Islamic Art & Architecture

1. ISLAMIC ART
I. Intro to Islam
 The Prophet Mohammed
 The 5 Pillars of Islam
 The Kaaba & the Hajj
 The Mosque
II. Early Period (c. 640-900 C.E.)
• From the rightfully guided caliphs who succeeded
Muhammad, through the Umayyads' Dome of the Rock and
Great Mosque of Damascus, to the decline of Abbasids rule.
III. Medieval Period (c. 900-1517 C.E.)
• The Fatimids (909-1171) ruled north Africa, and parts of Syria
and the Seljuqs contolled eastern Islamic lands and
eventually Iran, Iraq and much of Anatolia.
IV. Later Period (c. 1517 –1924 C.E.)
• The Ottomans, a small Turkic state in Anatolia, emerged as a
major military and political force and conquered
Constantinople, the Balkans, the Near East, and North Africa.
The Taj Mahal, a silk carpet, a
Qur‘an; all of these are
examples of Islamic art. But
what exactly is Islamic art and
architecture?

2. Islam, Judaism, & Christianity
 “Religions of the Book”
 Monotheistic
 Share many holy sites (Jerusalem)
 Share many prophets (Abraham)
 “Abrahamic faiths”
Great Mosque at Damascus

3. Islam was founded by
Muhammad (c. 570-632 C.E.),
a merchant from the city of
Mecca, now in modern-day
Saudi Arabia.
The Kaaba (in Mecca) is the
focus of pilgrimage for
Muslims.

4. Muhammad born in 570 C.E. in Mecca
c. 610 C.E.: Angel Gabriel visitation
“The Prophet”
1st convert: wife

5. Muhammad's divine recitations = the Qu’ran
 organized into verses (ayat)
621 C.E. VISION: “Night Journey” (w/Angel Gabriel): from Mecca 
Jerusalem:
 ascended into heaven @ stone ( Dome of the Rock)
622: HIJRA (A.H., beginning of the Muslim calendar):
 Mecca  Yathrib (Medina)
632: Muhammad died in Medina

6. AL-MI'RAJ: THE ASCENT TO HEAVEN (on
angelic beast named Buraq)
Dome of the Rock,
Jerusalem, 691

7. After Muhammad's Death…
Century of military conquest and expansion

8. After Muhammad's Death…
Muhammad succeeded by the 4 “rightly-guided” Caliphs:
• Abu Bakr (632-34 C.E.)
• Umar (634-44 C.E.)
• Uthman (644-56 C.E.): codified the Qu’ran
• Ali (656-661 C.E.): married to Fatima (Muhammad’s daughter), murdered 661
Ali’s followers  SHI’ITE (Iran, Iraq, Bahrain)
SUNNIS do not agree with Ali’s succession
SUNNITE = largest branch of Islam (across North Africa, the Middle East,
Asia, Europe)

9. Ali’s followers  SHI’ITE (Iran, Iraq, Bahrain)
SUNNITE = largest branch of Islam (across North Africa, the Middle East, Asia, Europe)

10. Islam means “SUBMISSION TO GOD“

11. The Kaaba
The Kaaba, pre-Islamic monument, rededicated by Muhammad in 631-32 C.E., multiple
renovations, granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-
wrapped thread (Mecca, Saudi Arabia)

12. Upon arriving in Mecca, pilgrims gather in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram around the Kaaba.
They then circumambulate—tawaf in Arabic—or walk around the Kaaba, during which they hope to
kiss and touch the Black Stone—al-Hajar al-Aswad—embedded in the eastern corner of the Kaaba.

13. Modifications
The Kaaba has been modified extensively throughout its history
Today, the Kaaba is a cubical structure, unlike almost any other religious
structure.
15 meters tall x 10 ½ meters on each side
Solid gold door added in 1982
The Kaaba at al-Haram Mosque, 2008

14. Only Muslims may visit the holy cities of Mecca & Medina today.

16. STORIES OF THE MODERN PILGRIMAGE (YouTube)

17. ISLAMIC ART QUIZ
1. The FOUNDER of Islam is the Prophet M__________________
2. “ISLAM” means “s_____________” to Allah (God)

18. WHAT IS ISLAMIC ART?
“Islamic Art” = a modern concept (19th cent art historians)
 used to categorize art by Islamic peoples
 applies to all art forms (not just religious) produced in the Islamic World
 encompasses the works created by Muslim artists for a patron of any faith
 ISLAM is a GLOBAL RELIGION & so is Islamic ART
Taj Mahal, Agra, India

19. Great Mosque of Xi'an, China
Islamic Art: NOT a monolithic style or movement:
 spans 1,300 years of history
 geographic diversity: from Spain to western China

20. THEMES
 Calligraphy
 Geometric and vegetative motifs
 Decorative arts—carpets,
ceramics, metalwork, and books
 Early RELIGIOUS/SACRED ART:
“aniconic”
 Minarets of Al-Azhar Mosque, Cairo, Egypt
“Allah is the Light” (Quran 24-35)
Islamic Calligraphy and Typography

21. INTRO TO MOSQUE (“MASJID”) ARCHITECTURE
Mimar Sinan, courtyard of the Süleymaniye Mosque, İstanbul, 1558
Mosque/Masjid: Muslim gathering place for prayer
Masjid = “place of prostration.”
All men must gather at mosque for the Friday noon prayer

22.  The HOME OF THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD = the first mosque.
 LOCATION: Medina, Saudi Arabia
 FEATURES: typical 7th-century Arabian style house w/ large courtyard
surrounded by long rooms supported by columns.
 STYLE: “hypostyle” (“many columns”) mosque
THE FIRST MOSQUE (MASJID)
Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House,
Medina, Saudi Arabia

23. COMMON FEATURES
Mosque style, layout, and decoration shaped by regional traditions
BUT common architectural features shared world-wide:
 Sahn (courtyard)
 Mihrab (niche)
 Qiblah Wall (Mecca)
 Minbar (pulpit)
 Minaret (tower)
 Qubba (dome)

24. Qibla Wall w/ Mihrab & minbar
Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo
1356-63
Mihrab
Great Mosque of Cordoba
c. 786

25. 3 TYPES OF MOSQUES (ARCHITECTURE)
1. THE HYPOSTYLE MOSQUE
Large, rectangular with hypostyle (supported by columns) hall &large inner sahn (courtyard)
Diagram reconstruction of the Prophet's House Sahn and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia, c. 836-75
Medina, Saudi Arabia
2. THE 4-IWAN MOSQUE
IWAN = a vaulted space that opens on one side to a courtyard
Plan of the Great Mosque of Isfahan, Iran, showing iwans
opening onto the sahn (court)

26. 3. THE CENTRALLY-PLANNED MOSQUE
Ottoman Empire (influenced by Hagia Sophia church)
Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, 537, Istanbul

27. Mimar Sinan, Dome interior, Selimiye II
Mosque in Edirne, Turkey, 1568-74

28. MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE AROUND THE WORLD
Minaret, Bahasa Indonesia: Masjid Menara
Kudus Jawa Tengah, Indonesia, 1549
Djingarey Berre Mosque, Timbuktu, Mali, 1327
Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392
Shah Faisal Masjid, Islamabad, 1986

29. II. EARLY PERIOD
From the rightfully guided caliphs who succeeded Muhammad, through
the Umayyads' Dome of the Rock and Great Mosque of Damascus, to the
decline of Abbasids rule.
THE HISTORICAL CALIPHATES:
The states ruled by those who claimed legitimate Islamic rule; Islamic DYNASTIES
UMAYYAD (661-750)
 Four leaders, known as the Rightly Guided Caliphs, continued the spread of
Islam immediately following the death of the Prophet.

30. ABBASID (750-1258)
The Abbasid revolution in the mid-eighth century ended the Umayyad dynasty,
resulted in the massacre of the Umayyad caliphs (a single caliph escaped to Spain,
prolonging Umayyad work after dynasty) and established the Abbasid dynasty in 750.
The new caliphate shifted its attention eastward and established cultural and
commercial capitals at Baghdad and Samarra.
Bowl, 9th century, Susa, Iran,
Earthenware, metal lustre
overglaze decoration, opaque
glaze

31. THE DOME OF THE ROCK IN JERUSALEM:
Incorporates Coptic, Sassanian, and Byzantine elements in its decorative
program and remains a masterpiece of Islamic architecture to this day.
Dome of the Rock, 687, Jerusalem
Base of the dome, Dome of the Rock

32. The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra), Umayyad, stone masonry, wooden roof, decorated
with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome, 691-2, with multiple
renovations, patron the Caliph Abd al-Malik, Jerusalem
DOME OF THE ROCK = one of the OLDEST surviving buildings from
the Islamic world

33. The Rock in the Dome of the Rock
At the center of the Dome of the Rock
sits a large rock, which is believed to be
the location where Abraham was
prepared to sacrifice his son Ismail
(Isaac in the Judeo/Christian tradition).
Today, Muslims believe that the Rock
commemorates the night journey of
Muhammad. One night the Angel
Gabriel came to Muhammad while he
slept near the Kaaba in Mecca and took
him to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the farthest
mosque) in Jerusalem. From the Rock,
Muhammad journeyed to heaven, where
he met other prophets, such as Moses
and Christ, witnessed paradise and hell
and finally saw God enthroned and
circumambulated by angels. Sectional axonometric view through dome

34. Mosaics
The mosaics in the Dome of the Rock
contain no human figures or animals.
While Islam does not prohibit the use of
figurative art per se, in religious buildings,
this proscription was upheld.
The second commandment reads as follows: “Thou
shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any
likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is
in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the
earth: Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor
serve them: for I the Lord thy God am a jealous God…
Mosaic detail from the
Dome of the Rock

35. Inscriptions
The Dome of the Rock also contains
an inscription, 240 meters long, that
includes some of the earliest
surviving examples of verses from
the Qur‘an – in an architectural
context or otherwise. The bismillah
(in the name of God, the merciful
and compassionate), the phrase that
starts each verse of the Qu’ran, and
the shahada, the Islamic confession
of faith, which states that there is
only one God and Muhammad is his
prophet, are also included in the
inscription. The inscription also
refers to Mary and Christ and
proclaim that Christ was not divine
but a prophet. Thus the inscription
also proclaims some of the core
values of the newly formed religion
of Islam.

36. 3. The Dome of the Rock is one of the earliest surviving
buildings from the Islamic world. (T or F ???)

37. The Great Mosque of Cordoba
Great Mosque of Cordoba from the Air
One of the oldest structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled
Al-Andalus (Muslim Iberia including most of Spain, Portugal, and a
small section of Southern France) in the late 8th century.

38. The Hypostyle Hall
Hypostyle Hall, Great Mosque at Cordoba, Spain, begun 786 and enlarged during the 9th
and 10th centuries

39. The Mihrab
The focal point in the prayer hall is the famous horseshoe arched mihrab
or prayer niche. A MIHRAB is used in a mosque to identify the wall
that faces Mecca—the birth place of Islam in what is now Saudi Arabia.

40. The Dome
Great Mosque of Cordoba is a prime
example of the Muslim world's ability to
brilliantly develop architectural styles
based on pre-existing regional traditions.

41. The Great Mosque of Kairouan (AFRICA)
Sahn (courtyard) and minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia c. 836-75

42. In 670 CE, conquering general Sidi Okba constructed a Friday Mosque (masjid-i jami`
or jami`) in what was becoming Kairouan in modern day Tunisia. A Friday Mosque is
used for communal prayers on the Muslim holy day, Friday.

43. The Aghlabids
During the eighth century, Sidi
Okba’s mosque was rebuilt at
least twice as Kairouan
prospered. However, the
mosque we see today is
essentially ninth century. The
Aghlabids (800-909 C.E.) were
the semi-independent rulers of
much of North Africa. In 836,
Prince Ziyadat Allah I tore
down most of the earlier
mudbrick structure and rebuilt
it in more permanent stone,
brick, and wood. The prayer
hall or sanctuary is supported
by rows of columns and there
is an open courtyard, that are
characteristic of a hypostyle
plan.
In the late 9th century, another Aghlabid ruler
embellished the courtyard entrance to the prayer
space and added a dome over the central arches
and portal. The dome emphasizes the placement of
the mihrab, or prayer niche (below), which is on the
same central axis and also under a cupola to signify
its importance.

44. The small windows in the drum of
the dome above the mihrab space
let natural light into what was an
otherwise dim interior. Rays fall
around the most significant area of
the mosque, the mihrab.
Mihrab (left) and minbar (right), Interior view of
the dome, Great Mosque of Kairouan

45. Around the mihrab are lustre tiles from Iraq.
They also feature stylized floral patterns like Byzantine and eastern Islamic examples.

46. Interior view of the hypostyle prayer hall in the Great Mosque of Kairouan)

47. Prayer Hall, Great Mosque of Kairouan

48. Since it was used for Friday
prayer, the mosque has a ninth-
century MINBAR, a narrow
wooden pulpit where the
weekly sermon was
delivered.

49. • The massive square Kairouan
minaret is about thirty two meters
tall, over one hundred feet, making
it one of the highest structures
around.
• So in addition to functioning as a
place to call for prayer, the minaret
identifies the mosque’s presence
and location in the city while
helping to define the city’s religious
identity.
• As it was placed just off the mihrab
axis, it also affirmed the mihrab’s
importance.
Minaret, Great Mosque of Kairouan

50.  The mosque continued to be modified after the Aghlabids, showing that it
remained religiously and socially significant even as Kairouan fell into decline.
 A Zirid, al-Mu‘izz ibn Badis (ruled 1016-62 CE), commissioned a wooden
MAQSURA, an enclosed space within a mosque that was reserved for
the ruler and his associates.
 The maqsura is assembled from cutwork wooden screens topped with bands of
carved abstracted vegetal motifs set into geometric frames, kufic-style script
inscriptions, and merlons, which look like the crenellations a top a fortress wall.
Maqsuras are said to indicate political instability in a society. They remove a
ruler from the rest of the worshippers.
 So, the enclosure, along with its inscription, protected the lives and affirmed the
status of persons allowed inside.

51. An Intellectual Center
The Great Mosque was literally and figuratively at the center of Kairouan activity,
growth, and prestige.
Exterior of the Qibla Wall, Great Mosque of Kairouan

52. Kairouan (from UNESCO)

53. 4. The MIHRAB is a niche in the QIBLAH WALL, which faces
towards M_____________.

54. III. MEDIEVAL PERIOD (c. 900-1517)
The Fatimids (909-1171) ruled north Africa, and parts of Syria
and the Seljuqs contolled eastern Islamic lands and eventually Iran,
Iraq and much of Anatolia.

55.  For many, the Muslim world in the
medieval period (900-1300) means
the crusades.
 While this era was marked, in part, by
military struggle, it is also
overwhelmingly a period of
peaceable exchanges of goods and
ideas between West and East.
 Both the Christian and Islamic
civilizations underwent great
transformations and internal
struggles during these years.
 In the Islamic world, dynasties
fractured and began to develop
distinctive styles of art.

56. The wealth of the Fatimid court led to a general bourgeoning of the craft
trade even outside of the religious context.
Centers near Cairo became well known for ceramics, glass, metal,
wood, and especially for lucrative textile production. The style of
ornament developed as well, and artisans began to experiment with
different forms of abstracted vegetal ornament and human figures.
This period is often called the Islamic Renaissance, for its
booming trade in decorative objects as well as the high
quality of its artwork.

57. Saljuq (1040-1157/1081-1307)
The Saljuq Empire in 1092
The Saljuqs of Iran were
great supporters of
education and the arts
and they founded a
number of important
MADRASAS (schools)
during their brief reign.
The congregational
mosques they erected
began using a 4-IWAN
PLAN: these
incorporate four
immense doorways
(iwans) in the center of
each wall of a courtyard.
Plan of the Great Mosque of Isfahan,
Iran, showing iwans opening onto the
sahn (court

58. The inhabitants of this newly conquered land in Anatolia included members of
various religions (largely Buddhists and Shamen), other heritages, and the
Byzantine and Armenian Christian traditions.
Mihrab (prayer niche), c. 1270, Konya, Turkey
Saljuq projects often drew from these existing indigenous traditions—just as
had been the case with the earliest Islamic buildings.

59. Mamluk (1250-1517)
“Mamluk” means ‘owned’ in Arabic.
Refers to the Turkic slaves who served as soldiers for the Ayyubid sultanate
before revolting and rising to power.
The Mamluks ruled over key lands in the Middle East, including Mecca and
Medina.
Their capital at Cairo became the artistic and economic center of the Islamic
world at this time.
Mosque lamp, Syria, 13th-14th century

60. The Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh) of Isfahan
Courtyard, The Great Mosque or Masjid-e Jameh of Isfahan

61. The Great Mosque of Isfahan in Iran is THE SUM OF BUILDING AND
DECORATING ACTIVITIES FROM THE 8TH  THE 20TH CENTURIES.
It is an ARCHITECTURAL DOCUMENTARY, visually embodying the political
exigencies and aesthetic tastes of the great Islamic empires of Persia.

62. Urban integration (in center of the old city)

63. Linking the four iwans at the center is a large courtyard open to the air,
which provides a tranquil space from the hustle and bustle of the city.

64. Aerial photographs of the building provide an interesting view; the mosque’s
roof has the appearance of “bubble wrap” formed through the panoply of
unusual but charming domes crowning its hypostyle interior.

65. View of the south iwan from the prayer hall

66. The MUQARNAS (Arabic: ‫مقرنص‬ ;Persian: ‫مقرنس‬ (are a form of architectural ornamented
vaulting, the "geometric subdivision of a squinch, or cupola, or corbel, into a large
number of miniature squinches, producing a sort of cellular structure", sometimes also
called "HONEYCOMB" VAULTS from their resemblance to these.

67. Interior decoration of the QIBLA dome

68. 5. The Great Mosque of Isfahan is unique because it was
made during a single building campaign and not over a long
period of time. T or F ???

69. The Qur'an: From Recitation  Book
Qu'ran fragment, in Arabic, before 911, vellum, MS M. 712, fols 19v-20r, 23 x 32 cm, possibly Iraq
The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of the
divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in ARABIC.

70. Qur'an fragment (detail), in Arabic, before 911, vellum, MS M.712, fols. 19v–20r, 23 x 32 cm, Iraq

71. Because figural imagery such as human or animal forms was considered
inappropriate for the ornamentation of sacred monuments and objects, artists
relied on vegetal and geometric motifs when they decorated mosques and
sacred manuscripts.
The main text is written in brown
ink. Arabic, the language of the
divine word of Islam, is read from
right to left.
The text of each sura (chapter) is further divided
into verses by triangles made up of 5 gold circles
located at the end of each verse.

72.  The art of producing a MUSHAF
(bound text) began well before pen
dips into ink.
 The dimensions of each page were
calculated before the parchment was
cut, and the text was carefully situated
relative to the edges of the pages.
 Each page of costly parchment (or
vellum) in this Qur'an is larger than a
standard sheet of printer paper, and
contains only nine lines of calligraphy.
 These materials suggest both the
dignity of the sacred text and the
wealth of its patron, who was probably
a member of the aristocratic elite.
PLANNING THE PROPORTIONS OF THE PAGE
Diagram of proportions, Single folio, Qur'an
fragment, in Arabic, before 911, Iraq

73. Each line was further divided into a set number of “interlines,” which were
used to determine the heights of various parts of individual letters.
There is no ruling on the parchment, so scribes probably placed each sheet
of the semi-transparent parchment on a board marked with horizontal
guidelines as they wrote.
Memorizing and producing the proportions of each pen stroke, however,
must have been part of the training of every scribe.
Interlines, Single folio, Qur'an fragment (detail), in Arabic, before 911, vellum, 23 x 32 cm

74. Kufic Script and the Specialization of Scribes
The calligraphic style used by early scribes of the Qur'an is known today as
KUFIC.
Kufic is a family of 17 related styles based on common principles, including a
preference for strokes of relatively uniform thickness, short straight vertical
lines and long horizontal lines, and a straight, horizontal baseline.

75. Scribes used a wide reed pen dipped in ink to write. In some letters the angle
of the pen was adjusted as the scribe wrote in order to maintain an even
thickness throughout the entire letterform, but in others the angle could be
held constant in order to produce both very thick and very thin lines.

76. Although letters and even entire words at first appear to consist of a single
stroke of the pen, in fact individual letters were often formed using multiple
strokes.
Qur'an fragment (detail), in Arabic, before 911, vellum, 23 x 32 cm

77.  They could emphasize
individual words and
balance the widths of
lines of different
length by elongating
certain letters
horizontally (a
technique known as
MASHQ).
 They could also
ADJUST SPACING
BETWEEN WORDS
AND LETTERS, and
even split words
between two lines, in
order to balance
positive and negative
space across the
page.
Scribes also had some freedom in composing a page…
Graphic showing negative space, Qu'ran fragment (detail)
In this mushaf, the spaces between non-connecting characters
within a word are as wide as the spaces that separate different
words (sometimes even wider!)

78. 6. The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of
the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in WHAT
LANGUAGE?

79. PYXIS OF AL-MUGHIRA
A PYXIS is a cylindrical box used for cosmetics.
Pyxis of al-Mughira, possibly from Madinat al-Zahra, AH 357/ 968
CE, carved ivory with traces of jade, 16cm x 11.8 cm
(Musée du Louvre, Paris)
Now, imagine a room in a palace where this beautifully carved ivory container is given
a central place. The luxurious box sits open.
Inside are small silver containers of perfume, also left open so that their sweet-
smelling aromas could waft through the room, gently scenting the air.

80. The Pyxis of al-Mughira is
decorated with four eight-lobed
medallions which are surrounded
by figures and animals that
include falconers, wrestlers,
griffons, peacocks, birds, goats
and animals to be hunted. Each
medallion has princely
iconography.
This medallion shows two men
collecting eggs from the nests of
Falcons, a symbol of Umayyad
legitimacy.

81. This medallion centers around a lute player flanked by two figures, one of
whom holds the braided scepter and flask of the Umayyads, while the other
holds a fan.

82. Another medallion shows lions attacking two bulls. As
in Arabic poetry, these lions symbolize the victorious
(in this case, perhaps the Umayyads).
The final scene shows men on horseback date-picking. The date-palm, found
primarily in the Middle East and North Africa, may allude to the lost lands of
the East (the lands under Abbasid control). This too was a theme of Umayyad
poetry. The use of visual imagery which is also found in the poetry of the era
demonstrates that these two art forms were in communication.

83. An Arabic inscription in the kufic script runs around the base of the lid and
reads: “God's blessing, favours, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira son of the
Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him, in the year 357.”
Some inscriptions on other ivory carvings also mention the name of the workshop and
craftsman who made these exceptional pieces.

84. 7. A PYXIS is a cylindrical box used for:
A) cosmetics
B) jewelry
C) relics
D) holy water

85. Dado Panel:
Courtyard of the Royal Palace of Mas’ud III
Dado Panel from the Courtyard of the Royal Palace of Mas'ud III of Ghazni
(AFGHANISTAN) , 1112 C.E., marble, 28 1/8 x 12 13/16 x 3 1/2 inches
(Brooklyn Museum of Art)
DADO PANEL = decorative 2-3 ft foot
lower part of a wall
 From the Ghaznavid dynasty: ruled
the India 977-1186

86. The Ghaznavids: Turkish
Preferred fusion of Iranian and Arab
stylistic influences, Persian art &
poetry
Capital Ghazni: on trade route 
regional influences
Minaret constructed near Royal Palace of Mas'ud III of
Ghazni, 12th century, Afghanistan
 The Ghaznavids used a large amount of
marble throughout the city, during a time
where brick and stucco were favored for
décor purposes.
 The influence of the city of Baghdad,
which was also built up heavily with
marble by the Abbasids possibly explains
the popularity of the medium at this time.
 Ghazni has only recently attracted
scholars with the discovery of a great-
stylized minaret, also dating to Mas’ud
III’s reign.

87. PERSIAN POETRY
Dado Panel with inscription in upper left corner, 10th
century, Iran, stucco; carved, with some cast plaster
elements, 68 5/8 in. x 92 3/4 inches
Fragment of a
Persian poem
praising the
Ghaznavid rulers.
This dado is one of
the oldest uses of
Persian in place of
Arabic

88. TWO ROYAL FIGURES (Saljuq Period)

89. CORONATION MANTLE

90. The ALHAMBRA (Granada, Spain)
Distinct among Medieval palaces for:
• sophisticated planning
• complex decorative programs
• Numerous gardens & fountains
• Intimate spaces on human scale: elegant, inviting

91. The Alhambra (Arabic: Qal’at al-Hamra + “red fort”)
 built by the Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492, last Muslims to rule in Spain
Plan of the Alhambra
1 mile of walls w/ 4 gates &
30 towers enclose 26 acres
City within a city
Structures with 3 purposes:
1) ROYAL RESIDENCE
2) The ALCAZABA (the
citadel/barracks for elite
guard
3) The MEDINA (or city), near
the Puerta del Vino (Wine
Gate), where court officials
lived and worked

92. 3 IMPORTANT 14th-century PALACES
1) Comares Palace
2) Palace of the Lions
3) Partal Palace
Tilework, El Mexua
El Mexuar: audience chamber near the COMARES tower at the northern edge of the
complex
Built as a throne room, but became a reception and meeting hall in the 1330s
geometric tile dadoes & carved stucco panels  appropriate formality for receiving
dignitaries

93. The COMARES PALACE
 The façade is built on a raised three-stepped platform: stage for the ruler.
 The carved stucco façade was once painted in brilliant colors
Comares Palace facade

94. Court of the Myrtles: focal point of the Comares Palace

95. The Alhambra’s
largest tower, the
COMARES TOWER,
contains the Salón de
Comares (Hall of the
Ambassadors), a
throne room built by
Yusuf I (1333-1354).
This room exhibits the most diverse
decorative and architectural arts in the
whole Alhambra complex.

96. PALACE OF THE LIONS
Stands next to the Comares Palace
but should be considered an
independent building. The two
structures were connected after
Granada fell to the Christians.
Arched covered patio encircles the
courtyard and displays fine stucco
carvings held up by a series of
slender columns

97. Famed 14th century FOUNTAIN with a
complex hydraulic system consisting of
a marble basin on the backs of twelve
carved stone lions situated at the
intersection of two water channels that
form a cross in the rectilinear courtyard

99. The MUQARNAS CHAMBER functioned as an antechamber near the
original entrance to the palace:
Named for the intricately carved system of brackets called
"muqarnas" that hold up the vaulted ceiling

100. Across the courtyard, to the East, is THE HALL OF THE KINGS, an
elongated space divided into sections using a series of arches leading up to
a vaulted muqarnas ceiling:
The room has multiple alcoves, some with an unobstructed view of the
courtyard, but with no known function.

101. This room contains PAINTINGS ON THE CEILING
REPRESENTING COURTLY LIFE. The images were
first painted on tanned sheepskins, in the tradition of
miniature painting. They use brilliant colors and fine
details and are attached to the ceiling rather than painted
on it.

102. GENERALIFE
(located outside Alhambra)
Court of the Long Pond, Generalife
Generalife (from the Arabic,
Jannat al-arifa).
The word jannat means
paradise and by association,
garden, or a place of
cultivation which Generalife
has in abundance.
Its water channels,
fountains and greenery
can be understood in
relation to passage 2:25 in
the Koran, “...gardens,
underneath which running
waters flow....”

103. INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR
RE-IMAGINED
Gardens, water fountains, canals, &
pools = recurring theme in Muslim
architecture
Water: both practical & beautiful in
architecture (cf the Alhambra &
Generalife)
The Nasrid rulers of Granada
made the sound, sight and cooling
qualities of water INTEGRAL: in
gardens, courtyards, marble
canals, and even directly indoors!
Patio de la Sultana fountain Generalife
Central fountain, lower gardens of the Generalife

104. The Alhambra’s architecture shares many characteristics with
other examples of Islamic architecture, but is singular in the way it
complicates the relationship between interior and exterior.
Its buildings feature shaded patios and covered walkways that pass from well-lit
interior spaces onto shaded courtyards and sun-filled gardens all enlivened by the
reflection of water and intricately carved stucco decoration.

105. More profoundly however, this is a place to reflect.
Given the beauty, care and detail found at the Alhambra, it is tempting to
imagine that the Nasrids planned to remain here forever…
It is IRONIC then to see throughout the complex in the carved stucco, the
words, “...no conqueror, but God” left by those that had once conquered
Granada, and would themselves be conquered.
It is a testament to the Alhambra that the Catholic monarchs who besieged
and ultimately took the city left this complex largely intact.

106. 8. The Nasrid rulers of Granada made the sound, sight and
cooling qualities of ___________ (element) INTEGRAL: in
gardens, courtyards, marble canals, and even directly
indoors!

107. BASIN (Baptistère de Saint Louis)

108. ILKHANID MIHRAB

109. IV. LATER PERIOD (c. 1517 –1924 C.E.)
The Ottomans, a small Turkic state in Anatolia, emerged as a major
military and political force and conquered Constantinople, the
Balkans, the Near East, and North Africa.

110. OTTOMAN (1300-1924)
At its earliest stages, the Ottoman state was little more than a group formed
as a result of the dissolution of the Anatolian Seljuq sultanate. However, in
1453, the Ottomans captured the great Byzantine capital, Constantinople,
and in 1517, they defeated the Mamluks and took control of the most
significant state in the Islamic world.

111. Mimar Sinan, Süleymaniye Mosque built for the Sultan
Süleyman the Lawgiver, 1558, Istanbul
OTTOMAN'S
“GOLDEN AGE”
The height of the
Ottoman Empire's
cultural and economic
prosperity was
achieved during
SÜLEYMAN THE
MAGNIFICENT'S
REIGN (1520-1566)
 Tughra (Official Signature) of Sultan Süleiman

112. SINAN, SÜLEYMANIYE MOSQUE

113. OTTOMAN GOLDEN AGE: CERAMIC TILES
IZNIK TILES, named for the city in Anatolia where they were
produced, developed a trademark style of curling vines and flowers
rendered in beautiful shades of blue and turquoise (inspired by imported
CHINESE porcelain)
Iznik tiles in Sinan, Rüstem Pasha Mosque, 1561-63 (Istanbul)

114. The architecture of the period,
both sacred and secular,
incorporates the
DECORATIVE ARTS, from the
dazzling blue tiles and
monumental calligraphy
that adorn the walls of
TOPKAPI PALACE (begun
1459) to the carpets that line
the floors of the
SÜLEYMANIYE MOSQUE
(1550-1558).Topkapi palace interior, Istanbul Turkey
 Süleymaniye Carpet. Süleymaniye Mosque

115. OTTOMAN MOSQUE
ARCHITECTURE
 Byzantine influence
 heavy use of domes and
towering minarets.
 The Byzantine influence
draws primarily from Hagia
Sophia (Istanbul) 
Suleymaniye and Sultanahmet Mosques, Istanbul

116. MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE AROUND THE WORLD
Minaret, Bahasa Indonesia: Masjid Menara
Kudus Jawa Tengah, Indonesia, 1549
Djingarey Berre Mosque, Timbuktu, Mali, 1327
Great Mosque of Xi'an, China, 1392
Shah Faisal Masjid, Islamabad, 1986

117. Timurid Empire (1369-1502)
 Named for its founder, TAMERLANE (ruled 1370-1405), aka “Timur the Lame”
 Descendent of Genghis Khan

118. Timur’s Capital City:
SAMARKAND: The “Pearl of the World”
 Situated at a major crossroads of the Silk Road
 Attracted artisans and craftspeople from distinct artistic traditions

119. Registan, Samarkand, Uzbekistan, 15th-17th centuries
Timurid cities:
 Lavish buildings w/ tall, bulbous domes
 Fine ceramic tiles
 Overwhelming use of blues and golds

120. Safavid (1502-1736)
The Safavids, a group with roots in the
Sufic tradition (a mystical branch of
Islam), came to power in Persia,
modern-day Iran and Azerbaijan
In 1501 the Safavid rulers declared Shi’a
Islam as its state religion
The art of MANUSCRIPT
ILLUMINATION highly prized

121. Trade in CARPETS was also important, and even today, people understand
the appeal of Persian carpets. These large-scale, high-quality pieces were
created as luxurious furnishings for royal courts.
Most famous: the ARDABIL CARPETS (1539-1540)
Pair - nearly identical - perfectly symmetrical – enormous
Every inch of space filled with flowers, scrolling vines, and medallions

122. MUGHAL (1526-1858)
Though Islam had been introduced in India centuries before, the
MUGHALS were responsible for some of the greatest works of art
produced in the canons of both Indian and Islamic art.
Empire established by BABUR (a Timurid prince)

123. Mughals unique architectural style:
Scalloped arches & stylized floral designs in white marble
The most famous example is the TAJ MAHAL, constructed by SHAH JAHAN
from 1632-1653 (Agra India):

125. SHAH JAHAN (“KING OF THE WORLD”)
Ruled from 1627-1658
Great patron of the arts
Most beloved wife: MUMTAZ
Shah Jahan (1592-1666)

127. “MUMTAZ MAHAL”
“Beloved Ornament of the Palace”

128. Mumtaz DIED IN CHILDBIRTH, giving birth to the Shah’s son, AURANGZEB.
Made the Shah Jahan promise to build a monument to their love.

130. The TAJ MAHAL…
Took 20,000 workers
20 years to build.
Is covered with white marble veneer
Is a glorious “MAUSOLEUM.”
“MAUSOLEUM”: an architectural tomb

135. TAJ GARDEN COMPLEX

136. Islamic “Paradise Gardens”: Heaven on Earth

140. DETAILS OF THE TAJ MAHAL

141. Inlaid passages from
the QU’ARAN

145. “Pietra Dura” (inlaid “hard stone”)

146. Pietra Dura TECHNIQUE

149. INSIDE THE MAUSOLEUM
“JALI” =
carved marble screens

153. SHAH JAHAN’S DREAM

156.  Shah Jahan’s
“Moonlight Garden”

157. The “Real” Black Taj?

160. Foiled by AURANGZEB

161. Red Fort at Agra

165. View of Taj Mahal from Red Fort

168. 9. The TAJ MAHAL is a _________
a) PALACE
b) MOSQUE
c) MAUSOLEUM

169. OTTOMAN DECORATIVE ARTS

170. CARPETS were also made in the
royal courts of the Islamic world.
 Not just functional floor coverings, they
were ornate works of art that indicated the
status and wealth of their owners.
 Court carpets were used on the floors in
reception halls, audience chambers, and
at court-supported religious institutions.
 They were also presented as impressive
gifts to other rulers.
CARPETS
Carpet (Ottoman) with cintamani motif, c. 1550,
Cairo, Egypt, wool, 79 x 48 inches (Metropolitan
Museum of Art)

171.  Ottoman miniature showing a Safavid
dignitary before Ottoman sultan, Sultan
Murad III, n.d.
Prayer Carpet (Ottoman), 1575-90, likely
Istanbul, silk (warp and weft), wool (pile),
cotton (pile), 68 x 50 inches

172. Medallion Carpet, THE ARDABIL CARPET, Unknown artist (Maqsud Kashani is named on the
carpet's inscription), Persian: Safavid Dynasty, silk warps and wefts with wool pile (25 million
knots, 340 per sq. inch), 1539-40

173. Ardabil Carpet (detail)
CARPET DESIGN & PATTERN
The rich geometric patterns, vegetative scrolls, floral flourishes, so typical of
Islamic art, reach a fever pitch in this remarkable carpet, encouraging the
viewer to walk around and around, trying to absorb every detail of design

174. CARPETS are among the most fundamental of Islamic arts.
Portable, typically made of silk and wools, carpets were
traded and sold across the Islamic lands and beyond its
boundaries to Europe and China.
The Ardabil Carpet at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London

175. AN INSCRIPTION
The ARDABIL CARPET includes a four-line inscription placed at one end.
This short poem is vital for understanding who commissioned the carpet and
the date of the carpet.
The first three lines of poetry reads:
Except for thy threshold, there is no refuge for me in all the world.
Except for this door there is no resting-place for my head.
The work of the slave of the portal, Maqsud Kashani.

176. Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings from the "St. Petersburg Album,"
1615-1618, opaque watercolor, gold and ink on paper, 18 x 25.3 cm
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Emperor on a pedestal (detail)

177. JAHANGIR FAVORS A HOLY MAN
OVER KINGS
Jahangir faces four bearded men of varying
ethnicity, who stand in a receiving-line
format on a blue carpet embellished with
arabesque flower designs and fanciful beast
motifs.
Almost on par with the Emperor’s level
stands the Sufi Shaikh, who accepts the
gifted book, a hint of a smile brightening his
face.
By engaging directly only with the Shaikh,
Jahangir is making a statement about his
spiritual leanings.
Inscriptions in the cartouches on the top and
bottom margins of the folio reiterate the fact
that the Emperor favors visitation with a holy
man over an audience with kings.

178. FROM TOP TO BOTTOM, IN ORDER
OF IMPORTANCE:
 Ottoman Sultan
 King James I of England
 The artist Bichtir

179. Jahangir and the Shaikh
Note the stark contrast between Jahangir’s gem-studded wrist bracelets
and finger rings and the Shaikh’s bare hands, the distinction between rich
and poor, and the pursuit of material and spiritual endeavors.

180. Beneath Jahangir’s seat, crouching angels write (in Persian):
“O Shah, May the Span of Your Life be a Thousand Years,” at the
base of a mighty hourglass that makes up the pedestal of Jahangir’s throne.

181. SPHERICAL HANGING ORNAMENTS (IZNIK)
Süleymaniye Mosque (Ottoman)
Imagine yourself in the vast prayer hall of an
Ottoman mosque during the height of its
empire in the 16th century. As you bask in
the splendor of the sacred space, you notice
that suspended above your head are
hundreds of glowing oil lamps, and attached
to these lamps are lavishly decorated
spherical ornaments.

183. OTTOMAN CERAMICS
Ottoman pottery made in NAKKASHANES (imperial workshops) was
strongly influenced by Chinese porcelain, especially floral Ming porcelain.
Comprised of petuntse, a rare mineral found mostly in China, porcelain is
white and hard—like glass.
Left: Scrolling lotus flask, Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen, China, 1426-1435
Right: Mosque Lamp, c. 1510, fritware, Iznik, Turkey

184. Mosque Lamp made for the renovation of the Dome
of the Rock, 1549, polychrome glazed pottery, Iznik,
Turkey, 38 cm high
Tile with “Saz” leaf design, c. 1545-55, Iznik, Turkey, stone
paste, polychrome painted under transparent glaze, 30.2 cm
high

185. IZNIK EWER
This EWER IS A TYPE OF JUG THAT IS
SHAPED LIKE A VASE. It was a common
utensil used daily for carrying water from the
kitchen to the dining area, and for serving
family and guests. This particular ewer was
made in Iznik, the Ottoman center of ceramic
production.
Iznik ewer, 2nd half of the 16th century (Ottoman),
fritware, painted in black, cobalt blue, green, red
under transparent glaze, 17-7/8 x 15-1/2 inches /
45.4 x 39.4 cm
Similar Iznik ewer, last quarter of 16th
century, fritware, underglaze-painted, 8 1/2 x
5 1/4 inches / 21.59 x 13.34 cm

186. IZNIK EWER (detail), 2nd half of the 16th century (Ottoman), fritware,
painted in black, cobalt blue, green, red under transparent glaze, 17-
7/8 x 15-1/2 inches / 45.4 x 39.4 cm

187. IRANIAN METAL BOWLS
Have a variety of shapes, decoration themes, and uses during the Safavid
period (1501-1736).
This Iranian Divination Bowl with Inscriptions and Zodiac Signs is decorated with unusual themes—
a blend of religious, superstitious, and Persian historical motifs. The practice of fāl (divination, or
seeking knowledge of the future or the unknown by supernatural means) during the Safavid period
was facilitated by the use of divine text but it was also influenced by ancient Greek astrology.
Divination Bowl with Inscriptions and Zodiac Signs, mid 16th century, copper
alloy (brass), engraved with repoussé center, 3 3/4 x 8 1/2 x 8 1/2in

188. LEO THE LION, Divination Bowl w/ Inscriptions & Zodiac Signs
Leo for example is
represented by a lion figure
as one might expect, but
here with the sun behind it,
illustrated as a semi-oval
human face in the
background.
This figure resembles the
historical Persian symbol of
Širo Xoršid, "the Lion and the
Sun," which eventually became
an national emblem and
represents, among other things,
the ancient history of Persia.

189. COINAGE & MONEY
Silver 'Abbasi coin, c. 1624–5, Safavid Dynasty, Baghdad
Unlike Europe, where the image of a
monarch would appear on coins and
in sculpture in public places, the only
portraits of Shah 'Abbas were either
produced by non-Iranian artists or
for privately-owned albums.
Calligraphy on coins and buildings
was the main method by which he
could display his name and titles to
his subjects.

190. COINS OF FAITH & POWER at the British Museum

191. 10. THE TERM "ISLAMIC ART" refers EXCLUSIVELY to
RELIGIOUS art and architecture. T or F
Khusraw Discovers Shirin Bathing, From Pictorial Cycle of Eight Poetic Subjects,
mid 18th century, oil on canvas, 91.4 x 88.9 cm, Shiraz, Iran