1. Biology 03 – Professor Olsen Final Exam Study Guide SPRING 2016
I. Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed; only changed from one form to another
2. The Entropy of the matter in the universe tends to change.
II. Levels of Organization in Biology
1. Subatomic Particles (proton, neutron, electron)
2. Atoms (H, C, N, O)
3. Molecules – combinations of two or more atoms
4. Sub-cellular Organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, etc)
5. Cells – simplest living unit
6. Tissues – combinations of cells that perform specific functions
7. Organs – Liver, spleen, heart, etc
8. Organ Systems – Respiratory, etc
9. Organisms – human, dog, etc
10. Populations – a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
11. Communities – a group of interacting population (park, city, etc)
12. Ecosystem -a community and the abiotic factors affecting that community
13. Biome – an area of the world with the same type of ecosystem (desert, forest, rainforest, etc)
14. Biosphere – everywhere in the world that life exists
III. Structure of an Atom
1. Proton - (+) charge
2. Neutron - (0) charge
1. Proton & Neutron are in the nucleus
3. Electron - (-) charge
1. charge outside nucleus
IV. Definition of Ion, Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, Isotope
1. Ion – an atom with an unequal number of protons & neutrons in an atom in the nucleus
2. Atomic Number – number of protons in nucleus of an atom
3. Atomic Weight – number of protons & neutrons in an atom in the nucleus
4. Isotope - One of two or more atoms that have the same atomic number (the same number ofprotons) but a
different number of neutrons. Carbon 12, the most common form of carbon, has six protons and
six neutrons, whereas carbon 14 has six protons and eight neutrons. Isotopes of a given element typically
behave alike chemically.
V. Most Abundant Atoms in Living Organisms (Atomic Numbers/Number of Bonds)
1. Hydrogen – 1 (Atomic Number), 1 (Number of Bonds)
2. Carbon – 6 (Atomic Number), 4 (Number of Bonds)
3. Nitrogen – 7 (Atomic Number), 3 (Number of Bonds)
4. Oxygen – 8 (Atomic Number), 2 (Number of Bonds)
VI. Properties of Water
1. Water is polar – forms hydrogen bonds between molecules
2. Water is adhesive
3. Water is cohesive
4. Water has a high specific heat (requires high amounts of heat to raise its temperature)
5. Powerful Solvent – a solvent dissolves solutes; a solute is dissolved by solvent; a solution is a combination of
solvent & solute
6. When water freezes (becomes ice), hydrogen bonds are stable (it expands), ice is ligther than liquid water
VII. Basic Structures of Major Biological Molecules
1. Organic Molecules
1. Contain carbon
2. Monosaccharides – simple sugars
3. Disaccharides – two sugars bond
4. Polysaccharides – 3 or more sugars bound together
1. Starch – storage in pants
2. Glycogen – storage in animals
3. Cellulose – structure in plants
4. Chitlin – structure in animals
VIII. Lipids – high concentration of hydrogen & carbons

2. 1. Are non-polar
IX. Fats
1. Saturated – no double bonds between carbons; solid at room temperature
2. Unsaturated – at least one double bond between carbons; liquid at room temperature
X. Phospholipid – contains phospherous; major component of cell membrane
XI. Steroids – doesn't combine with water b/c they're hydrophobic
XII. Waxes -
XIII. Proteins
1. Chains of amino acids
2. Levels of Organization
1. Primary – sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary Structure – shape of the chain: alpha helix → spherical; Beta plated shaped → folded
3. Teritary Structure – 3D Structure
4. Quarztemary Structure – shape taken by two or more chains of amino acids
3. Functions of Proteins
1. Defensive Protein – antibodies
2. Storage of Amino Acids – Ovalbumin
3. Hormones – a communication chemicals between different proteins of the body
4. Contractile – found in muscles, responsible for contraction in muscles
5. Transport – carries substances around the body
6. Receptor – receive chemical messages; found in cell membrane
7. Structural – provide body with structure
8. Enzymatic – Biological catalysts which speed up chemical reactions
XIV. Nucleoic Acids – chain of nucleotides
1. Consists of phosphate, sugar, and base (A, C, T, G)
2. Differences between DNA and RNA
1. DNA is double-standed while RNA is single-stranded
2. Sugar in DNA is Deoxyribose, sugar in RNA is ribose (A,U, G, C)
XV. Structures and Functions of Major Sub-cellular Organelles
1. Nucleus
1. Chromatin – DNA and protein
2. Nuceolus – production of ribosomes
3. Nuclear Membrane – boundary of the nucleus
2. Endoplasmic Reticulm
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – contains ribosomes
1. Produces protein for cellular export
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) – contains no ribosomes
1. Produces phospholipids for membrane structure
2. Contains messages that catalyze various reactions
3. Golgi Apparatus
1. Sends nutrients out of the cell
4. Lyosomes
1. Digests subcellular organelles that no longer function
5. Plasma Membrane (Boundary of the Cell)
1. Phosopholipid Bilayer
2. Proteins
3. Cholesterol
6. Cell Wall (In Plants and Fungi, NOT in animals)
1. Surrounds plasma membrane
7. Central Vacuole (In Plants Only)
1. Filled with water
8. Choloroplasts – sites of photosynthesis
9. Mitochondria – sites of celluar respiration
10. Cytoskeleton (Skeleton of the Cell)
1. Micotubules (largest)
2. Intermediate Fillaments (medium)
3. Mico fillaments (smallest)

3. 11. Flagella
1. Movement
2. Larger and fewer in number
12. Cilia
1. Movement
1. Shorter and higher in number
XVI. Definitions of Diffusion,Osmosis, Active Transport, Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic
1. Diffusion – Movement from high concentration to lower concentration
2. Osmosis – Diffusion of fluids (I.e Water)
3. Active Transport – Transport using energy
4. Hypertonic – Low water concentration in external solution, High water concentration in cell, water tends to
flow out of the cell
5. Hypotonic - High water concentration in external solution, low water concentration in cell, water tends to flow
into the cell
6. Isotonic – Equal amounts of concentration of water in external solution and the cell, no net flow of water
XVII. Inputs and Outputs of Light and Dark Reaction
1. Light And Dark Reaction
1. Light reaction: inputs as : sunlight,H20 and ADP+P, the outputs are: 02,H+, NADPH, ATP
Dark reaction: input is: NADPH,ATP,CO2. Outputs: Sugar, ADP+P, NADP+H
XVIII. Inputs and Outputs of Glycosis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport System
1. Glycosis
1. Input: Glucose, 2 ATP, 4 ADP, 2 NAD+.
2. Output (aerobic): 2 NADH, pyruvate, 2 ADP, 4 ATP. Net energy gain under aerobic conditions: 2 ATP, 2
NADH.
2. Krebs Cycle
Net Input: Acetyl coenzyme A, NAD , ADP⁺
New Output: Coenzyme A, CO , NADH, ATP₂
Not Input or Output: Pyruvate, Glucose, O₂
In the citric acid cycle, the two carbons from the acetyl group of acetyl CoA are oxidized to two molecules of CO2,
while several molecules of NAD+ are reduced to NADH and one molecule of FAD is reduced to FADH2. In
addition, one molecule of ATP is produced
. Process of Protein Synthesis involving roles of DNA,mRNA,tRNA, ribosomes
3. Transcription
1. Proteins called transcription factors bind to the TA TA DNA of the phosphate-ribose of the beginning of
the gene coding regions
2. The transcription factors make it possible for RNA polymerase II to bind to the promoter.
3. RNA polymerase II copies one of the two strands until it reaches the transcription point.
4. After the mRNA transfer is complete, it leaves the DNA and nucleus and enters the cytoplasm where it
binds to a ribosome.
XIX. RNA Processing
1. 5' Cap
2. PolAdepine 3' Tail
3. Introns are spliced out
XX.Translation
1. Production of a protein on a ribosome from the information contained on a mRNA molecule
2. mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunit. Later, the large ribosomal subunit attaches.
3. Codon – a sequence of 3 bases that code for 1 amino acid
4. tRNA (transfer RNA) – carries amino acids to the ribosome in the correct order, is determined by the mRNA

4. codons
1. tRNA has a sequence of 3 bases carried on anticodon that bind to a specific mRNA codon. At the other
end, an amino acid is bound. This anticodon binds to the codon region for the amino acid attached to it.
5. A tRNA bearing an amino acid binds to the P-Site (Polypeptide). Another tRNA bearing another amino acid
binds to the A-Site (Amino acyl). The amino acid on the P-Site is bound to the amino acid on the A-Site in an
enzyme called Peptydal Transferace(rRNA).
6. The mRNA shifts on the ribosome by one codon.
7. The codons that was in the P-site is now in the E-site. The tRNA leaves.
8. The codon that was in the A-site is now in the P-site.
9. A new codon is now on the A-site.
10. Amino acids on P-site are denaturalized on the A-site.
11. The process repeats itself until a stop codon is reached. The new protein is then released.
XXI. Major Events of Mitosis and Meiosis
1. Mitosis
1. Prophase
1. Chromosomes become apparent
2. Spindle apparatus forms
1. Centromeres
2. Spindle fibers
3. Nuclear Membrane disintegrates – connects to centriole and to centromere
2. Metaphase – Chromosomes line up at center of the cell
3. Anaphase – Sister chromatids completeting each chromosome separate from one another and migrate to
the opposite ends of the cell
4. Telephase – cleavage furrow forms, chromatids condense into nuclei
5. Cytokinesis – Cell division is completed
2. Meiosis
1. Prophase I
1. Chromosomes appear
2. Nuclear membrane disintegrates
3. Spindle apparatus appears
2. Metaphase I
1. Chromosomes line up suddenly along metaphase plate. This process is called independent assortment.
3. Anaphase I
1. Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite ends of the cell
4. Telephase I
1. Cleavage furrow forms and chromosomes condense into nuclei
5. Cytokinesis I
1. 1st
cell division is completed
6. Prophase II
1. chromosomes reappear

5. 2. spindle appears
3. nuclear membrane disintegrates
7. Metaphase II
1. Chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate
8. Anaphase II
1. Sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite ends of the cell
9. Telephase II
1. Cleavage furrow forms and chromosomes condense into nuclei
10. Cytokinesis II
1. 2nd
cell division is completed
XXII. Monohybrid and Sex-Linked Crosses
1. Monohybrid – Only one link is used in cross (I.e eye color)
2. Sex-Linked – Genes located on the chromosomes. X-linked
XXIII. Definitions of Genetic Terms
1. Gene – a piece of DNA that codes for a protein
2. Allele – a form of a gene
3. Haploid – one set of chromosomes
4. Diploid – two sets of chromosomes
5. Heterzygous – possession of two different alleles for one gene
6. Homozygous – possession of the same alleles for one gene
7. Genotype – sum total of all genes possessed by an individual
8. Phenotype (what we see) – sum total of the gene expression by an individual
9. Gamete – sex cell
10. Somatic – non-sex cell
11. Autosome – non-sex chromosomes (1-22)
12. Sex Chromosomes – chromosomes determining sex – male (XX) or female (XY)
13. Recessive Allele – not expressed or widely expressed in the presence of a dominant allele
14. Dominant Allele – expressed in the presence of a recessive allele
15. Homologous Chromosomes – chromosome that contains the same gene
16. Sister Chromatids – two identical DNA bound together to form a chromosome
XXIV. Causes of Evolution and Points of Natural Selection
1. Causes of Evolution
1. Mutations – change in the base sequence of a DNA molecule. Mutagens cause mutations (UV Radiation,
chemicals, virus)
1. Types of Mutation
1. Beneficial – increase survival chances
2. Deleterious – decrease survival chances
3. Mutual – no effect on survival
2. Genetic Drift – random genetic change

6. 3. Migration – movement in and out of a population
1. Immigration – In
2. Emigration – Out
4. Non-Random Mating - “Sexual Selection”
5. (Natural) Selection Points
1. Populations tend to outgrow the ability of the environment to support them
2. Genetic differences between individuals from a population in the ability to survive
3. Struggle for existence
4. Those best suited for the environment survive, others die
5. Those that survive, reproduce
XXV. Definition of Species, Population, Evolution, and Gene Pool
1. Species - A group of closely related organisms that are very similar to each other and are usually capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. The species is the fundamental category of taxonomic
classification, ranking below a genus or subgenus.
2. Population - a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
3. Evolution - Biological evolution, simply put, is descent with modification. This definitionencompasses small-
scale evolution (changes in gene frequency in a population from one generation to the next) and large-
scale evolution (the descent of different species from a common ancestor over many generations).
4. Gene Pool – the sum of all alleles of all genes in a population
XXVI. Categories of Linnean Heirarchy
1. Kingdom – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Anamalia
2. Phlyum – Chordata
3. Class – Mammalia
4. Order – Primata
5. Family – Huminidae
6. Genus – Homo
7. Specific Ephitet – Sapien
XXVII. Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
1. Ecological Isolation – don't live in the same place (different habitats)
2. Temporal Isolation – have different breeding regions
3. Behavioral Isolation – Different mating behaviors (mating dances and pheromes)
4. Mechanical Isolation – incompitable genitalia
1. 1.-4 = Postzygotic Mechanisms
5. Hybrid Invisibility – hybrid dies before it can reproduce
6. Hybrid Sterility – hybrid is sterile
7. Hybrid Breakdown – successive generations are weaker than the previous ones. Genetic line eventually dies
out
XXVIII. Definition of Species, Taxonomy, Systematic, Classification
1. Species - A group of closely related organisms that are very similar to each other and are usually capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. The species is the fundamental category of taxonomic
classification, ranking below a genus or subgenus.

7. 2. Taxonomy – the theory and practice of classification
3. Systematics – study of biodiversity
4. Classification – placing organisms into categories
XXIX. Types of Speciation
Sympatric speciation occurs when populations of a species that share the same habitat become reproductively isolated from
each other. This speciation phenomenon most commonly occurs through polyploidy, in which an offspring or group of
offspring will be produced with twice the normal number of chromosomes. Where a normal individual has two copies of
each chromosome (diploidy), these offspring may have four copies (tetraploidy). A tetraploid individual cannot mate with a
diploid individual, creating reproductive isolation.
Sympatric speciation is rare. It occurs more often among plants than animals, since it is so much easier for plants to self-
fertilize than it is for animals. A tetraploidy plant can fertilize itself and create offspring. For a tetraploidy animal to
reproduce, it must find another animal of the same species but of opposite sex that has also randomly undergone polyploidy.
Allopatric Speciation
Allopatric speciation, the most common form of speciation, occurs when populations of a species become geographically
isolated. When populations become separated, gene flow between them ceases. Over time, the populations may become
genetically different in response to the natural selection imposed by their different environments. If the populations are
relatively small, they may experience a founder effect: the populations may have contained different allelic frequencies
when they were separated. Selection and genetic drift will act differently on these two different genetic backgrounds,
creating genetic differences between the two new species.
Parapatric Speciation
Parapatric speciation is extremely rare. It occurs when populations are separated not by a geographical barrier, such as a
body of water, but by an extreme change in habitat. While populations in these areas may interbreed, they often develop
distinct characteristics and lifestyles. Reproductive isolation in these cases is not geographic but rather temporal or
behavioral. For example, plants that live on boundaries between very distinct climates may flower at different times in
response to their different environments, making them unable to interbreed.
XXXI. Rates of Evolution
1. Gradualism – the pace of evolution is always slow throughout time
2. Punctuated Equilibrium – the pace is usually slow, but there are times when it is rapid

8. XXXII. Differences between Numerical Phenetics, Cladistics, and Traditional Taxonomy
1. Numerical Phenetics – classifies organisms by the number of characteristics they have in common
2. Cladistics – classifies organisms by inferred common ancestry
3. Traditional Taxonomy – combines the methods of cladistics and numerical phenetics
XXXIII. Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms
1. Kingdom Monera (Bacteria)
1. Subkingdom Arophapa – oldest living organism, live only in extreme environments (very hot, very acidic,
very salty)
2. True Bacteria
3. General Characteristics of Bacteria
1. Prokaryotic – no cell nucleus of other internal membranes
2. Usually single celled, a few forms are multicelluar
4. Basic Shape
1. Cocci – spherical
2. Bacilli – rod shaped
3. Spirochoetes – spiral-shaped
5. Modes of Nutrition
1. Photoautotrophs – photosynthetic, energy comes from light, cabon
2. Chemoautotrophs – hydrothermal vents, energy – inorganic sulfur organisms, carbon
3. Chemheterotrophs – Eat, energy – compounds produced by other organisms, carbon – compounds
produced by other organisms
6. Eubacteria have a cell wall made of peptidogycan
2. Kingdom Protista
1. Eukaryotic
2. Single celled or very simple
3. Most live in fluids (sal, water, fresh water, body fluids)
4. Methods of Locomotion
1. Flagella – one or two, long
2. Cillia – many, short
3. Notatik – punistic
5. Types of Protista
1. Algae (photosynthetic) – plant-like
2. Protozoa (no photosynthesis) – animal-like
3. Slime molds (fungus like)
3. Kingdom Fungi
1. General Characteristics
1. Eukaryotic
2. Multicelluar in a few single celled gungus
3. cells are arranged in filaments called hyphae. A cluster of hyphae is called a myocilium

9. 4. Fungi can't photosynthesize
5. Cell walls made of chitlin
6. Diversity of Phyla
1. Phylum Zygomycota – bread mold
2. Phylum Assunycota – Sac Fungi, cause most of the plant diseases
3. Phylum Basidiomyycota – mushrooms
4. Kingdom Plantae
1. Eukaryotic
2. Photosynthetic
3. Multicelluar
4. Cell walls made of cellulose
5. Diversity
1. Mosses and Liverworths (seedless)
1. Most pointy plants
2. a vascular – no vascular tissue, so they can't grow that well
3. In mosses, gameophyte is dominant
2. Ferns and Relatives
1. Have vascular tissue
2. Two types of vascular tissue
1. Xylem – carries water and inorganic nutrients from the roots to inner areas of the plant
2. Pholem – carries sugars and other organics
3. Produce only spores, not seeds
4. Sporophyte is dominant
5. Gymnosperms – Confiers and Relatives
1. Vascular, produce seeds
2. No flowers, no fruit, produce seeds in cones
3. Sporophyte is dominant
6. Angiosperms
1. Vascular
2. Produce flowers for pollination
3. seeds are covered by fruit
4. Structure of a flower
1. Ring of sepals (calyx)
2. Ring of stamens (male structure)
1. Filament – stodil
2. Another – produces pollen
3. Pistil
1. Stigman – pollen is deposited
2. Ftyle -

10. 3. Ovary – eggs are fertilized and where seeds develop
5. Kingdom Animalia
1. Multicelluar
2. Eukaryotic
3. No cell wall
4. No photosynthesis
5. Phagotrophic (eat)
6. Characteristics by Which Animals are Distringuished
1. Celluar
2. Tissue
3. Organ
4. Organ system
7. Type of Gut
1. No gut
2. Two-way gut (one opening)
3. One-way gut (two openings) – mouth, anus
8. Type of Symmetry
1. No symmetry
2. Radial Symmetry – cut in many direction to acheieve symmetry
3. Bilateral Symmetry – cut in only one direction to achieve symmetry
9. Number of Tissue Layers
1. No tissues
2. Two tissue layers – diploblastic
3. Three tissue layers – triploblastic
10. Type of Body Cavity
1. A coelomic – no body cavity
2. Pseudocoelomic – muscular tissue surrounding body wall, not organs
3. Coelomic – muscular tissue surrounds body wall and internal organs
11. Type of Deutrosome
1. Prutosomes – blastospores become the mouth
2. Deutrosomes – blastospores become the anus
12. Segmentation
1. Yes
2. No
6. Animal Diversity (Phyllum)
1. Phylum Pnoferia – Sponges
1. Celluar
2. Filter feed using chemanocytes
2. Phylum Cnideria (Jellyfish, Sea Annemones, Corals)

11. 1. Tissues
1. Ectoderm
2. Gastroderm
3. Mesoderm
2. Two-way gut
3. Phylum Platyhermathes (Planmaricians, leeche worms, tapeworms)
1. Organ Level
2. Two way gut or no gut
3. Free living or parasitic
4. Structure of a tapeworm
1. Scotes – has suckers and hooks
2. Proglottids – reprooductive structures, filled with feces
4. Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms)
1. Pseudocoelomic
2. Non segmented
5. Phylum Mollusca (Snails, Clams, Oysters, Cepasids)
1. Organ System
2. Coelomic
3. 3 distinct features
1. Radula – grasping tongue
2. Venteral Foot -
3. Module – tissue that separates the shell
4. Non segmented
6. Phylum Annelida (Leeches, earthworms, polychetes)
1. Segmented worms
2. Coelomic
3. Protosomes
7. Phylum Antropoda (Spiders, Crustaceans, Insects)
1. Organ System Level
2. Protostomes
3. Shed an exoskeleton as they grow
4. Segmented
5. Major Groups
1. Arachnids – spiders, mites, ticks, scorpins
2. Crustaceans – lobsters, crab, shrimp, “sowbugs”, crayfish
3. Insects + Relatives
1. Order Coleoptera – beetles
2. Order Diptera – Flies & Mosquitoes
3. Order Hemptera - “True Bugs”

12. 4. Order Orthotera – Grasshoppers & Crickets
5. Order Hymptera – bees, wasps, ants
6. Order Maqtosia – praying mantisym
7. Order Anoplera – sucking lice
8. Phylum Echinodermata (Starfish, sea cucumber, sea urchins)
1. Organ System
2. One-way gut
3. Pentamerous Radial Symmetry
4. Coelomic
5. Deutrosome
6. Segmented
9. Phylum Chordata
1. Organ System
2. One-way Gut
1. Bilateral
2. Coelomic
3. Deutrosomes
4. Segmented
5. Special Features
1. Dorsal nerve cord
2. Notocord - stiffening structures
3. Paraygeal Gill Slits
4. Post anal tail
6. Diversity – Classes
1. Class Agota – Jawless cells (lamperous)
2. Class Chonatophyes – camouflague, fishes, string rays
3. Class Osleipthyes – bony fish
4. Amphiba – frogs, crocodiles (water and land)
5. Reptila – snakes, lizards, turtles,
6. Ares – birds
7. Mamphalia – hairy frog, ludwig, nanmary
XXXIV. Animal Tissues Types
1. Epithelial (outer surface)
1. Squamous – flat
2. Cubodial - cube
3. Columnar – anywhere in the gland
2. Connective – provides structure
1. Loose – fills spaces
2. Adipase – stores fat

13. 3. Filbras – forms ligaments (bone-to-bone) and tendons (bone-to-muscle)
4. Cartilage – soft and sensitive structure
5. Bone – rigid structure
6. Blood – Liquid matrix
3. Muscular Tissue – contractile
1. Skeletal – connected to bone
1. Voluntary
2. Strated for powerful contractions
2. Biofordiac – found only in the heart
1. Involuntary
2. Strated for powerful contractions
3. Smooth – lines tubular organs
1. Involuntary
2. Not Strated – contractions are not powerful, only for fine muscle movement or do contract tubular
organs
4. Neurons Tissue – conducting neurons impulses
1. Neurons – conducts neurons impluses
2. Aendroile – receive impluses from other neurons
3. Cell Body – celluar membrane
4. Adum – send messages away from the body
XXXV. Inteumentary – Skin and Derivatives
1. Epidermis
1. Basal Layer (living) – produces all the melanin (skin color/pigment)
2. Around 50 layers of keratimogoples (mypt and living)
2. Dermis (Living)
1. Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, hevves, glands
2. Glands of the dermis
1. Sweat glands – produce true sweat
2. Apocrine glands – produce thick sweat that may contain a pherome
3. Sepeous glands – base of hair shafts, secrete a substance that produces hair smells
4. Serpumonous glands – secrete ear wax
5. Mommary glands – secrete milk
3. Hypodermis – layer of adipase and loose connective tissue
XXXVI. Major Bones in Human Body – Skeletal (206)
1. Axial Skeleton skull, spinal column, hipoid bone
1. Skull
1. Cranium – brain is located
2. Face -
3. Bone of middle ear

14. 2. Spinal Column
1. Cervical Vertebrae (Neck)
2. Thoracic Vertebrae (connected to ribs)
3. Saccum
4. Cocryx – tailbone
3. Ribs
1. 7 pairs of true ribs – direct connection to sternum
2. 5 pairs of false ribs – no direct connection to sternum
3. Sternum – breast bone
2. Appendicular Skeleton
1. Petoreal Gandle
1. Clavicles – collar bones
2. Schpulae – shoulder blades
2. Palms
1. Humerus – upper arm
2. Radius, 3. Ulna → Lower arm
3. Hands
1. Carpals – bones of the wrist
2. Metacarpals – bones of the palm
3. Phalanges – fingers
4. Pelvic Gardle
1. Coxal Bones
5. Legs
1. Femur – Thigh bone
2. Tibia, 3. Fibula → Lower leg
6. Feet
1. Targold – upper foot
2. Metadorsals – sole of the foot
3. Phalanges – toes
XXXVII. Muscular System – Muscles
1. Muscle Flow Chart
1. Muscle
2. Fugcicles
3. Muscle Seal
4. Myotardis
5. Myofilaments (ThiM – myosin, myoActin)
2. Structure of a Sarcomere (basic unit of muscle contraction)
1. Muscle Contraction – thick filaments pull the thin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere, shrinks
into sarcomere

15. 1. Protein in middle – A-Line
2. Thick Filaments – H-Line
3. Extent of thick filaments – A-band
4. Thick filaments only – I-band
5. Boundary of a sarcomere – Z-line
XXXVIII. Circulatory System
1. Blood – entirely confined in blood vessels
1. Plasma – fluid
1. Water
2. Nutrients – digestive system
3. Wastes – Excretary system
4. Blood Proteins – albumin, glutulims, blood clotting proteins
5. Hormones – communication chemicals within the body
2. Formed Elements
1. Erythrocyctes (Red blood cells) – carry oxygen
2. Leukocytes (white blood cells) – defensive
1. Granular
1. Neutrophils – phagocycerin in inflammed areas
2. Baophils – stimulate the inflammation response
3. Eusimophils – fight allergies
2. Mommary/Mmacrophytes – chemical phygocytes
3. Lympocytes
1. T-Cells – cell redirected immunity
2. B-Cells – produce antibodies
3. Plateletes – blood clotting
2. Types of Blood Vessels
1. Arteries – carry blood away from the heart
2. Veins – carry blood towards heart
3. Capillaries – sites of exchange within the intestial fluid (fluid surrounding tissues)
XXXIX. Flow of Blood through the Heart
1. Venn Cavae (carry blood to heart)
2. Right Atrium
3. Tricapsid Valve
4. Right Ventricle
5. Pulmmary Semilunar Valve
6. Pulmmary Arteries
7. Pulmmary Orpillaries
8. Pulmmary Veins
9. Left Atrium

16. 10. Bicupsid Valve
11. Left Ventricle
12. Aortic Semilunar Valve
13. Aorta
14. Rest of the Body
XL. Respiratory System
1. Flow Chart of Air
1. Nose – entry of air, warms nonidifers and cleans the air (also mouth)
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx – voice box located
4. Trachea – wind pipe, reinforced by chains of cartilage
5. Bronchi – Bags of cartilage
1. Primary – each lung
2. Secondary – each lung lobe
3. Teritary – pulmmary segments
6. Branchiotes – small branches
7. Alveolur Parts – hold alvcoli
8. Alvcoli – sites of gas exchange
XLI. Digestive System
1. Structure of the Gut
1. Mouth – Forced entry
2. Oral Cavity – Digestion and moistening of food
1. Types of teeth
1. Encpsus (8)
2. Chmines (4)
3. Premotors (8)
4. Mulpid (12)
3. Pharynx (Swallowing)
4. Esophagus – food transpor
5. Stomach primarily storage, some digestion
6. Small Intestine – most digestion occurs, absorption
1. Duademuth – most digestion
2. Dejunum – most absorption
3. Sleum – most absorption
7. Large Intestine – Production of feces, removes water from feces
1. Feces Composition
1. Cellulose, 2. Billirubin, 3. Bile sites
8. Rectum – storage of feces
9. Anal Canal – passage of feces

17. 10. Anus – passage of feces
2. Accessory Organs – secrete substances into gut
1. Salivary Glands – secrete sulion
2. Pancreas – secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine
3. Liver – metabolizes carbohydratic fluids, destroys old red blood cells, converts ammonia to urea,
detoxifies drugs and posions
XLII. Structure of Excretary System
1. Flow Chart of Excretary System
1. Kidneys – Produce urine
2. Uretus – passage of urine from kidneys to bladder
3. Bladder – storage of urine
4. Urethra -passage of urine to outside the body
XLIII. Endocrine System
1. Hyptothalmus – part of the brain that controls the endocrine system
2. Pituitary Gland – Master Gland of Endocrine System, controls all other glands, is controlled by the
hypothalmus
3. Other Glands
1. Primeal Gland – secretes meraturin, controls sleep cycle of the circadian rhythm
2. Thyroid Gland – secretes thyroxin (controls carbohydrate metabolism), secretes calcitonin (lowers blood
calcium)
3. Parathyroid – secretes parathyroid horomone (Increases blood calcium levels)
4. Thymus – secretes thymodin (stimulates maturation of T-Cells)
5. Adrenal Glands
1. Adrenal Cortex – secretes mineral corticoids, secretes sloevrtricoids
2. Adrenal Medulla – secretes epinepherine (adrenaline) and norephinerine (nonadrenaline)
6. Testes – secrete testosterone (primary male hormone)
7. Ovaries – secrete estrogen and progesterone (primary female hormone)
XLIV. Nervous System Structure
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – All nervous tissue outside the CNS
3. Smooth Nervous System – controls voluntary movements
4. Automatic Nervous System – controls automatic processes such as breathing and heart rate
1. Sympethetic – Fight or Flight
2. Parasympethetic – rest and diges
5. Brain Structure
1. Brain Stem
1. Medula Oblagata – helps to control breathing and heart rate
2. Puns – helps control breathing
3. Midtronin – helps to control voluntary muscle movement
2. Cerebellum – controls voluntary movements of large muscles

18. 3. Diencepnaton
1. Epithalamus – Pineal gland
2. Thylamus – relays sensory information to cerebrum
3. Hypomalemus
1. Controls endocrine system, 2. controls thirst and hunger, 3. controls emotions such as rage,
agression, sexual arousal, etc
4. Cerebrum
1. Occipital Lobes – recognize visual impulses
2. Temporal Lobes – recognize auditory impulses
3. Parietal Lobes – recognize gustetory and ductile impluses
4. Frontal Lobes – responsible for social skills, act, study, planning, self-discipline; initiate voluntary
muscle movement and speech
XLV. Reproductive System
1. Male System
1. Semintow Tubulas Lintegres – sperm are produced
2. Epididnus – sperm stored
3. Vas deferens – sperm transported
4. Seminal Vesicles – produce most of seminal fluid
5. Prostate Gland – produces about 30% of seminal fluid, helps neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
6. Cowpers Gland – secretes a small amount of fluid to prepare the uretha for entrance of the seminal fluid
7. Uretha – sperm are released (in penis)
2. Female System
1. Ovaries – eggs are produced
2. Fallopian Tubes – eggs are fertilized
3. Uterus – Gestation of embroyo/fetus
1. Cervix – neck of uterus
4. Vagina – a canal leading to the cervix from the outside
5. Vulva – external genitalia
XLVI. Population Growth Models
1. Exponential Growth (Unlimited Growth) – J shaped curve
2. Logistic Growth (Growth limited by environment) – S shaped curve, k = carrying capacity
3. “Crash” model – upside V shaped (crashes due to using up limited resources)
XLVII. Types of Niches
1. Niche – rate of species in a community/ecosystem
1. Producer – photosynthesize
2. Consumers – consume/eat the producers or other organisms that have eaten producers
1. 1st
Order – herbivores, 2nd
Order – Carnivores, 3rd
Order – Carnivores
3. Special Consumers
1. Scavanger – Eat organisms that have been killeed by members of other species

19. 2. Deliluorus – filter feeders (filter out particulates from water)
3. Decomposers – break down dead material so that it can be consumed/absorbed by plants
XLVIII. Relationships Between Organisms
1. + + = Mutualism
2. + - = Predator-Prey, Parasite/Host
3. + 0 = Commensalisms
4. - - = Competitions
1. Exploitative – the winner of the competition best exploits the resource
2. Interference – the winner of the competition inhibits its competition
XLIX. Types of Biomes
1. Forest – High percepitation
1. Tropical – Tropical Rain Forest
2. Temperate – Deciduous Forests (shed leaves in fall, grow leaves in spring)
3. Cold – Taigas (campfield) → Pine trees
2. Grasslands – moderate percepitation
1. Tropical – Savannah
2. Temperate – Prairies, Steps, Papas
3. Artic – Tundra
3. Deserts – Low percepitation
1. Tropical – Sahara
2. Temperate – Mojave
3. Cold – Artic
4. Oceans
1. Continental Shelves
2. Deep Sea
3. Estures – river empty into the sea
5. Freshwater
1. Lakes
2. Streams