleated Sheets
3. Side Chain (R-group) Interactions: H-
bonding, Ionic bonding, Van der Waals,
hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bonds
4. Interactions between multiple peptide chains
of one protein
3. Nucleic Acids
a. Single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) and double-
stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), both responsible
for carrying heredity information.
b. Made of nucleotides, which are made of (1) phosphate, (2)
a 5-carbon sugar: ribose or deoxyribose, and (3) a
nitrogen-containing base: adenine, cytosine, guanine,
thymine(DNA) or uracil(RNA)
4. Lipids: Fats(Triglycerides), Oils, Phospholipids, Steroids
a. Hydrophobic: Nonpolar
b. Triglycerides composed of one glycerol molecule and
three fatty acid tails (Saturated or Unsaturated
hydrocarbon chains)
c. Steroids: Lipids with four fused rings
ii. Creation of polymers through dehydration synthesis(condensation)
iii. Breakdown of polymers through hydrolysis
b. Water
i. Hydrogen bonding is essential for the following emergent properties of
water:
1. Cohesion: molecules stick together
2. Adhesion: molecules stick to other substances
a. Capillary action results from Cohesion and Adhesion
3. High Heat Capacity (Specific Heat): ability to store heat
a. Allows stable environmental temperature for marine
organisms
4. Expansion Upon Freezing: Liquid Density > Solid Density
a. Allows marine organisms to survive below frozen pond
5. High Surface Tension
6. Polar: allows polar solutes to dissolve in it  “Universal Solvent”
2. Cells
a. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
i. Eukaryotic cells: contain a membrane-bound structure called a nucleus
and cytoplasm, filled with tiny structures called organelles
1. Examples: Fungi, Protists, Plant cells, Animal cells

3. ii. Prokaryotic cells: lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles e.g.
bacteria
1. Genetic material: one continuous circular DNA molecule called the
nucleoid
2. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan +
one or more flagella, which are used for motility(movement)
b. Organelles (The exam tests these frequently so let’s review!)
i. Plasma Membrane: semipermeable bilayer made of phospholipid +protein
1. Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model
a. Phospholipids
i. Hydrophobic Fatty Acid Tails face Inward
ii. Hydrophilic Phosphate Heads face Outward
iii. Cholesterol found in bilayer stabilizes PM fluidity
b. Proteins
i. Peripheral proteins: proteins loosely associated
with membrane
ii. Integral proteins: firmly bound to membrane
(amphipathic)
1. Transmembrane proteins do not extend all
the way through the membrane
iii. Functions: Cell Adhesion, Receptor Sites for
Signaling, Transport, Cell Recognition
ii. Nucleus: directs all cell activity
1. Contains DNA  organized into chromosomes
2. Nucleolus
a. Responsible for rRNA (ribosomal RNA) production and
ribosome assembly
iii. Ribosomes: manufacture all proteins required/secreted by the cell
1. Composed of RNA and protein
2. Can either be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
iv. Endoplasmic Reticulum: continuous channel extending through cytoplasm
1. Rough ER (RER): studded with ribosomes
a. Proteins made here are trafficked to or across PM
2. Smooth ER (SER): lack ribosomes
a. Makes lipids, hormones, and steroids
b. Breaks down toxic chemicals
v. Golgi Bodies: modify, process, package, and distribute proteins
1. Package final products into vesicles (little vesicles)
vi. Lysosomes: break down old, worn-out organelles, debris, or large particles
1. Break down carried out by hydrolytic enzymes
vii. Mitochondria: creates cellular energy (ATP)

4. 1. Structure: oblong with double membrane (inner membrane =
cristae)
2. Converts organic molecules into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
viii. Centrioles = produce microtubules
1. Structure: small, paired cylindrical structures found in
microtubule organizing centers (MTOC’s)
a. Found in animal cells (not in plant cells)
2. Function: produce microtubules that pull replicated chromosomes
apart during cell division
ix. Vacuoles: fluid-filled sacs in plants that store water, food, wastes, salts, or
pigments
x. Peroxisomes: detoxify substances and produce hydrogen peroxide(H2O2)
as a byproduct
xi. Cytoskeleton: maintains cell shape
1. Microtubules: made of tubulin
a. Involved in cell division(centrioles) and movement (cilia &
flagella)  Google Euglena and Paramecium
2. Microfilaments: made of actin
a. Involved in cell mobility and muscle contraction
xii. Chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis in plants
xiii. Cell Wall: provides structural support in plant, protists, fungi, and bacteria
1. Made of cellulose (except in Fungi  chitin)
c. Intercellular Junctions: allow cell-cell communication, adhesion, and/or transport
i. Desmosomes: anchor cells close to each other
1. consist of a pair of discs associated with PM + intercellular protein
filaments that cross small gap
ii. Gap Junctions: form channels in PM and allow communication between
cytoplasm between adjacent cells
iii. Tight Junctions: seal off body cavities and prevent leaks
1. tight connections between the membranes of adjacent animal cells
3. Cellular Energetics
a. Bioenergetics: study of how solar energy transformed into energy in living things
i. First Law of Thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed
1. Only transferred
ii. Second Law of Thermodynamics: in the course of energy conversions,
entropy (disorder) of the universe decreases
iii. Reactions
1. Exergonic reactions = reactions in which energy is released
a. Products have less energy than reactants
b. Spontaneous
2. Endergonic reactions = reactions that require an input of energy
a. Reactants have less energy than products
b. Nonspontaneous

5. 3. Endergonic reactions are frequently paired with exergonic
reactions in order for the overall reaction to occur
b. Enzymes are organic catalysts: speed up the rate of the reaction by lowering the
energy of activation
1. Enzymes are substrate specific. Only the active site of an enzyme
will bind to the substrate
a. Induced-fit model: states that as substrates enter the active
site, they induce the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so
that the substrate fits better
2. Enzymes remain unchanged during a reaction and are reused
a. Catalyze reactions in both directions
3. Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH
a. There is an optimal pH and temperature for peak enzyme
activity
i. Too high or too low pH/temperature can denature,
or change the conformation (3D shape) of the
enzyme  It can’t catalyze the reaction anymore!
4. Inhibiting Enzymes
a. Competitive inhibition: compounds resembling the
substrate compete for the same active site
b. Non-competitive inhibition: binding of inhibitor to
another site DOES NOT block the substrate from binding
the active site but DOES block catalysis
c. Allosteric inhibition: enzyme will have two (or more)
active sites  one for a substrate and (at least) one for an
inhibitor
i. Binding of inhibitor stabilizes inactive enzyme
conformer so that substrate cannot bind active site
ii. Feedback inhibition: end product of a series of
reactions serves as the allosteric inhibitor of an
enzyme earlier in the pathway
c. Cellular Respiration: process by which the cell makes energy
i. Overall reaction: C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
ii. Glycolysis: Conversion of Glucose  2 Pyruvate
1. Yields: 2 ATP + 2 NADH
iii. Formation of Acetyl CoA:
1. After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted into Acetyl CoA
iv. Krebs Cycle: Acetyl CoA  CO2
1. For every glucose molecule, there are 6 NADH, 2FADH2, and 2
ATP produced
a. Any ATP produced so far has been through substrate-level
phosphorylation

6. b. NADH and FADH2 will be transported to the ETC for ox.
phosphorylation
v. Electron Transport Chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation:
1. NADH and FADH2 enter the ETC and move towards the final
electron acceptor, Oxygen
2. As electrons release energy, this energy is used to pump protons
(H+) from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane
space, resulting in a pH or proton gradient.
a. Chemiosmosis: H+ will pass through ATP Synthase down
its gradient to cause oxidative phosphorylation of ADP 
ATP
i. Energy-Coupling  Using stored energy of H+
gradient to drive cellular work
vi. What happens if there is no oxygen? Anaerobic Respiration!
1. After Glycolysis  Alcohol Fermentation (in yeast) or Lactic
Acid Fermentation (in animals)
a. Purpose: Regenerate NAD+ to continue glycolysis!
d. Photosynthesis: converting light energy to chemical energy of sugar
i. Occurs in chloroplasts
1. Light-dependent reaction in thylakoid membranes
a. Purpose: Convert light  NADPH + ATP
2. Light-independent reaction (Calvin Cycle) in the stroma
a. Purpose: Convert NADPH + ATP  Sugar
4. Molecular genetics
a. DNA: The Blueprint of Life
i. Molecular Structure
1. See Nucleic Acids section of (1) Chemistry of Life
2. Contained within chromosomes, which are wrapped around
histone proteins
a. Euchromatin: when genetic material is loose and its genes
are available for transcription
b. Heterochromatin: when genetic material is fully
condensed into coils and its genes are generally inactive
3. Double helix: long, twisted ladder
a. “Rungs in the middle”  Nitrogenous bases
b. “Side rails” Phosphate-Sugar backbone
i. Side rails are facing different directions 
Antiparallel (5’ phosphate end of strand is next to
3’ OH end of the other strand)
4. Nitrogenous Bases:Nitrogen-containing bases
a. Purine: Double-ringed
i. Adenine & Guanine
ii. Remember: “Stay Pure as A G” 

7. b. Pyrimidine: Single-ringed
i. Cytosine, Thymine, & Uracil (only in RNA)
ii. Remember: “Pyramid edges can C U T you”
c. Base-pairing creates Complementary Stands
i. Adenine pairs with Thymine by forming 2 H-bonds
ii. Cytosine pairs with Guanine by forming 3 H-bonds
b. DNA Replication: Semiconservative
i. The 5 enzymes you NEED to know for your exam:
1. Helicase unwinds DNA into a y-shaped replication fork
2. RNA primase catalyzes synthesis of RNA primers
3. DNA Polymerase adds nucleotides (5’  3’) to an existing strand
4. DNA Topoisomerase: cuts and rejoins helix (to prevent tangling)
5. DNA ligase: brings together Okazaki fragments (of lagging
strand)
c. The Central Dogma (Protein Synthesis): DNA  RNA  Protein
i. Transcription: DNA  mRNA (in nucleus)
1. Initiates at promoter sequence, where RNA polymerase adds
RNA nucleotides to make mRNA using DNA as a template
(antisense strand)
ii. RNA processing (in nucleus)
1. Introns (non-coding regions) are removed and exons (coding
regions) are kept through process of splicing
2. 5’GTP cap and 3’ Poly(A)tail are added
iii. Translation: RNA  Protein (in ribosomes of ER or cytoplasm)
1. Codons: group of three bases on mRNA that corresponds to one of
20 amino acids
2. tRNA (“four leaf clover”) carries an amino acid on one end and
anticodon on other end
a. tRNA’s base pair with codons to create polypeptide
b. Terminates at Stop Codon
iv. Polypeptide processing
1. Many polypeptides assume their 3D-shape (conformation)
without assistance
2. Some require chaperone proteins(chaperonins) to guide proper
folding
d. Mutation
i. Base substitution (point) substitution:
1. Nonsense mutations: early termination of protein synthesis
2. Missense mutations: substitution creates different amino acid
3. Silent mutations: substitution creates same amino acid
ii. Gene rearrangement (Terms to familiarize yourself with):
1. Insertions, Deletions, Duplications, Inversions, Translocations
e. Biotechnology

8. i. Polymerase Chain Reaction: Making many identical copies of a gene
1. Using DNA, primers, Taq Polymerase, and DNA nucleotides to
create copies of DNA through heating/cooling cycles
ii. Recombinant DNA: generated by combining DNA from multiple sources
to create unique DNA not found in nature (genetic engineering)
1. Restriction enzymes recognize and cut unique eukaryotic DNA
sequences containing the gene of interest
a. The enzymes also cut bacterial DNA plasmids (non-
essential bacterial DNA)
b. Combine eukaryotic DNA sequence with bacterial plasmid
 recombinant plasmid
2. Transformation: Making bacteria take up the recombinant
plasmid (This is how we make prescription insulin!)
iii. Human Genome Project: sequenced every chromosome, base by base, in
the human genome!
5. Genetics: The Study of Heredity
a. Every trait (expressed characteristic) is produced by genes (which are found on
chromosomes)
b. Diploid organisms carry two alleles for every gene
i. Alleles can be either dominant or recessive. When two alleles are the
same, the organism is homozygous for that trait. When the two alleles are
different, the organism is heterozygous for the trait.
c. The genes are described as the genotype of the organism. The physical expression
of the traits, or what you see in the organism, is the phenotype.
d. Mendel’s laws of genetics:
i. Law of Dominance: One trait masks the effects of another trait.
ii. Law of Segregation: Alleles can segregate and recombine
iii. Law of Independent Assortment: Two traits segregate randomly and
recombine independently of other traits.
e. Non-Mendelian genetics: when traits do not follow Mendel’s laws
i. Incomplete (blending) dominance: traits that blend
ii. Codominance: Equal expression of both alleles e.g. AB Blood Type
iii. Polygenic inheritance: A trait that results from the interaction of many
genes e.g. height, skin color, and weight.
iv. Multiple alleles: Traits that are a product of many different alleles that
occupy a specific gene locus e.g. ABO blood group system
v. Linked genes: Genes on the same chromosome that stay together during
assortment and tend to be inherited together.
f. Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes for a total of 46
i. 22 pairs: Autosomes; 1 pair: Sex Chromosomes
1. Females have two X chromosomes
a. One is inactivated by condensation into Barr bodies
2. Males have one X and one Y chromosome

9. 6. Evolutionary Biology
a. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution:
i. Each species produces more offspring than can survive
ii. Offspring compete with each other for limited resources
iii. Organisms in every population vary
iv. The offspring with the most favorable traits are most likely to survive and
reproduce
b. Evidence for evolution
i. Fossils
ii. Biogeography
iii. Comparison of developmental embryology
iv. Comparative anatomy, including homologous and analogous structures
1. Homologous structures are similar because they were inherited
from a common ancestor that also had that character
2. Analogous structures have separate evolutionary origins, but are
superficially similar because they have both experienced natural
selection that shaped them. e.g. wings for flight in insects and birds
v. Molecular biology (sequences of genes are conserved across many types
of species)
c. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: used to determine genetic variation in a population
i. Equations
1. p + q =1  Frequency of dominant (p) and recessive alleles (q)
2. p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Frequency of the homozygous dominants (p2),
heterozygotes (2pq), and homozygous recessives (q2)
ii. Theory
1. A population in HWE is not evolving and is in genetic equilibrium
meaning p and q DO NOT change over time!
a. This is true so long as there is (a):
i. Large population
ii. Random Mating
iii. No mutations
iv. No immigration or emigration
v. No natural selection
7. Cell Reproduction:
a. Cell cycle divided into Interphase and Mitosis (cellular division)
i. Interphase: G1, S, and G2 phase
1. S is the “synthesis” phase, when chromosomes replicate
2. Growth and preparation for mitosis occur in G1 and G2
ii. Mitosis: cellular division and occurs in four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase (Think PMAT!)
1. Prophase: when the nuclear envelope disappears and
chromosomes condense

10. 2. Metaphase: when chromosomes align at the metaphase plate and
mitotic spindles attach to kinetochores
3. Anaphase: pulls the chromosomes away from the center
4. Telophase: terminates mitosis, and the two nuclei form
5. Cytokinesis: cytoplasm and PM pinch to form two distinct,
identical daughter cells
6. Note: Cell cycle progression is controlled by check-point
pathways and CDK/cyclin complexes
a. Uncontrolled cell cycle progression  cancer (when cells
grow abnormally and do not respond to cell cycle cues)
b. Meiosis:produces four genetically distinct haploid gametes
i. Involves two rounds of cell division
1. Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes separate
2. Meiosis II: sister chromatids separate
ii. Mutations (e.g. nondisjunction events or whole chromosome
translocations) can occur as a result of crossing over
c. Mitosis vs. Meiosis Summary:
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic (body) cells Occurs in germ(sex) cells
Produces identical cells Produces gametes
Diploid cell  diploid cells Diploid cell  haploid cells
1 cell becomes 2 cells 1 cell becomes 4 cells
Number of divisions: 1 Number of divisions: 2
8. Animal Structure and Function (The test requires you to know 4 human systems!)
a. Immune System: defense system against pathogens that enter the organisms
i. Innate Immune System: first-response, the initial protection, and it
includes the skin and mucous linings. Phagocytes (engulf antigens)
complement proteins (lyse the cell of the antigen), interferons (inhibit
viral replication and activate surrounding antiviral cells), and the
inflammatory response also target this initial response to neutralize the
invader.
ii. Acquired immunity can be cell-mediated or antibody-based.
1. T-lymphocytes include cytotoxic (killer), memory, and helper cells
a. Involved in cell-mediated immunity: monitors “self” cells
(using MHC markers); recognize and kill infected cells
2. B-lymphocytes include plasma (produced antibodies) and
memory cells.
a. Involved in humoral response: defense against pathogens
in extracellular fluids (e.g. blood and lymph)
b. Nervous System

11. i. Neurons are highly specialized terminally differentiated cells. They are
composed of dendrites, cell bodies, axons, and synaptic terminals.
1. Flow of information: sensory neurons  interneurons 
motor(effector) neurons
2. Neuronal transmission is based on action potentials (review each
step of an AP at home!)
3. The junction between neurons is called a synapse.
a. The pre-synaptic axon releases neurotransmitters to the
post-synaptic dendrite to perpetuate the transmission.
4. Myelin speeds the transmission along axons.
ii. The central nervous systemis composed of the brain and spinal cord.
1. Divisions within the brain
Brain Regions Function
Cerebrum Controls all voluntary activities; receives and
interprets sensory information
Cerebellum Coordinates muscle activity and refinement of
movement
Hypothalamus Regulates homeostasis and secretes hormones;
regulates pituitary gland
Medulla Controls involuntary actions such as breathing,
swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration
Pons Connects parts of the brain with one another
and contains respiratory center
Midbrain Center for visual and auditory reflexes (pupil
reflex + blinking)
Thalamus Main sensory relay for conducting information
between the SC and cerebrum.
iii. The peripheral nervous systemsenses and responds to stimuli, and it is
composed of the somatic (voluntary) nervous systemand the autonomic
(involuntary) nervous system
1. Autonomic NS further subdivided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches, which work antagonistically
c. Endocrine System
i. Endocrine glands are tissues or organs that excrete hormones. Hormones
mediate growth, reproduction, waste disposal, nutrient absorption, and
behavior.
ii. This pituitary gland is the master gland.
iii. The hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary and makes hormones
that are stored in the posterior pituitary

12. iv. Target cells receive the specific hormone via receptors either on the
surface of the cell or internally, and react through signal transduction, and
response.
v. List of Hormones (Just be familiar with these! 😊)
Organ Hormones Effect
Anterior Pituitary FSH Stimulates activity in
ovaries and testes
LH Stimulates activity in
ovary (release of ovum)
and production of
testosterone
ACTH Stimulates the adrenal
cortex
Growth
Hormone
Stimulates bone and
muscle growth
TSH Stimulates the thyroid to
secrete thyroxine.
Prolactin Causes milk secretion
Posterior Pituitary Oxytocin Causes uterus to contract
Vasopressin Causes kidney to reabsorb
water
Thyroid Thyroid
Hormone
Regulates metabolic rate
Calcitonin Lowers blood calcium
levels
Parathyroid Parathyroid
Hormone
Increases blood calcium
concentration
Adrenal Cortex Aldosterone Increases Na+ and H2O
reabsorption in kidneys
Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine &
Norepinephrine
Increases blood glucose
level and heart rate
Pancreas Insulin Decreases blood sugar
concentration
Glucagon Increases blood sugar
concentration
Ovaries Estrogen Promotes female
secondary sex
characteristics & thickens
endometrial lining
Progesterone Maintains endometrial
lining

13. Testes Testosterone Promotes male secondary
sex characteristics and
spermatogenesis
d. Reproduction/Development
i. Gametes from males (sperm) and females (ova) combine during
fertilization to create a zygote.
1. Review male & female reproductive anatomy at home (esp. the
female menstrual cycle)
2. The zygote then goes through cleavage resulting to form a
morula, blastula, gastrula, and ultimately an embryo.
ii. In chicken embryos, there are additional embryonic membranes: the yolk
sac, the amnion, the chorion, and the allantois.
iii. Development is controlled by highly conserved Hox genes, which provide
directionality and polarity to the developing embryo.
iv. Apoptosis is also critical to development.
9. Behavior & Ecology
a. Behavior
i. Behavior is an organism’s response to the environment. Behavior can be
instinctual (inborn), learned or social.
1. Instinct is the inherited “circuitry” that directs and guides behavior.
e.g. fixed action pattern
2. Learned behaviors include imprinting (Konrad Lorenz’s ducks
and the critical period), classical conditioning (Pavlov’s
salivating dog + bell), operant conditioning (reward &
punishment), and insight(reasoning)
3. Social behaviors include agonistic behavior, dominance
hierarchies, territoriality, and altruistic behavior.
ii. Plant-specific behaviors (in response to a stimuli) = tropisms
1. Three basic tropisms are phototropism (light), gravitropism
(gravity), and thigmotropism(touch).
b. Ecology
i. There are several major biomes (tundra, taiga, temperature deciduous
forest, grasslands, deserts, and tropical rainforests) that make up the
biosphere. Each biosphere contains ecosystems (interactions of living and
nonliving things)
ii. Within an ecosystem are communities, which consist of organisms
fulfilling one of three main roles:
1. Producers, or autotrophs, convert light energy to chemical energy
via photosynthesis.
2. Consumers, or heterotrophs, acquire energy from the things they
consume. Their digestion of carbohydrates produce carbon,

14. hydrogen, and oxygen, which are then used to make organic
substances.
3. Decomposers form fossil fuels from detritus of other organisms in
the ecosystem.
iii. The smallest unit of ecology is the population. The growth of a
population can be found with the equation: (r) = (births – deaths)/N
iv. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that can be
supported by a habitat. Most populations do not reach carrying capacity
due to factors such as population density:
1. density-independent factors: e.g. severe storm or extreme climate
2. density-dependent factors: e.g. resource depletion or predation
v. Growth
1. Exponential growth occurs in populations in an ideal environment
2. Logistic growth (S-shaped) occurs when a population becomes
restricted in size because of limited resources.
a. In order to overcome this, organisms use one of two life-
history strategies:
i. R-strategists: short-lived, small, weak, large litters,
reproduce early, little offspring care
ii. K-strategists: long-loved, large, strong, small
litters, reproduce at late age, much care for
offspring
10. Quantitative Skills
a. Descriptive statistics and graphs are used to summarize data, and show patterns
and conclusions.
i. Normal (parametric) measurement data are summarized using mean,
and standard deviation or standard error.
1. Parametric data = data that describes a population
ii. Parametric data are summarized using median, mode, and range.
b. Displaying Data
i. Histograms can be used to see if a dataset is normal or not.
ii. Count data are summarized using a bar graph or a pie graph.
iii. Time-course experiments look at how something changes over time;
summarize these using a line graph.
iv. Experiments that compare groups are summarized using a bar graph (if
the dataset is normal) or a box-and-whisker plot (if it’s not).
v. Scatterplots summarize association experiments, and regression lines can
be used to determine if the relationship is linear.
vi. Probability can be calculated using the sum rule or the product rule.
c. Hypothesis testing (e.g. t-tests) is used to determine if two groups are
significantly different from each other. They start with a null hypothesis, which
is rejected or accepted, depending on how a calculated critical value (specifically

15. a p-value or Chi-square value) compares to a standard value (listed in the table
they give you!)
Test-Taking Strategies:
Multiple Choice
 Pace Yourself
o Blank answers are not counted against you
 But you should bubble in all questions since there is No Guessing
Penalty.
o If you answered all the MC and FR questions, you would have 75 seconds per
question and 21 minutes per long essay.
 Three-Pass System (conceptualized by The Princeton Review)
o Do the Easiest Questions First
 Easy Questions are worth as much as harder questions.
o Save the medium questions for the second pass.
  Time-consuming questions (graph interpretation, calculations, etc.)
o Last Pass
 Focus on trying to figure out just a fraction of these problems
 Use guessing strategy (Letter of the Day) on remaining questions
 Process of Elimination (POE) = Learning to recognize wrong answer choices
o Eliminating even one wrong answer choice gives you a better than random chance
of answering the question correctly (33.33% > 25%)
 Use Mnemonics
o Can help you memorize a list or order of terms
o Ex. Dumb King Philip Came Over From Germany Soaked
 Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
 Word Associations
o Group key terms by concept as you study: limits rote memorization
Free-Response
 Readers have a checklist of key terms and concepts that they use to assign points
o For each key term/concept, you receive a predetermined number of points
 Use 10-minute reading period to brainstorm
o First, skim all of the questions and put them into your own personal order of
difficulty from easiest to toughest
o Jot down all the terms and concepts that answer each question
o Draft an outline (4-5 min per long free-response question)
 Articulate only what’s important
o You don’t need a hook, thesis, or conclusion.
o Answer each part of the question in separate paragraphs
o Explain all of the terms and concepts you mention in detail.
 Think: “How would you explain this concept to a 5-year? “

16.  Lab/Experimental Design Questions
o Always label your graphs/figures
 X-axis: independent (manipulated) variable
 Y-axis: dependent variable
o Include controls in all experiments (used as a standard for comparison)