Architectural Framework For The Development Of Boat Terminals

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of The Study
One of man’s needs since creation has been that of mobility. This need brought about a
systematic progress from paths to roads, from streams and rivers to the ocean, from the rails
to the sky. This is known as transportation. In any socio-economic system, transport
development is one of the indispensible catalysts for activating and stimulating the tempo of
economic, social, political and strategic development. The development of an efficient,
flexible and dynamic transport system is therefore very vital for meaningful socio-economic
development and for binding the various components of any society. It contributes
significantly to the value and utility of goods and services by moving them from where they
are produced to where they are needed. In a socio-political context, transport provides part of
the instrument for enhancing human interaction, blending of cultures and tradition as well as
integration of socio-political entities.
In view of the foregoing, it is incumbent on every country to use her available resources to
develop a functional, appropriate and reliable transport system.
Nigeria, having a total land area of 923,772km2
and with more than 10,000km of navigable
waterways and a reasonable long coastline, is therefore a good terrain for development of
urban, intra-urban and inter-urban roads, motorways and a good network of railway tracks is
in a position to harness the potentials of all known modes of transportation via, road, rail,
water, pipe and air.

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Water transportation amongst the above-mentioned is the oldest. A noticeable feature of
water transportation is that it is the cheapest mode of transport because unlike other modes,
nature plays a significant role in water transportation in provision of the basic infrastructure,
which is the watercourse. Utilization of these resources only requires keeping the watercourse
navigable.
This is because two third of the Earth is water, which is usually a natural medium. Water
transportation has been a vital part of domestic and international trade and human exploration
for thousands of years. The advent of water vessels allowed people to circumnavigate the
globe, expand their ranges, and take advantage of unprecedented opportunities. Societies are
nearly always located near water, both for the resources it provides and because water
transport is easier than travelling over land. And in recent decades especially, water transport
has become an important part of tourism and recreation. This research is as such focused on
improving water mobility in terms of reducing congestion caused by poor circulation.
Inland waterways are made up of navigable rivers, lakes, coastal creeks, lagoons and canals
(Aderemo and Mogaji, 2010). The movement of goods and services along inland waterways
is one of the oldest means of transporting goods and services from point to point (Fellinda,
2006). This is largely due to the fact that inland water transport offers the most economical;
energy efficient and environmentally friendly means of transporting all types of cargo from
place to place (Ojile, 2006). It also offers safer and cheaper rates in areas where water exist
naturally, thus facilitating commerce, promoting wealth creation, poverty alleviation, and
creates job opportunities for youths within these regions. The ancillary sector of boat building
industries also generates employment through active engagement of the youths in welding
and fabrication process (Gray, 2004). For instance, in the United States, waterways have been

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developed and integrated into a world-class transportation system that has been instrumental
in the country’s economic development.
Terminals are transportation centres where goods and people are transferred onto and off
vehicles. Terminals include ports, airports, bus stations, and train stations. Terminal is
defined as the end of a carrier line (such as a railroad, trucking, shipping line or airline, with
accompanying dockyard facilities, management offices, and storage shades, freights and
stations. (Gove, 1976). He goes further to define a Terminal differently as a freight or
passenger station that is central to a considerable area or serves as a junction at any point with
other lines.
Because transportation is the engine room of the growth of a nation’s economy, it was the
objective of the National transportation policy to remove any obstacle that could cause a
deterrent to growth in transportation. As such, a well-developed waterfront (the terminal and
surrounding facilities) and how its space is utilized (owing that it is a combination of both
land and water and circulation is involved) will encourage participation in whatever activities
that are carried out in waterfronts.
A Terminal complex is the cardinal of transport inter-modality. This is an exchange point
between maritime and road transport modes. Without building Boat Terminals, the
development of Inland water ways is of no use because there is no interface for the two
modes. Maritime Transport Terminal comprises terminal building and jetty. This
infrastructure is used for handling the berthing of passenger and cargo vessels, passenger
embarkation and disembarkation and the loading and off-loading of cargo. This research will
seek to give attention to the development of the Calabar waterfront with respect to circulation

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within the facility as it promotes tourism and fosters a paradigm shift in modes of
transportation from the all too conventional land transportation to water transportation. And it
will also give attention to spatial utilization module that will be geared at maximizing land
use in activities that are solely water oriented all in a bid to encourage public water
transportation.
1.1 Statement of Architectural Problem
In Nigeria, Ezenwaji (2010) noted that inland waterways transverse 20 out of the 36 states
within the nation and that areas adjacent to the navigable rivers represents the nations’ most
important agricultural and mining regions. This creates an urgent need for innovative actions
and strategies which can radically improve the sector so that it continues to remain the
bedrock of trade, industrial and economic growth.
It has been observed that Boat Terminals have failed to meet the needs of combining retail
and service areas, public parks/recreation areas, marinas and other river-oriented activities
within a planned development. Such development is intended to be designed to provide for an
internally oriented group of activities which are functionally related to land uses, water –
bound uses, vehicular and pedestrian circulation and the arrangement of structures., so that
the architectural problem of circulation emerges. In addition, poor infrastructure has also
limited flexibility in Boat Terminal design and planned diversification in the relationships
between location of and types of uses; poor development of circulation systems, land uses,
and utilities; no provision for more usable and suitably located open space facilities and
common facilities than would otherwise be provided under conventional land development
procedures.

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For any medium of public transportation to be effective, there is a need for it to have a
functional operational base, and proper circulation contributes to a functional Boat Terminal.
With regards to proper circulation, it should be noted that there is the unavailability of shore-
side property, and therefore important to ensure maximizing utilization of available space.
1.2 The Aim of the Study
The primary aim of this study is the development of public water transportation terminals to
improve on the experience of boat transportation commuters and of operators by the
application of architectural planning and design strategies at the terminals to enhance a
smooth merge between land activities and water-bound activities. As it relates to achieving
spatial utilization coupled with flexibility of activities and optimal circulation.
1.3 The Objectives of the Study
This research focused on achieving the following objectives:
i. To promote proper vehicular and pedestrian flow outside and inside the Boat Terminal
Complex.
ii. To utilize architecture in fostering socio-economic sector and as well as further broaden
the tourism potential of Cross River state.
iii. To promote Architectural determinants for building forms and articulating spatial
characteristics of various units for the design of a Boat Terminal complex.
iv. To formulate architectural design framework for inland waterways and address
Architectural issues related criteria for inland waterways and address Architectural issues
related to waterfronts development, by way of establishing a principal and functional
component for the planning, design and construction of Boat Terminals.

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v. To deal with peculiarities (in terms of structures) in a Boat Terminal that is, the use of
construction materials that are not susceptible to corrosion
1.4 Research Questions
i. How do the people of Cross River state feel about water transportation either with respect
to transporting individuals, cargo or for tourism purposes?
ii. Commuters who use the existing terminal, how convenient is it, how comfortable do they
feel about using this boat terminal.
iii. How can the facilities in the existing terminal become more functional?
iv. What are the planning requirements that make the planning of a boat terminal modern?
v. What functional requirements can be applied to this design project to make it more
functional, spatially?
vi. Why do people choose to go on land or transport their goods by land when they can
actually do same for a cheaper price and less hectic conditions?
1.5 Scope of Project
The scope of this study is all encompassing, because just as the project topic implies, it is a
combination of different design ideas or concepts. A combination of both water bound and
land bound designs merging to form one holistic Terminal Complex concept.
The following facilities are proposed to give the Boat Terminal Complex that holistic
perspective:
i. Terminal building facility (the main terminal building for ticketing, waiting, arrival and
departure concourse, administrative offices).
ii. Warehouse facilities (warehouse store, offices for controllers of warehouse, restaurant and
cloakroom).

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iii. Storage facilities (storage of goods for embarkation or disembarkation).
iv. Safety facilities (safeguard, first aid department and boarding security department).
v. Social facilities (parks, recreational areas, sit outs).
vi. Sailing and jetties (jetties for cargo travel, passenger travel of for boat cruises).
The Jetty design is restricted to small-medium capacity (1 to about 50 people) passengers
boat and small-medium size facilities for Tugboats/bergs and local boats to convey goods
such as food stuff, building material etc.
1.6 Study Area
Plate 1.1 Map of Nigeria showing Cross River State (Proposed location for project).
Source: Google Earth

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Plate 1.2 Map of Cross River state (Proposed location for project).
Plate 1.3 Map showing an Arial view of the proposed site

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Cross River is the main river in southeastern Nigeria and gives its name to Cross River State.
It originates in Cameroon, where it takes the name of the Manyu River. Although not long by
African standards its catchment has high rainfall and it becomes very wide. Over its last 80
kilometres to the sea its flows through swampy rainforest with numerous creeks and forms an
inland delta near its confluence with the Calabar River about 20 kilometres wide and 50
kilometres long between the cities of Oron on the west bank and Calabar on the east bank,
more than 30 kilometres from the open sea. The delta empties into a broad estuary which it
shares with a few smaller rivers. At its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean, the estuary is 24
kilometres wide.

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Plate 1.4 Map showing the flow of the Cross River
Source: Internal Revenue Cross River State
Cross River state lies between latitudes 40
and 8’ and 60
55’ North and longitudes 70
50’ and
90
28’ east of the Greenwich meridian within the tropical rainforest belt of Nigeria. The
eastern side of the estuary is in the neighboring country of Cameroon.

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The major tributary of Cross River is the river Aloma coming from Benue State to merge
with the cross river in Cross River State. Cross River State is connected with a major
highway to its sister state Akwa Ibom. The distance between Oron and Calabar is 21
kilometres by boat and about 200 kilometres by road. The population of the lower Cross
River traditionally uses water transport and Calabar has long had a major seaport about 55
kilometres from the sea. The Itu Bridge on the Cross River is along Itu-Calabar highway and
is reported to be one of the landmark achievements of the Gowon administration when it was
completed in 1975.
The successful eliminating of hazards experienced in water transportation would be achieved
by providing a functional boat terminal in Cross River state and it would enhance the rapid
development of the Calabar water-front as well as improve internally generated revenue for
state.
1.7 Definition of Terms
Boat Terminal: It is a location on a waterfront that contains one or more jetties, where boats
can dock and transfer people or goods from and to land.
Ware-house: A Warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods. Warehouses are
used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers, transport business (terminals),
customs etc.
Berth: The general name given to a point where water vessels stop at the end of a journey, it
comprises of facilities for anchoring or mooring these water vessels.

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Breakwater: It is a rubble mound or a reinforced concrete structure erected to break the force
of the sea (wave action) and to protect or provide shelter for water vessels lying inside
the harbor area.
Access Channel: This is a stretch of water linking the basin of a terminal to the open sea.
IWT: Inland Water Transport.
Nautical mile/Knot: The measurement of the distance covered by a water vessel. Speed of
water going vessels where 1 knot (nautical mile per hour) = 1852m (609fr).
Quay/ Wharf: The stone or concrete structure platform constructed on navigable water used
for loading and offloading a vessel at the terminal. There are basically two types namely;
marginal and projected.
Jetty: A high structure which projects out to deeper waters and serves as the specific slopping
of passengers and a discharge points for vessels. It could be constructed of local wooden
pile, metal structures driven construction and ability to withstand load.
Gangway: This is a passage constructed between the Jetty and Quay. Usually, the gangway is
fitted with protective devices as waiting to prevent users from falling into the water. It
could also connect the Jetty to the terminal building.
Mooring: A system of fastening a vessel to the shore or sealed by means of ropes or chains
such as quick release hooks and charts, mooring rings and bollards.

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The movement of goods and people dates back to earliest times. It was the early man’s best
means of extending the range of his activities, broadening his horizon and improving his
living standards by securing raw materials, exchanging goods and culture between himself
and other people. The ancient Egyptians, down to Chinese literature and modern technology
all relate various modes of transportation shaped by environmental factors, technology and
demand.
In Nigeria, various studies have identified the lack of adequate transport network as
representing a major bottleneck for economic development and inefficient movement of a
nation’s commerce and people. The Marine transport system is a very complex and large-
scale sociotechnical environment comprising human and man-made entities that interact with
each other and operate in a physical environment (Mullai, 2004). The main elements of the
system are objects of transport, means of transport, circulation, infrastructures and facilities,
which are linked by the information system and transport related activities.
Historically, water transportation is as old as the early period of man’s existence. The exact
time, in which marine activities started, cannot be ascertained. However, Egyptian
civilization which is one of the world’s early civilizations is related to transportation on the
river Nile. Bowen (1972) highlighted that scientific network of established sites and findings
has clarified and augmented the ancient literary sources which first provided clues as to early
marine activities. Evidence gleaned from numerous archeological sites illustrates the

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ingenuity of prehistoric navigators who avoided sailing around stormy headlands in the frail-
skin boats by disembarking on one side of the peninsula and then moving overland to the
other side before resuming their journey by water. Ever since he devised the primitive boats,
man has made use of winos, tides and currents in order to migrate explore and initiate trading
routes on a scale that over land travel will not permit.
Fig. 2.1 Paradigm of Water Transportation (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
2.1 Historical Development of Water Transportation
Travelling by water was among man’s earliest and best means of extending the range of his
activities, broadening his horizon, and improving his living standards by securing raw
materials and exchanging goods. One of the most important attributes of water transport is
the relatively small effort needed to moor floating craft. A heavy boat or a barge weighing
several tons can be moved through water slowly but steadily by one man. If the same barge
were mounted on wheels, a man would be unable to push it along the road or even along rails.

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An airplane of the same weight as the barge would require engines of 1,000 horsepower or
more in order to fly.
The earliest boats were probably built as a result of primitive man’s need to transport himself
and his implements across water barriers. There are no dates to act as signposts for us in the
dawn of history, but it is reasonably certain that men of the new Stone Age had both the
ingenuity and the tools to make boats.
The prehistoric man learnt that floating legs could be used collectively as a raft. He further
learnt that by attaching animal signs to one or more poles and fastening it to his raft, he could
move across a river using the wind as the propellant. In those days men constructed canoes
and ships from an assemblage of wood carcasses which they paddle over water as means of
transport. These wooden canoes were later transformed into larger cargoes and passenger
vessels most of which were powered by slave men of those days. Rafts, made by lashing
several logs together, were another early stage in boat building. They enabled far heavier and
bulkier loads to be ferried but were unwieldy and difficult to steer. Boat construction, rather
than the adaptation of tree trunks, probably began in areas where there were no trees. In
treeless countries they are frequently cattle, or, further north, seals. With the skins of these
animals stretched over a wicker form workmen built coracles, canoes and kayaks, so that they
could extend the range of their hunting and fishing. Slowly in the course of thousands of
years, tools and skills improved and men learned to build plank boats. (Zuofa, 2005).

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Plate 2.1 Raft (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
The immediate gains from boat building were two-fold, Firstly, water, which had been a
barrier, became a highway. Secondly, water transport gave freedom of movement, and this
led to an increase in the food supply and in the opportunities for barter and trade.
Water transportation is a sector of transportation which can be seen as the pioneer in mans’
quest for civilization. This fact is evident in the fact that ancient civilization was found in
places that were either located on a river bank or within close proximity to a river. These
waterways were generally used as a means of communication between the people that dwell
close to it. Even today, when we can go anywhere quite easily by railways, car or air craft,
travel and transport by water still has one big advantage; it is relatively cheap (Okio, 2006).
All over the world where navigable rivers exist, they have always been use for travel and
commerce. And with these, towns and cities located along rivers flourished with activity and
transformed into trade centres. Thus, at the dawn of civilization man had already developed

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the sail boat. Subsequent important contributions to water transportation were also made by
the four great civilizations of early human which evolved in close dependence on rivers and
fertile/easily worked soils. These four were the Sumerians on the Tigris and Euphrates River
of ancient Iraq (4000BC), the Chinese on the Hwang Ho (yellow river) 2500BC, and the
Harrapnas on the Indus River in Parkistan (3000BC) and finally the Egyptians on the famous
River Nile (3500BC).
The earliest boats with sails, oars, and rudders of which we have a record are those of the
ancient Egyptians. This is not surprising considering that early civilization of Egypt began
along a river valley. Models of ships which journeyed up and down the Nile have been found
in tombs of the Pharaohs dating about 2000 B.C. Drawings from an even earlier period
suggest that the Egyptians had properly built boats of crude sort as long ago as 4000B.C.
Egypt is almost treeless and for that reason the first boats on the Nile were papyrus bundles
lashed together. When stronger and heavier versions were built the Egyptian shipwrights used
timber, both acacia and cedar, but these trees provided the shipbuilders with only short
irregular pieces of wood so they were not able to lay down long keels. The Egyptians, for all
their wisdom, did not know how to harness draft horses, and, until 1600 BC, were without
wheeled vehicles. Land transport was slow and costly. The Nile however, was a natural
highway, which united the long valley. Boats provided the Egyptians with their only means
of long-distance transport for the great masses of granite and basalt needed to build their
pyramids and temples. Along the Nile, too, came supplies of corn for the cities. (Zuofa,
2005).

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Plate 2.2 Boat with wooden hull (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
The Egyptians did not make considerable progress in shipbuilding and this can be attributed
to the nature of Egypt’s waterways. It was only on the shores of an open sea that shipbuilding
could be learned. The first great sea faring and trading people, the Phoenicians, founded
colonies all along the shores of the Mediterranean, yet there are little known about their ships.
The Greeks and Romans had large merchant fleets, but the most familiar ships from those
civilizations are the war galleys, light and elegant in Greek days, and sturdy and powerful in
Roman times.

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Plate 2.3 Boat with steel hull (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
The Greeks and the Romans civilization (8th
century BC) also made improvements in terms
of size and efficiency. The Spanish scientists in the 14th
century invented the mariner’s
compass which boosted water transportation. Modernization in water transportation was
further boosted by the introduction by the Americans of the float boats and keel-boat (1804),
which were followed by the steam boat from 1811 – 1812. These early boats were rowed,
paddled, poled or sailed. After the Second World War in 1946, Americans introduced the
pontoons and assaults rafts. Today, not only do we have pontoons, but also various
passengers, cargo and military ships as well as sophisticated navigation equipment and highly
skilled personals in the water transportation sub-sector making travelling more enjoyable.
The great age of discovery, with the voyages of exploration, largely motivated by the search
for gold and silver to pay for goods imported to Europe from the Middle and Far East, put

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enormous pressures on shipbuilders that hastened the development of the sailing ship. The
seas were infested with buccaneers and faster ships were wanted to out sail them. Larger
vessels able to carry bigger cargoes were also needed to make long voyages worthwhile. This
period saw the introduction of the Clippers. With the clippers, the loveliest of all ships, the
sailing ship reached the furthest point in its evolution. The job of the clippers was to carry
valuable cargoes over long distances at high speeds, and for years they were superior to the
steamships of the mid19th century.
Plate 2.4 The clipper (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
The hovercraft, invented by Sir David Cockerei in the 1950s, referred to as an aircraft by
some, has played a growing part in passenger transport. Hovercrafts have shown themselves
to be able to work over ice, snow, swamps and river delta where other craft could not
penetrate.

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Plate 2.5.1 The Hovercraft (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
Plate 2.5.2 A military Hovercraft (source: Author’s Field work 2017)

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2.2 Early Development of The Transportation Planning Process
In 1953, a major breakthrough was achieved with the work of Robert Mitchel and Chester
Rapking of the University of Pennsylvania (Mitchell and Rapking, 1954) following an
analysis for movement and land use date for Philadelphia, they expounded the thesis that
different type of land use generate different and variable traffic flows. This approach brought
about fundamental changes in the study and understanding only to improve the various
elements of transportation problems such as congestion, delay, poor accessibility and
accidents by producing proposal for capital investment in new transportation facilities or in
supporting existing transportation services such as public transportation. This is in fact the
main objective of the Chicago study (Chicago Area Transportation Study, 1959). During the
sixties, this traffic functional planning process was gradually modified to incorporate a
consideration of alternative future land uses. In fact, this approach confirm the general held
view that “Urban Transportation planning is designed to develop and continuously evaluate
short and long range ways/waterways transportation plans” (Bureau of Public Roads, 1970)
The primary aim of the transportation planning process is to provide information necessary
for long-term planning of urban areas. The initial aim of the transportation planning process
was purely traffic function, circulation as the core factor.
That is, it was aimed both to improve those obvious inefficiencies of the current
transportation system, and to produce proposal for capital investment and construction in
existing and new transportation facilities, which will improve the operating conditions of the
estimated future movement flows where they are expected to overload most seriously on the
existing transportation network.

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2.2.1 Stages in the Transportation Planning Process
The principal stages or steps in urban transportation planning process are:
1) Inventor: Which comprises the development of a data base for evaluating existing
travel demand and existing transportation performance and a basis for producing demand
and future system requirement?
2) Land Use Forecast: Which involves forecasting the future urban system the
transportation network is designed to serve. This requires the estimation of intensities and
spatial distribution of population, employment, economic and social activities and land
use.
3) Trip Generation: This is the process that estimates the total number of trips being made.
It is used to estimate the number of trips generated or attracted by each zone and these
are set up as a function of the socio-economic and location structure.
4) Model Split: It is the proportional division of the total number of trips between different
modes of travel. It is based on the assumption that for a given travel demands, the
proportion carried by car, bus rail or boat will depend on the standing of each mode of
transport in relation to its competition.
5) Network Planning and Trip Assignment: Network planning aims to develop alternative
Waterways/Highway and public transport network for the selected land use plan while
traffic assignment allocates a given set of trip interchanges to a specific transport
network or system.
6) Evaluation: Involves the testing and evaluation of alternative networks in terms of each
alternative. The most common technique for evaluation is the use of cost-Benefit
Analysis. Modeling is to determine whether or not a specific solution will have a
particular effect when implanted in the system.

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2.3 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT
After centuries of gradual development in ship building and seafaring, the industrial
revolution opened a new era of rapid change in water transport. The introduction of the steam
engine in the late 18th
Century led to the development of the steamboats. The steamboat first
was used mainly on rivers. By the last half of the 19th
Century, steamships were taking the
place of slower sailing vessels on the open seas.
Plate 2.6 Steamship (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
During the century that followed, passenger and cargo fleets and powerful navies were built
following the swift and remarkable advances in marine technology. Particularly popular is the
molded fibre glass boat, in which fibre glass is combined with liquid resin under heat and
pressure to produce a one-piece, leak proof hull that is durable and resistant to marine borer's

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and to rot. During the 1960s fibre glass replaced wood as the most popular construction
material for small sailboats and power boats. On the other hand, wooden hulls were replaced
first by iron and then by steel hulls.
Plate 2.7 Fibre Glass Boat (source: Author’s Field work 2017 )
The paddle wheel gave way to the screw propeller - steam turbines displaced the early
reciprocating engines, wood and coal fuels were succeeded by oil and nuclear power. The
submarine was developed for war

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Plate 2.8 Paddle Wheel Boat (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
Technological advances in the late 18th and early 19th century, particularly the coming of
steam and the building of ships of iron, and later, of steel brought about changes in
propulsion and construction that were to lead to the emergence of the world’s merchant fleets
as they existed up to World War II. Early in the 19th century, the successful harnessing of
steam to ship propulsion was exploited by traders who were quick to realize the advantages
of speed provided by steam over sail.

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Plate 2.9 Propeller Boat (source: Author’s Field work 2017)

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2.4 Water Transportation Target
Transport has always been a necessary part of man’s life. The adequate implementation of his
activity has always depended on his ability to transport, and rate of transporting himself. The
American motorcar manufacturer, Henry Ford, reflected this in his remark, “Transportation is
civilization”. When we consider the saying “time is money”, we tend to view the process of
transportation as a necessary inconvenience. It would be ultimately desirable if we could
reduce transportation time to zero; subsequently we would be opportune to spend more time
implementing other activities. The businessman would be very appreciative if he could
disappear from his origin and reappear at his intended destination instantly. The concept of
teleportation is an expression of this desire in man. Apart from leisure purposes, like the
appreciation of scenery, and other abstract reasons, the most desirable duration of
transportation is no time at all. Another consideration in man’s transportation is the
economic factor; transportation cost is another undesirable feature in the process of
transportation, hence, man is constantly trying to reduce this cost considerably. Also notable
are the physical safety factors, experienced in the amount of energy needed to implement this
process. We can thus adjust our previous statement thus: he is constantly trying so hard to
reduce transportation time to the barest possible minimum, within the most attainable safety
limits, at the lowest possible financial cost, with as much ease as he can.
2.5 The Objectives of the National Transportation Policy
The social and economic needs of a country determine the roles of the transportation system
and indicate the problems to which the transportation policy should respond. The Nigerian
transportation system is very complex, and so are the problems associated with it. For
example the transportation infrastructure grows at a much lower rate than the rate of growth
in the social and economic sector, which the system services. Resources available in the

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transportation sub-sector are insufficient to meet the increasing need of the system. The
transportation policy acknowledges these complexities and provides a consistent general
approach and guide for the solution of these problems.
The Nigerian transportation policy therefore addresses the following goals, which are the
main thrust of the transportation policy.
i. Adequacy: Aims at ensuring that transportation infrastructure and services are adequate
to meet social and economic goals of government
ii. Efficiency: Concerns the most efficient use of these resources and the overall
improvement of the sector’s productivity.
iii. Safety: Requires that in the design of transportation infrastructure and the provisions of
transportation services, safety issues are given priority.
iv. Reliability: Aims at attracting specific importance to the role of transportation as a
catalyst for economic activities. Improvements in transportation sector productivities
lead directly to economic gains.
v. Self Reliance: Aims at reducing the reliance on materials and technologies sourced
abroad since this imposes a constraint on the economy by spending a large proportion
of foreign exchange to provide these materials and technologies.
2.6 History of Water Transportation in Nigeria before the Colonial Rule
The history of transportation is intimately tied to the long history of mankind. It is a story of
man's courage and ingenuity in overcoming obstacles to conquer the land (in case of land
transportation), to conquer the air (in case of air transportation) and to conquer the sea (in
case of water transportation). The history of water transportation in Nigeria did not occur in
isolation from other parts of the world.

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2.7 Review of Studies on Inland Waterways Transport in Nigeria
Fig. 2.2 Inland River Ports in Nigeria
Source: Nigerian Inland Waterway Authority (NIWA), 2012
Research and publications on inland water transport in Nigeria probably dates back to the
pioneering works of Professor R.K. Udo in the 1970s. Udo (1970) noted that water is one of
the natural resources which Nigeria has in abundance and that the country has the opportunity
to service most landlocked countries in West Africa such as Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and
Niger. Nigeria is richly endowed with surface water resources and that over 8000 kilometers
of the inland waterways are navigable.

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Plate 2.10 Cruise Boat (source: Author’s Field work 2017)
Several other researchers such as Adetola (1971), Etu-Effeotor and Odidi (1983) Badejo
(1995) Adams (1998, 1999, 2004), Ologunorisa (1999), Douglas (2001), Anyam (2003),
Ojile (2006), have written on various aspects of Inland Water Transport in Nigeria such as the
origin, advantages, neglect, management, problems and potentials of inland water
transportation. For instance, Badejo (1995) established that the River Niger, after which the
country is the named, and Benue, its largest tributary, are the main rivers whose channels
provide the longest waterways into the hinterland of the country. Both rivers rise outside the
country but meet at Lokoja confluence and later enter the gulf of Guinea through a large
network of creeks and distributaries which form the Niger Delta. They also noted that rapids
and falls are common along many Nigerian rivers and that these are partly responsible for the
fact that navigation is not possible along certain parts of these rivers.

32
In another study, Badejo (1995) discovered that the capacity of Nigerian navigable
waterways has increased to about 10,000 kilometers plus an extensive coastline of about 852
kilometers. Based on this, he noted that the country has a huge potential to move goods and
passengers from the coast to the hinterland by water. Also he regretted that the immense
opportunities which the Nigerian inland waterways provide for business is yet to be tapped by
potential investors. He established that despite her huge potentials, inland water transport is
yet to become an alternative means of transportation to road and air such that passengers and
cargo can sustainably and efficiently be moved to their destination through water. Similarly,
he lamented that inland water transport is yet to receive the attention it deserves from the
federal government particularly in the twin areas of funding and infrastructural development.
He outlined the physical impediments to improved performance in the sector to include non-
channelization and dredging of navigable rivers, inadequate construction and rehabilitation of
river ports, limited water transported infrastructures (comfortable boats, jetties and quays)
and safety and security concerns along these navigable waterways.
Ezenwaji (2010) focused on the poor use of inland rivers as transport routes in Nigeria. He
compared the percentage share of that transport mode to others in Nigeria and elsewhere. He
noted that in Bangladesh water transport constitutes 32% of the transport sector (Rahmam,
1994); 20% in Philippines (Fellinda, 2006); 3% in Sierra Leone (Kimba, 2008); 0.15% in
India (Raphuram, 2004) and only 0.08% in Nigeria despite the country’s rich endowment of
inland waterways (that cover over 8.575 kilometers) and some innovative initiatives
introduced by the Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA). He established, like earlier
researchers (Aderemo and Mogaji, (2010)), that several natural factors negatively affect the
utilization of inland waterways as transport routes in Nigeria.

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In a recent study, Obed, (2013) established that the viable opportunities which inland water
transport offer to investors include facility management, jetty operations and boat building.
He agreed with an earlier observation that security concerns discourage potential investors
from tapping into the viable business opportunities, which the Nigerian Inland Water
Transportation provides. There have also been several reports of consultancies by
development agencies and firms, aspects of which have dealt with diverse Inland Water
Transport development issues such as river channels dredging and maintenance, private
sector involvement in the water transport sector, construction and rehabilitations of river
ports, acquisition of passenger ferries, security boats, building of channels buoys and other
projects. The conclusions reached are that investment apathy on the part of investors and
conflicts between federal and state agencies involved in supervising Inland Water Transport
in Nigeria are some of the factors limiting the development of Nigerian’s Inland Water
Transport.
From the above review, it is crystal clear that the spatial structure of inland water transport
operations, its major contributions, socio-cultural constraints-limiting its operations and
policy thrusts and targets are relegated to the background in Nigeria’s economy. Hence, the
need for this study to reemphasize the numerous benefits of the inland water transport sector
in Nigeria.
2.8 Inland Waterways in Nigeria
The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) was established by Decree No. 13 1997
with a clear mandate to manage Nigeria’s vast inland waterways resources. The Decree
vested in the National Inland Waterways Authority, the absolute power of exclusive
management, direction and control on the Nigerian inland waterways. This power is

34
exercised on Nigeria’s 3000km navigable waterways from the Nigeria/Niger and
Nigeria/Cameroon borders to the Atlantic Ocean, so Nigeria’s inland waterway transportation
was suitable for North-South movement of people and goods. These waterways comprises of
the main river system (Rivers Niger and Benue which form a confluence in Lokoja), creeks,
lagoons, lakes and intra-coastal waters.
2.9 Functions of the National Inland Waterways
a) Regulatory Services
The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) issues licenses for Inland navigation,
piers, jetties and dockyard; examine and survey inland watercraft and shipyard operators,
grant permit and licenses for sand dredging, pipeline construction, dredging of slot and
approve designs and construction of inland river crafts.
b) Transport Services
The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) is equipped with a number of vessels,
enabling operation of ferry services (for economic goods and passengers) and run cruise
boats (for tourism and leisure). Many boats and ferries are refurbished and deployed to
respective routes by NIWA in a bid to fulfill its key function of operating safe and efficient
water transportation.
The importance of ports and inland waterways cannot be over-emphasized. It does not only
serve as a shelter for ships and goods but also perform other socio-economic functions in any
society. The ports generate foreign and local revenue and investment to any government.
Goods are usually imported and exported through ports and the investors pay duties and taxes
to the port administrators. It creates room for employment in the society. The port serves as a
tourist centre for people and nations of different backgrounds – be it economic, social,

35
political and cultural, as they come together to use these services. Businessmen, students and
all sorts of persons visit the ports for excursion, leisure and business activities. Due to the
hazardous nature of some goods like oil, gas, petroleum products and industrial equipment, it
is more convenient to transport them through the ports and inland waterways than by roads.
Ports activities help to promote urbanization and industrialization of any city and to ease
traffic congestions. In spite of the importance of ports and inland waterways, it has some
disadvantages, such as the use of it for arms deals, drug trafficking and other forms of social
vices.
2.10 The Contribution of Inland Water Transport to the Nigerian Economy
Field investigations revealed that inland water transport, especially in the deltaic areas of
Lagos, Rivers, Cross River, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom, plays a key role in rural development.
Its use to move goods and services was found to fuel the economic growth and rural
development of the local, coastal communities especially where it is the only means of
transport available. An official of The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) posited
that Inland Water Transportation forms an integral part of the region social fabric and plays a
pivotal role in assisting the people, especially the poor, in gaining access to social services,
employment opportunities and in benefiting from the nations’ economic agenda. Inland
Water Transportation enhances rural productivity and it is necessary for the continued
existence of the dispersed settlements in the region.
There were indeed reported and widespread evidences especially in the coastal states that
Inland Water Transportation promotes all facets of agro and other businesses- ranging from
crop production through fishery, production of basic materials, processing of timber products
to the promotion of rural development. Findings revealed that this mode of transport

36
promotes the growth of rural economics, both through its direct positive impacts on
commerce, agriculture and industries. In addition, it offers hundreds of millions of people the
opportunity to produce or purchase sufficient food, fish and other goods, especially in the
remote coastal communities where it remains the only means of transport available.
Chief Madueke, a one-time minister of Transport in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2001)
said that transport is to the Nigerian economy what artery is to the blood circulation system of
the body. Without maritime transport, Nigeria would have been landlocked and its economy
stagnant. Over 96% of the transportation of Nigeria’s external trade is by maritime transport.
The significant importance of the maritime transport to the Nigerian economy can be
identified in the following areas of its contribution namely:
i. Transportation:
The development of waterborne transport in Nigeria is induced and facilities not only by
its geo-physical features in which there are navigable inland waterways, direct access to
the Atlantic Ocean, but also because its economy is highly dependent on the exportation
of agricultural products and crude oil and the importation of machinery, equipment and
raw materials for its industries and finished goods. Therefore, if Nigeria had been without
maritime transport and so a landlocked country, it would have been difficult and
expensive for its residents to engage in international and domestic trade and this would
have created a great strain on other modes of transportation. It is maritime transport that
relieves other means of transport like rail, road and air and their infrastructure of available
infrastructure of avoidable pressure and congestion that they would otherwise have been
under, so maritime transportation carries those heavy cargo at less expensive cost.

37
ii. Promotion of Trade and Commerce:
Nigeria heavily relies on external trade to sustain its domestic economy through
importation of raw materials and equipment, machinery used by manufacturers and for
the exportation of its crude oil and agricultural and manufactured products. The
essentials of a reliable and cheap means of transportation which maritime transport
offers does not only make the landing cost of these cargoes lower but also makes it
possible for large quantity of tonnage to be carried over long distance and landed in
Nigeria, thereby reducing the cost of the imported and manufactured goods since
transportation cost is one of the variable costs of production. Maritime transport zones
are known for attracting numerous export companies; manufacturers that provide
employment opportunities to indigenes apart from revenue generation.
iii. Promotion of Tourism:
During festive periods and holidays, many in Nigeria cruise to beaches for picnics,
musical shows, entertainment and other relaxation purposes. Tourism, which maritime
transportation encourages and facilitates is an avenue through which the state and federal
government realizes revenue, channeled to developmental projects.
iv. Development of related Economic activities:
Maritime transport has caused the springing up of new developments and growth of
economic activities to service the maritime industry by way of multiplier effects.
Banks also show interest in financing the acquisition of vessels and in their charter whilst
insurance companies provide various insurance covers to cargo, freight, ships, hull and
machinery and other marine risks. The construction industry including the quantity

38
surveyors, building engineers are engaged in the construction, expansion and repairs and
dredging of ports and inland waterways. Information technologists are engaged to supply
and maintain computers, marine radio communication and radar systems for safe
navigation, pilots and sailors are engaged where necessary whilst freight forwarders,
shipping agents, shipping consultants, maritime lawyers arise to supply the needed
services for the maritime sector.
The increased turnover of those engaged in businesses relating to maritime transport
contributes to the gross domestic product and increased economic activities.
v. Creation of employment and job opportunities:
Maritime transport is also of significant importance to the Nigerian economy because it
creates employment opportunities for Nigerians thereby ensuring engagement of workers
and reduction of social problems induced by employment. The shipbuilding and repairs
industry employs workers to meet its various needs; seafarers/seamen, master, engineers
etc. are employed to meet the demands of the ship-owners, ship operators and demise
charterers for the operation and manning of the vessels. The business made available by
maritime transport to the various maritime transport-related Nigerian professionals
induces the need for the training of and availability of specialized personnel and
manpower to service the maritime industry. It has been argued that the maritime industry
in both its public and private sectors provides 10% of the job opportunities available in
Nigeria.
Chukwuma (2014) opined that the available jobs in the maritime industry have a
multiplier effect on the development of other economic activities like freight forwarding,
dock working, stevedoring operations, towage, pilotage, warehousing, marine insurance,

39
banking, bonded warehousing and cargo handling all of which depend on the maritime
sector for survival. It has also induced economic activities in the informal sector such as
petty trading, hawking and food vending all of which gainfully engage Nigerians.
vi.Industrial growth and development:
Industrialists prefer to build factories, industries and warehouses near waterfronts in
order to reduce transportation costs especially in the case of those industries that depend
heavily on imported raw materials and equipment in order to manufacture finished goods
for the domestic and foreign markets. This reduction in transport costs also reduce the
costs of their finished goods which in turn increases the sales of their products leads to
high annual turnovers and enhances their growth.
As a result of the Calabar port, the Calabar Free Trade Zone was set up pursuant to
which a lot of industries including foreign companies have been established and are still
being established there in order to manufacture goods for export there. Industries
engaged in manufacture of goods are also being deliberately sited by seaports and
waterfronts in order to take advantage of the attendant low cost of transportation of their
manufactured goods and production. Badejo (2000) revealed that 70% of industrial
activities of Nigeria were sited around the port cities of Lagos, Warri, Port Harcourt and
Calabar, consequently, the presence of ports due to maritime transport stimulates the
development and growth of industries, which facilitates the growth of the Nigerian
economy.

40
vii. Institutional Development:
Some institutions have been established in order to service the maritime sector and which
have been substantial contribution to the Nigerian economy because of maritime
transport. Some of these institutions are involved in the training and education of
manpower resources including seafarers and engineers for the maritime sector and
include Maritime Academy, Oron and the Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology,
Lagos.
viii. International relations and peaceful co-existence:
Nigeria is a member of International and regional maritime organizations including
International Maritime Organization, United Nations Environmental Programe, Maritime
Organization of West and Central African States from which it has been deriving
immense benefits because of maritime transport. Through its membership in these
organizations, Nigeria establishes and maintains friendly relations with co-members of
them and Nigeria cooperates with them in matters of safety of maritime transport and
protection and preservation of the maritime environment to the benefits of its economy.
The establishment and equipment of the Nigerian navy because of the presence of
maritime transport has enabled the Nigerian Navy to play active peace-keeping and
peace-enforcement roles in the West African countries of Liberia and Sierra Leone.
ix. Socio-political harmony:
There have been cases of inter-tribal and inter-national marriages involving seafarers of
various nationalities conducted on Nigerian vessels or foreign vessels within Nigerian
territorial waters because of the presence of maritime transport. This has encouraged the
unity of the various ethnic nationalities in Nigeria and encourages socio-political

41
harmony. Foreigners and foreign seafarers bringing their cultural attitudes to Nigerian
ports had also enhanced cultural exchanges due to the presence of ports and maritime
transport.
x. Defense and Security – Territorial Protection:
Badejo (2000) opined that the defense and security of the Nigerian territory from external
hostile espionage from aggressions and incursions through its territorial waters is in its
national interests and is facilitated by maritime transport. Under the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, up to the contiguous zone, Nigerian Customs and
Immigrations can put their border ports for their activities including checking of
smuggling. The Nigerian Navy is able to repel any such external aggression because of
the existence of maritime transport.
2.10 The Decline of Water Transportation in Nigeria
The Nigerian civil war (1967 to 1970) disrupted water transport severely as the lower Niger
and Delta waterways were in war theatre. Produce from the northern parts of the country
therefore had to find an alternative route to the Seaports for export. To a large extent, road
transport filled the gap. The reconstruction period after the war saw the Federal Government
of Nigeria making relatively large investment in road development. This resulted in
significant improvement and expansion in our road network. Our waterways received no such
investment and had no improvement. Some of the shipping companies lost most of their
floating and cargo handling equipment in the war and needed to repair/replace them to
operate. Also, the fact that road transport requires comparatively much smaller initial
investment and relatively simple organization to operate on small scale brought land
transportation business within the reach of many Nigerians.

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2.11 Water Transportation in Cross River State
Apart from the ancient dugout canoe, the major modes of water transportation are the
outboard engine boat, the in-board engine boat and the speedboat. Although the speedboat is
the smallest of them all, it is the fastest and the most flexible in spatial operation, essentially
because of its shallow draught. The out-board engine boat on the other hand is generally the
slowest but is usually more flexible than the in-board engine boat. The advantage of the in-
board engine boat lies in its carrying capacity. It has the largest carrying capacity when
compared to the speedboat and the out-board engine boat. Whereas the speedboat is strictly a
passenger vessel, the other types carry both goods and passengers.
The operators of the motorized boats are almost exclusively private entrepreneurs. Where
government is involved, the operations have been insignificant and largely unreliable
(Ikporukpo, 1994).
Generally, the most used mode is the out-board engine boats. This is very closely followed by
the speedboat, which leads in terms of the frequency of patronage by individuals. The most
important reason for mode choice is ready availability. However, cost, comfort and speed are
other reasons (Ikporukpo, 1994). The reasons for mode choice are to a large extent related to
the nature of transportation problem in the area. Consequently, the irregularity in operation
and cost are the most important criteria.

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2.12 General Planning Principles
2.12.1 Terminal Planning Principles
The allocation and arrangement of both outdoors and indoors spaces in a Boat terminal
requires some basic planning principles. These principles are highlighted below:
i. The terminal building should have be the core area or principle focus of the terminal
since it serves the primary function of the terminal, which is meeting the terminal
needs of transit passengers, originating passengers and terminating passengers.
ii. Planning efforts should be geared towards optimizing the site focus – size, shape,
topography etc.
iii. Waterside and landside activities should be separated
iv. Departure and arrival flow systems must be separated within the terminal.
v. The site must be planned to enhance the visual image of the terminal.
vi. Terminal facilities, especially the terminal building should be located so as to
guarantee good view of the activities at the waterfront.
2.13 Planning Requirements
2.13.1 Transit facilities
i. Transit facilities should have minimum distances from berthing area if they must
relieve tension in transit passengers.
ii. Security checks should be installed on all passengers’ arrival/departure routes.
iii. Transit facilities should aid for easy access evacuation.
iv. It should also aid easy transit between waterside and landside areas.

44
2.13.2 Maintenance Facilities
i. The maintenance workshop should have easy access to the berthing area. It should
be closely related to the fuel depot.
ii. It should be relatively open on the sides to encourage natural lighting and
ventilation.
iii. The roof of the workshop should be high enough to accommodate ferries due for
repairs.
2.13.3 Outdoor Facilities
i. Outdoor facilities should be planned to encourage tourism and visual satisfaction.
2.13.4 Prevailing Winds
The direction and velocity of prevailing winds over the surface of the water will be the
controlling factor in determining the direction of water lanes.
When the water landing area consists of a single lane (covering two wind directions) the
greatest percentage of wind coverage should be obtained. In many cases these single lane
operating areas cannot be oriented to take maximum advantage of the prevailing winds.
In this regard, a shifting of the direction of the water lane should be effected so as to utilize
the greatest possible wind coverage in conjunction with water currents and approach
conditions. The influence of approach zones and currents is explained under these two
respective headings that follow. Where all-way landings and takeoffs can be provided, a
study of the wind conditions will indicate the primary and secondary water-lane directions.

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2.13.5 Arrivals and Departure Zones
For boat terminal operations the ideal approach zone is one which permits unobstructed
approaches over water at a ratio of 40 :1 or flatter, with ample clearance on either side of the
approach zone center line.
The width of the zone should increase from the ends of the water lanes so that at a distance of
1 mi from the end of the water lane, the zone is approximately the width of the water lane
plus 1,000 ft. Under favorable temperature conditions a water-borne boat will leave the water
and move a distance of approximately 400 ft. before kicking off with speed. Furthermore, for
obvious safety reasons, arrivals and departures should not be made over populated areas,
beaches and similar shore developments.
2.13.6 The Shoreline Area
Shoreline installations are partly on land and in the water. They are required to perform two
general functions:
i. To provide servicing, loading and unloading, handling and tie-up facilities for
boats without removing them from the water, and
ii. To provide haul-out facilities for removing boats from the water.
The types, size, and arrangement of these installations will be determined by water
conditions, the topography of the land adjacent to the water, the configuration of the bottom
of the water area, the number and type of boats to be docked or removed from the water, and
wind conditions. The installation will vary from a simple wood-plank platform to the more
elaborate ramps with railway facilities, piers, and floats.

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2.13.7 Ramps
The simplest form of ramp consists of a wood-plank platform approximately 15 by 20 ft., lay
on a sloping shore, with half its length in water. A device such as this will allow a small boat
to taxi up and out of the water. The use of such a ramp is predicated upon a relatively
constant water level and the shore slope no steeper than 8 to 1.
The slope of any ramp should not be greater than 7 to 1, with gradual slopes down to 10 to 1
being preferred. Slopes less than 10 to 1 usually are too long and hence costly to construct.
Chapter 4 shows the maximum draft of seaplanes of various weights and types. These data
are useful in determining the depth to which the submerged ends of a ramp roust be lowered.
A depth of ramp toe of 4 ft. will provide sufficient depth for most types of waterborne craft in
use today; a depth of 3 ft. will permit handling of all but the heaviest type of amphibians. For
small, light, boats a depth of about 18 in. is adequate. In all cases, this dimension should be
established for mean low water.
2.13.8 Piers
Piers or fixed over-water structures can be utilized where the variation in water level is 18 in,
or less. The pier should extend into the water to a point where the water depth is adequate for
the types of boats to be handled.
The usual design for a pier incorporates an access walk approximately 5 ft. in width with
hand railings on both sides and an open-decked handling area approximately 30 by 50 ft. at
the walk's end. An open-docked area of this size will provide tie-up space for four small or
three large boats. On long piers where the walking distance is too great for convenient
handling of service equipment, a small storage shed may be located near the open-decked
area. Fueling and lubrication facilities should also be located at the end of the pier.

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2.13.9 Access
Access to the land area, both for customers and for service and delivery, should ordinarily be
a two-way, all-weather road. However, when a long access road is required and the traffic to
and from the facility is not seasonal but relatively constant and without peaks, a one-way road
will suffice. In such cases, turn-outs should be provided at convenient intervals. The plan
should be designed for one traffic connection with the main highway or street, in order that
its free-way may be preserved. A public highway should never be used as a part of the road
system within a project if public use for through traffic is to continue after the project has
been put into operation. Through traffic will unduly congest the land facility, could be
hazardous to pedestrians, and splits the property into two separate units which is undesirable.
2.13.10 Roads
Vehicular circulation must be provided for deliveries of gasoline, oil, fuel, and for refuse
removal. These routes will influence walks and interior road system and to some extent the
patterns of the master plan. In order to reduce development costs and maintenance, it is
advisable to concentrate buildings for certain uses in areas with servicing facilities such as a
service road, on one side. When topography and shape of tract are favorable, this type of plan
affects economy.
Roads should be planned economically, but must be adequate in width to serve the
anticipated traffic, to permit easy circulation and safe driving. In some instances, they may
afford parking space on one or both sides, depending on the solution of a particular site
problem. Some service roads may be desired for limited use. In such cases the entrance can
be barred by removable posts or chains.

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2.13.11 Parking
Areas Provision of parking for cars must be made. As previously mentioned, one should
allow one car for each based watercraft, one car for each employee, plus a ratio of visitors'
cars commensurate with the judgment of local interest in the use of the facility.
Parking areas should not be located so that pedestrians must cross a public road to reach the
facility proper. This creates unnecessary hazard, particularly to unescorted children who
might dash across the public highway. Parking areas should be located convenient to the
onshore and shoreline facilities. In no case should the pedestrians be required to walk a
distance greater than 200 ft. from the parking area or service road to reach buildings or
shoreline.
2.13.12 Walks
All walks should be laid out for direct access to and from the facilities to be reached. Like
roads, they should not be oversized in the interest of economy of construction and
maintenance.
Recommended walks widths are:
Capacity Width meters
Public walk serving less than 100 persons 3
Normal standard walk 4
Walk serving over 400 people 5
Table 2.1 Recommended Walks Widths (source: Architect’s Data 3rd
Edition)

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These problems enumerated above do not favor tourism and making travelling uncomfortable
and expensive for passengers and also discourage prospective passengers. These problems
can be solved if and when proper attention is given to them.
2.13.13 Jetties
For easy embarkation on and disembarkation from the crafts by passengers, it is very
important that good jetties with appropriate conveniences, comfort and shelter in addition to
office facilities for the staff and the passengers and their goods respectively be provided at
each station. Very important as well is the provision of appropriate mooring facilities at each
station as it is very dangerous to use canoes to off-load passengers and freight mid-stream.

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Fig. 2.3 Types of Berthing Facilities
(source: Architect’s Data 3rd
Edition)

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Fig. 2.4 Types of Mooring Facilities
(source: Architect’s Data 3rd
Edition)
In Nigeria we have quite a number of these facilities in the urban and some Riverine areas.
Many communities are up to date practicing the crude method of embarking from crafts mid-
stream because they lack jetties. Also in places where jetties are provided, it is common to
see that the complementing facilities are either not provided or poorly maintained.
Circulation patterns are important in organizing elements of a boat terminal, reflecting both
simple functional needs and more complex value structures. The system or pattern of
circulation established within and outside the terminal plays an important role in shaping
people’s understanding and use of the terminal.
Circulation patterns in any terminal should not lack simplicity and clarity. There is therefore
an urgent need to improve the flow of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and to locate material
handling facilities and parking appropriately. Addressing these circulation issues through
comprehensive planning, and design, will enhance the use of the Terminal. For an effective

52
circulation in a boat terminal, certain key parameters have to be considered such as vehicular
and pedestrian circulation.
2.14 Design Principles and Considerations
2.14.1 Vehicular Circulation: There are three to four separate classes of vehicular circulation
in a Terminal. These relate to parking access, service and delivery access, and circulation by
maintenance staff. A fourth category is emergency vehicle access. All these will be taken into
consideration during the design to accommodate all of these movements safely and with
minimal conflict with those on foot. Another step is to make vehicular circulation and
parking safe and convenient.
2.14.2 Pedestrian Circulation: Planning for the pedestrian can be a very complex undertaking,
but it is an essential function both within and outside the terminal. Terminals which have a
well-planned and functional pedestrian network are typically more livable and convenient for
pedestrians. A well-planned pedestrian circulation system can also provide a Terminal with
safe areas for individuals to walk. Such a system can, furthermore, promote a healthy
interaction between different types of land uses, build a more complete sense of
neighborhood, and provide for a greater appreciation of the natural beauty of the area.
Generally, access and circulation are critical to the success of a terminal at large. In this
research, circulation patterns and access points are established with the intent of minimizing
impacts on the surrounding facility. And this would done by providing clear, safe vehicular
movement; directing traffic into the terminal area and to appropriate parking locations;
accommodating appropriate quantities of parking at or near destinations; and allowing
convenient access for emergency, service, and delivery vehicles.

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2.15 Orientation
To effectively relate the terminal structures such as sun, wind, weather patterns, topography,
landscape; the following must be considered:
i. Orienting the most populated building spaces towards the north and south
exposures to maximize day lighting and natural ventilation benefits.
ii. Shielding windows and openings from the direction of harsh winter winds and
storm to reduce heating loads.
iii. Maximize north and south façade exposure so as to introduce daylight into the
internal space.
iv. Orienting the building on the site in relation to the cardinal points so as to
maximize the benefits of the prevailing tropical trade winds (north-east trade and
south-west trade winds).
2.16 Ventilation and Lighting
These three factors form the basis of any facility. Efforts will be made in the use of proper
landscape, provision of strategic openings and proper building orientation to achieve both
cross and corner ventilation. Windows and doors openings should be located at relevant
locations so as to achieve illumination of the internal spaces where necessary. The openings
however must be protected against sun and rain penetration.
2.17 Structures and Materials
Walls, floors and roofs should be provided with high thermal capacity; there is need to
protect buildings against rain. For the jetties however floating docks will be provided to meet
the challenges of the rise and fall of tides.

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2.18 Warehouse Planning Principles
There are several basic principles that apply to warehouse layout design, and running an
effective distribution center operation. Without the proper layout and design of your
distribution center, no matter the square footage, you will be facing capacity issues, decrease
in productivity, and storage inadequacies.
This is a short list of these areas that should be addressed in your warehouse operations
planning and facility layout.
1. Use the cube: Make sure you are utilizing the potential storage space/cube of the
distribution center. Ensure that vertical space as well as individual location cubic
capacity is fully utilized. Maximize cube as well as ground level square feet.
2. Focus on slotting, replenishment, and location control system. These three
activities form the backbone of the operation and should be given the appropriate
attention. If they are cared for, much of the rest of the operation will run effectively.
3. Maintain flexibility in the operation and layout. Planning for unknown future
changes to the business or fulfillment model is a necessity to avoid unnecessary costs
to make unplanned changes to the facility and operation. Don’t develop a layout or
process that is inflexible or not scalable.
4. Minimize congestion and interference with smooth flow. Avoid unnecessary
congestion or overcrowding in the distribution center. The time lost due to
overcrowding or congestion is significant.
5. Use a variety of location storage media for slotting and reserve as dictated by
item cubic velocity. The “one size fits all” approach rarely works to maximize
efficiency in space and labor performance.
6. Minimize travel walking time. Since more than half of the total labor time you pay
for in the distribution center is spent walking, any efforts to reduce travel distance and

55
time will pay off in reduced labor costs. Effective layout and slotting processes can
help reduce walking time.
7. Use conveyors for horizontal transport of product. Whenever possible, the use of a
simple transfer conveyor system can improve operating efficiencies by reducing
handlings and walk time. Make sure the cost of the equipment is justified. Conveyor
selection is based on the size and weight of the product and the throughput volume.
Accumulation has to be planned for in any conveyor design.
8. Provide adequate accumulation and storage space on docks. Inefficiencies caused
by lack of space on docks gets the operation off to a bad start and not only cause’s
inefficiencies in the operations on the dock but ripples down to and can negatively
affect other distribution center functions.
9. Have enough dock doors. Since the expense of providing enough dock doors for
inbound and outbound use is relatively small, and the impact of not having enough
doors large, invest to make sure you are not slowing down the operation.
10. Cross dock where possible. The ability to omit steps in the fulfillment process and
take receipts directly to the packing and shipping function will save time. Consider
using cross docking for backorder processing as the item is received.
11. Use bar codes as much as possible. Consider applications to reduce labor and
improve efficiency in as many areas of the fulfillment process as possible.
12. Keep 15% of locations open and available. This may not be possible 100% of the
time, but having space available to store inventory in picking and reserve locations is
a key factor.
13. Measure and report productivity to employees. The fact that most employees want
to know what’s expected of them and how they are measuring up to those

56
expectations should guide the reporting process in the warehouse to improve
performance.
14. Move as much product at one time as possible. Maximizing the product per trip
will reduce the total trips and time required. Applications can be found in the picking,
put away, replenishment, etc. distribution center functions.
15. Single line orders. Batch-pick singles as much as possible.
16. Staff involvement. Involve your distribution center staff in decision making relating
to facility layout or operations planning. Those closest to the process usually
understand it best.
17. Slotting procedures are critical. Try to provide primary pick space for one week’s
average unit sales for each SKU. Focus on the top 10% of fast selling SKUs to ensure
that they are properly slotted. Make sure the slotting process is maintained as a
dynamic, ongoing process.
18. Have well-designed pack station. Since the majority of distribution center labor is
spent in the packing function, it makes sense to ensure that all of the required
materials are available for the packer and that adequate workspace is provided.
19. Stagger shift start times. Make sure that your schedule for distribution center staff
coincides with work being available. Consider off shift activities to minimize
interference with other distribution center functions.
20. Aisle mapping. A simple process that validates that the correct item is in the
assigned location will save headaches in other distribution center activities.
21. Automation. Provide for the level of automation that can be cost-justified based on
your particular operation and cost structure. Look for 18-month payback as a
guideline.

57
22. Flow charts. Develop a process flow chart that tracks a receipt through the putaway
process and an order from replenishment to shipping, showing the path and number of
times the product is touched.
23. Staff involvement. Involve your distribution center staff in decision making relating
to facility layout or operations planning. Those closest to the process usually
understand it best.
24. Plan for an appropriate level of inspection. Don’t over inspect where not required.
Pick the best function and inspection level to set quality requirements.
25. Make sure that you provide adequate lighting levels based on the type function
to be performed. Processes requiring detailed inspection of documents should have a
higher light level than a bulk storage zone in the distribution center.
26. Aisle widths in the distribution center:
Conventional - 10–12 feet
Narrow aisle - 8–9 feet
Very Narrow Aisle - 44–66 inches

58
Effective management of warehouses is one of the main issues that deal with the
competitiveness of companies. Optimal allocation of products and successful inventory
management are directly related with the warehouse management and they can be improved
through the design of an efficient warehouse layout. The design of warehouse’s layout
represents one of the priority tasks of successful manufactures. An optimal warehouse layout
contributes to decrease the overall production costs and to reduce the overall time required
for the orders management and fulfillment. A better allocation of shift and products leads, in
fact, to the reduction of times and costs generated by handling operations.

59
Obviously, an effective warehouse management is directly related with the warehouse layout.
Several authors investigated the problem of inventory management as a consequence of the
effective design of warehouse lay-out.
Traditional methodologies for layout design are based on the analysis and evaluation of
different layout configurations by means of qualitative tools, based on the definition of a
networks of locations and materials flows.

60
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Existing Situations - Case Studies
Preamble
Case studies are the tool for near accurate assessment and projection of the present and the
future respectively. The importance of case studies in projects of this nature is expressively
summarized by Eero Saarinen (1960): Who said;
“Naturally, I do not believe in eclecticism or limitation, but I think it is very important every
now and then to look carefully at the architecture of other times so that we can test the
degree of fulfillment of our architecture against theirs”.
The case studies, both local and foreign vividly projected the image of water transportation
and particularly terminal architecture (for boats) of the past and present. The studies unfold
information from which deductions and interferences were made for the purpose of this
research.
The proposed design for the Boat terminal Complex will be aimed at improving the ideal
qualities in the cases studied and solving the problems that have been identified in the study.

61
Local Case Studies
3.1 Case Study One: Bom Kono Waterside, Kono Town,
Khana l.g.a, Rivers State
3.1.1 Analysis of Case Study
3.1.2 Location
The Bom Kono Waterside is sited in Kono town in Khana Local Government Area of Rivers
State. It is a state owned jetty for the transportation of people from the upland of the state to
the riverine area. It was constructed by the Inland Waterway Authority Rivers District.
3.1.3 Terminal Facilities
The facilities provided at the terminal include;
i. A waiting area
ii. Small private owned temporal kiosks for the sale of refreshments
iii. Jetty / landing platform
iv. Restaurant and Bar
v. Private parking for car owners traveling
vi. Bus terminal
vii. Life jacket store
viii. An office

62
Fig. 3.1.1 Layout of Terminal
Source: Author’s field study (2017)
Approach View of Terminal and the waiting area
Plate 3.1.1 Source: Author’s field study (2017)

63
Plate 3.1.2 Rear side view and Right side view
Plate 3.1.3 One of the jetty/landing platform and Small private owned temporal kiosks for the sale of
refreshments along the road to the terminal

64
Plate 3.1.4 The arrival/departure point and entrance to the restaurant and bar
Plate 3.1.5 Private parking and Bus Terminal
3.1.4 Layout and Organization
The terminal is really not planned or designed for an elaborate passenger travel service but
for a short stay passenger service where passengers are dropped off and they move straight to
their bus terminal, but it is not worthy of study because, it was not well planned.

65
3.1.5 Operations
This terminal is operated by the Maritime Worker’s Union of Nigeria (MWUN).
3.1.6 Construction Materials
The building is a bungalow that is made up of just a waiting area, an office and storage. It is
constructed with solid sand screed blocks, wooden windows to throw in light, but the
entrance permanently open to let in air. It is rectangular in form.
The external and internal walls are plastered to a rough finish and also painted. The entire
building is painted in a combination as shown in the figure below. The floor is finished in
cement / sand screed floor finish. The ceiling is asbestos. The sits are built in as part of the
structure. They are made from cast in place concrete with some reinforcements.
3.1.7 Appraisal
Merits
i. Easy access to the terminal.
ii. Good site location
Demerits
i. The bus terminal is not planned for that purpose.
ii. The waiting area is small for both arriving and departing passengers.
iii. The terminal building has no convenience.

66
3.2.0. Case Study Two: Lagos State Ferry Service Mile II Terminal Lagos
3.2.1 Location
The terminal building is located along Dan canal and the Mile II major bus stop. It is one of
the 10 existing ferry terminals in Lagos State.
3.2.2 Appraisal
Merits
i. Parallel to water front to enhance view and space utilization (Good orientation).
ii. Long and wide concrete jetty to berth, spacious for passengers and goods.
iii. Good location of snack bar.
Demerits
i. No drop-off point for arriving and departing passengers.
ii. The waiting area is small for both arriving and departing passengers.

67
Fig 3.2 Floor Plan Lagos state Ferry Service Mile II TERMINAL
Foreign Case Study
3.3 Case Study Three: Glen Cove Ferry Terminal and Boat Basin City of Glen Cove,
Nassau County, South-Eastern New York
3.3.1 Analysis of Case Study
3.3.2 History of the Creek
City of Glen Cove founded on the banks of the creek
Saw Mill supplied NYC with lumber in the late 17th century
Excavation and sale of clay became prominent in the early 19th century

68
First steamboat operation in 1829 – Glen Cove to NYC
City becomes resort community
Industry became prominent in latter half of 19th century and declined through latter half of
20th century
3.3.3 Overall Project Criteria
i. Provide for an appropriately sized Ferry Terminal Building Iconic public building &
outdoor gathering place.
ii. Programmable for public events.
iii. Environmentally Sustainable.
iv. Maintain existing location of Esplanade Bike and Pedestrian access to be provided
through project unimpeded.
v. Maintain existing location of Esplanade Unimpeded Bike and Pedestrian access to be
provided.
vi. Design berthing area with flexibility to accommodate many vessels Side and front
loading.
vii. Provide fuelling facilities and pump out clean fuelling options considered and designed –
Clean Diesel and CNG.
viii. Provide parking for 200 vehicles.
3.3.4 Terminal Building Objectives
i. Iconic building with nautical elements
ii. Functional user flow patterns
iii. Direct links to parking
iv. Open plan on single space (two levels)

69
v. Visual & Pedestrian link to water’s edge
vi. Café as recreational activator
vii. Programmable catering/ special event areas
viii. Security
ix. Waiting area with “Overlook”
x. Ticketing areas on both levels
xi. Vertical “Beacon” element
xii. Locate building within Master plan context
3.3.5 Building Program
Space Size (gross square feet)
i. Waiting Room for 100 Passengers 2,500
ii. Seating Area 600
iii. Ticketing / Information Counter 120
iv. Manager Office 120
v. Café / Seating Area 300
vi. Toilet Rooms (men and women) 250
vii. Maintenance and Utility Closet 150
viii. Harbor Master Office 400
ix. Outdoor Observation Area 600
x. Building Mechanical 650
xi. Transition Space 800
xii. Vending / ATM 300
xiii. Storage 300
xiv. Security 250

70
xv. Elevator 100
3.3.6 Site Conditions
There is little or No Activity On-site or to the West, there are industrial and Water-related
Uses to the East with existing bulkhead. Existing Esplanade to the West with minimum
utilities and drainage system.
3.3.7 Appraisal
Merits
i. This is an ideal terminal project for tourism, sports, recreation and transportation. All the
necessary facilities are provided for.
ii. There is adequate parking space.
iii. Proper separation of pedestrian and vehicular ways.
3.3.8 Drawings

71
Fig. 3.3.1 Floor Plans Source: GCFerry, (2004) Glen Cove Ferry Terminal and Boat Basin,
http://www.glencoveferry.org,

72
Fig. 3.3.2 The Layout Source: GCFerry, (2004) Glen Cove Ferry Terminal and Boat Basin,
Fig. 3.3.3 Ariel View Source: GCFerry, (2004) Glen Cove Ferry Terminal and Boat Basin,

73
CHAPTER FOUR
PLANNING AND DESIGN – ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
For a proper design and adequate solution for a Boat Terminal, certain factors have to be
taken into consideration. These factors will help proffer solution to the problems identified
and also aid in achieving the aims and objectives of this project.
The factors to consider are as follows:
4.1 Reinforce the Inherent Qualities of Each Place on the Waterfront
i. Make the waterfront a regular part of the lives of more people.
ii. Make the waterfront inviting to people on foot.
iii. Accommodate transportation routes with minimum disruption to pedestrian character
iv. Reinforce a unique “sense of place” at different waterfront locations.
v. Promote a balanced mix of commercial, retail, housing, light industry, marine-related
businesses, transportation facilities sub and recreation.
vi. Enhance open spaces.
vii. Complement adjacent uses.
4.2 Functional Design Requirements
Location of transportation routes which will enable proper planning of entrances, exits, as
well as location of facilities, the services to be rendered by the terminal, the nature and
volume of traffic (pedestrian, vehicles and goods). These will help determine the size,
arrangement and type of facilities required in the terminal, the organization of spaces in the
terminal, the nature of ferry/boat operations, the nature of the site.

74
With these in mind, certain facilities have to be present to enable the water transport terminal
function efficiently. They should serve all users of the terminal, passengers, tourist or staff
and could be regarded as follows:
i. Tourist/Passenger Facilities
ii. Staff facilities
iii. Administration
iv. Service and maintenance facilities
v. Supporting facilities
These facilities will now be further discussed.
4.2.1 Tourist/Passenger Facilities
Tourist/Passenger facilities are those that serve the passengers. They include:
i. Vehicular parking spaces for tourist and passengers
ii. The entrance
iii. Waiting/recreation room
iv. Ticketing/information facilities
v. Arrival and departure lounges
vi. Shops
vii. Restaurant and bar
viii. Kitchen
ix. Public conveniences
x. First aid facilities

75
i. Vehicular Parking Spaces for Tourist and Passengers
Parking spaces should be provided for private ferries, boats and yacht owners. There should
also be provision of parking spaces for tourist and passengers who may arrive in hired cars or
their own private cars and some may wish to keep their cars there over night or longer. It
should be near the entrance and the number of parking spaces will depend on the number of
passengers that arrive in cars. There should be free movement in and out of the spaces.
ii. The Entrance
The entrance of any successful public building should be celebrated. It is one of the most
important architectural elements that should beckon on the users and usher them into the
building. It should be easily identifiable and accessible to minimize users asking for
directions. As a channel of movement from the vast, open, outer spaces into the interior, the
users should enjoy a pleasant transition experience and also be able to move in any direction
they desire after entering the building.
iii. Waiting /Recreation Room
This is a grand space where tourist and passengers relax and wait in comfort while waiting
for information, buying tickets, checking in or bidding farewell to well-wishers. To enhance
their comfort, adequate sitting arrangements, television, indoor games such as chess, darts,
ludo lighting, ventilation and toilet facilities as well as a pleasant over view of the lake,
plants, pictures, should be provided.
iv. Ticketing / Information Facilities
These are facilities where passengers can pay for their fare and be issued tickets as well as
pay for luggage if they have any. The information facility provides information regarding

76
activities of the terminal such as routs piled by ferries, arrival and departure times of ferries,
transport fares, etc. They should be located where they can be easily seen by a passenger once
he enters the terminal and should be located so as not to conflict with other activities.
v. Arrival and Departure Lounge
These are transition points where arriving or departing tourist/passengers can rest before
commuting. The sizes of these lounges depend on the peak periods as well as their length of
stay in the lounges.
vi. Shops
Shops will be provided to carter for the needs of tourist and travellers, arriving and departing,
as well as other visitors to the terminal. They should be strategically located so that visitors to
the terminal will be drawn to them on entering the building. Their size and number will
depend on the volume of users as well availability of users.
These shops could be rented out to private individuals to run directly by the terminal
authorities. They should be one of the means of fund generation.
vii. Kitchen
This should serve the bar and restaurant and should be located next to the restaurant. The
layout of the kitchen should depend on the nature, sizes and use of equipment. The size of the
kitchen should also depend on the size of staff as well as customers. A ratio of 3:1 between
the dining and kitchen should be used. The bar should be about 50% of the total kitchen and
dining area. Circulation space should be about 30% of the total area.

77
viii. Public Conveniences
These include toilets. These facilities should be provided for both male and female. Toilets
should be accessible to the waiting lounges. The number of public toilets shall depend on the
projected visitors and passengers’ volume. A ratio of 1 toilet to about 25 persons is adequate.
They should also be placed together for easy servicing and economy.
ix. First Aid Facilities
First aid facilities should be provided for emergency reasons. These should cater for accident
victims and sick travellers that can be temporarily treated there before being transferred to a
bigger hospital. The space should contain consultation and treatment rooms.
4.2.2 Staff Facilities
These are facilities to ensure efficient working conditions. They include: Staff conveniences
(toilets and shower cubicles) and Staff parking.
I. Staff Parking Spaces
Parking spaces, separate from the public parking space, should be provided for the staff. It
should be located near the staff facilities. The number will depend on staff strength as well as
on the number of staff who have cars. It is assumed that one out of every 10 workers has a
car; spaces may also be provided for bicycles and motorcycles.
II. Administrative Facilities
These are facilities to ensure efficiency of staff output. The administrative division is divided
into the following sections;
i. Administrative Section.
ii. Navigation Section.

78
iii. Maintenance Section.
iv. Diving and Swimming Section.
i. Administrative Section
This is the arm responsible for the general administration of the terminal. Matters such as
payment of salaries, preparation of staff leave etc. are handled by this section. Offices shall
be provided for the terminal manager, assistant manager, conference room account room, and
clerical officers.3
ii. Navigation Section
This arm is responsible for running and maintenance of ferries and the entire dockyard. It is
involved with the creation of beacon, buoys signs, etc. Duties are also delegated to various
staff, jetties and ferries by this sector.
iii. Engineering Section
This arm is responsible for all engineering matters of the terminal. These are operation and
maintenance of ferries, machinery, fabrication and welding, and technical repairs that go on
in the terminal.
Offices shall be provided for the Quartermaster, marine Engineer, and Harbor Master.
A control room shall be provided for the radio department honoring all communications of
equipment and connecting them to all parts of the terminal and it requires 21 hours daily
operation. It shall have the following facilities:
i. A radio control base.
ii. Typing space.
iii. Office desks.
iv. A telephone switchboard.
v. Teleprinter table.

79
4.3 Other Support Facilities
Other support facilities to be provided for the terminal to ensure its smooth running are:
Service, fuelling and maintenance
Security facilities
Warehouse
Refuse collection and disposal.
i. Service, Fuelling and Maintenance
Small repairs and servicing can be carried out in the terminal dockyard. Major repairs will
have to be transferred to marine base repair workshop nearby which is nearby.
Ferries shall be serviced and fuelled on a weekly basis. Fuelling pumps shall be provided
away from the terminal building.
ii. Security Facilities
Security facilities shall be provided throughout the terminal. Security posts shall be provided
to guard against theft of goods and terminal facilities. Physical security measures are need for
the terminal building, the hotel accommodation and the surrounding areas. These measures
include:
Closed Circuit Television: security surveillance cameras will be incorporated into the design
at specific locations, example: queuing and security checkpoints and throughout the terminal
in general.
Intrusion Detection: Intrusion Detection Alarm System is installed and the alarms are located
at all major entrances and exits, including all gate locations.
Door Security: Cypher locks are installed on service doors and Funds room.

80
iii. Warehouse
Store provision shall be made for the collection and disposal of refuse to ensure a healthy and
attractive environment. Facilities such as refuse bins and a refuse yard shall be provided and
properly located.
4.4 Design Considerations
The building has been divided into different parts for the design considerations to be made.
These are:
i. The foundation
ii. The floor
iii. The walls
iv. The framing systems
v. The roof
4.4.1 The Foundation
A foundation is any part of a structure that transmits building loads evenly into the earth’s
crust or rock which is usually below ground level. That part of the walls, piers and columns
in direct contact with and transmitting load to the ground. It bears loads (both live and dead)
directly on the soil or earth’s crust. The foundation system are designed to distribute vertical
loads so that settlement of the building is limited, negligible or uniform under the entire
building as well as designed to anchor the superstructure of the building against natural
disasters such as uplift, seismic winds racking forces, and earth quakes. It is important to
determine the construction type as well as the subsequent building functions before choosing
a foundation type. Also, it is necessary that adequate information about the soils analysis be
obtained. This will enable one make the right choice.

81
The basic foundation types include the following:
i. Strip foundation
ii. Pad foundation
iii. Raft foundation
iv. Pile foundation
The foundation type to be used for the terminal is the pile foundation. This is because of the
nature of the soil at the water front and because the building will be both on land and water.
The pile foundation is able to transmit the load to firm strata beneath the ground. The depths
of the piles can range between 4.5m to 30m or even more depending on the building type.
The material used for construction of the piles is reinforced concrete, the section and mix of
which shall be determined by the architect and structural engineer.
The piles can either be formed on site by boring a hole and pouring the concrete and placing
the reinforcements inside, or by driving the already formed piles into the ground.
4.4.2 The Floor
These are primary horizontal planes of buildings which support both live loads and dead
loads acting on a building. Structurally, the floor must transfer these laterally to either beams
or columns or bearing walls, while providing at the same time lateral support for adjacent
walls.
Floors come in direct contact with people, furniture, equipment, vehicles, etc. and so need to
meet certain requirements:
i. Stability
ii. Fire resistant
iii. Moisture proof
iv. Sound and heat insulation

82
Floors are usually horizontal with changes of level in some cases. Different finishes,
depending on use and desired aesthetics, may be applied to floor. Their application depends
on certain factors such as:
i. Type of load acting on the floor e.g. heavy equipment, foot traffic, vehicular movement,
etc.
ii. Where sound absorption is required.
iii. Where resistance to abrasion, chemicals is required.
iv. Where qualities like color, smoothness, ease of maintenance, etc. are required.
v. Where minimal cost is desired.
Types of floors include concrete slab, steel joist, waffle/ribbed concrete slab etc.
Different floor finishes include clay tiles, vitrified tiles, ceramic tiles, wood, terrazzo, asphalt,
plastics, marble, paladin, rubber, cork wood block and magnetite. It is important to ensure
that the floor on the jetties and gangways is not slippery to avoid people slipping. Like walls,
floors should be durable. Durable and appropriate floor materials in high traffic areas and
Food preparation areas, such as terrazzo tile, quarry tile, or ceramic tiles are recommended.
Patterned carpet tile is recommended in seating area, offices, conferences and hotel lodges.
4.4.3 The Walls
Walls are continuous, vertical, solid structure of made of either brick, stone, concrete, timber
or metal which enclose and protect a building from its surrounding environment and also
divide interiors of buildings into compartments. Walls could be load bearing- those that carry
imposed loads or Non-load bearing- those that carry their own weight. They may be bearing
planar of homogenous or composite construction or they may be composed of linear bearing
elements (posts and columns) with non-structural panels filling in between them. The
structural compatibility of this system and the type of connection and material use determines

Architectural Framework For The Development Of Boat Terminals

Architectural Framework For The Development Of Boat Terminals

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