2. Intermolecular Forces
• Intermolecular forces are the interactions that exist between
molecules.
• A functional group determines the type and strength of
these interactions.
• Intermolecular forces are also referred to as noncovalent
interactions or nonbonded interactions.
3. Intermolecular Forces in Ionic
Compounds
• Ionic compounds contain oppositely charged particles held together
by extremely strong electrostatic interactions.
• These ionic interactions are much stronger than the intermolecular
forces present between covalent molecules, so it takes a great deal
of energy to separate oppositely charged ions from each other
4. Intermolecular Forces in Covalent
Compounds
• Covalent compounds are composed of discrete molecules.
• The nature of the forces between the molecules depends on
the functional group present.
• There are three different types of interactions, presented here
in order of increasing strength:
• van der Waals forces
• dipole–dipole interactions
• hydrogen bonding
5. van der Waals Forces
• van der Waals forces, also called London forces, are very weak
interactions caused by the momentary changes in electron density in a
molecule.
• van der Waals forces are the only attractive forces present in nonpolar
compounds.
• For example, although a nonpolar CH4 molecule has no net dipole, at
any one instant its electron density may not be completely symmetrical,
creating a temporary dipole.
• This can induce a temporary dipole in another CH4 molecule, with the
partial positive and negative charges arranged close to each other.
• The weak interaction of these temporary dipoles constitutes van der
Waals forces. All compounds exhibit van der Waals forces.
6. • The surface area of a molecule determines the strength of the van der
Waals interactions.
• The larger the surface area, the larger the attractive force between two
molecules, and the stronger the intermolecular forces.
• Long, sausage-shaped molecules such as CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 (pentane)
have stronger van der Waals interactions than compact spherical ones
like C(CH3)4 (neopentane).
• Another factor affecting the strength of van der Waals forces is
polarizability.
van der Waals Forces
8. • Larger atoms like iodine, which have more loosely held valence
electrons, are more polarizable than smaller atoms like fluorine, which
have more tightly held electrons.
• Because larger atoms have more easily induced dipoles, compounds
containing them possess stronger intermolecular interactions.
• Thus, two F2 molecules have little force of attraction between them,
because the electrons are held very tightly and temporary dipoles are
difficult to induce.
• On the other hand, two I2 molecules exhibit a much stronger force of
attraction because the electrons are held much more loosely and
temporary dipoles are easily induced
van der Waals Forces
9. Dipole–Dipole Interactions
• Dipole–dipole interactions are the attractive forces between the
permanent dipoles of two polar molecules.
• In acetone, (CH3)2C=O, for example, the dipoles in adjacent molecules
align so that the partial positive and partial negative charges are in close
proximity.
• These attractive forces caused by permanent dipoles are much stronger
than weak van der Waals forces.
10. Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonding typically occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded
to O, N, or F, is electrostatically attracted to a lone pair of electrons
on an O, N, or F atom in another molecule.
Thus, H2O molecules can hydrogen bond to each other. When they do, an
H atom covalently bonded to O in one water molecule is attracted to a lone
pair of electrons on the O in another water molecule.
• Hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the three types of intermolecular
forces, though they are still much weaker than any covalent bond.
14. Intramolecular forces – Ionic Bond
• Atoms combine with one another to give compounds having properties
different from the atoms they contain.
• The attractive force between atoms in a compound is a chemical bond.
• One type of chemical bond, called an ionic bond, is the force of
attraction between oppositely charged species (ions).
• Ions that are positively charged are referred to as cations; those that
are negatively charged are anions.
In forming ionic compounds, elements at the left of the periodic table typically lose
electrons, forming a cation that has the same electron configuration as the nearest
noble gas.
15. • A large amount of energy, called the ionization energy, must be added to any
atom in order to dislodge one of its electrons.
• The ionization energy of sodium, for example, is 496 kJ/mol (119 kcal/mol).
• Processes that absorb energy are said to be endothermic.
• In general, ionization energy increases across a row in the periodic table.
• Elements at the right of the periodic table tend to gain electrons to reach the
electron configuration of the next higher noble gas.
• Energy-releasing reactions are described as exothermic, and the energy
change for an exothermic process has a negative sign.
• The energy change for addition of an electron to an atom is referred to as its
electron affinity and is -349 kJ/mol (-83.4 kcal/mol) for chlorine.
Intramolecular forces – Ionic Bond
16. • Transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom
yields a sodium cation and a chloride anion, both of which have a
noble gas electron configuration:
• The ionization energy of sodium (496 kJ/mol) and the electron
affinity of chlorine (-349 kJ/mol), the overall process is
endothermic with DH°= +147 kJ/mol.
• The energy liberated by adding an electron to chlorine is
insufficient to override the energy required to remove an electron
from sodium.
• This analysis, however, fails to consider the force of attraction
between the oppositely charged ions Na+ and Cl–, which exceeds
500 kJ/mol and is more than sufficient to make the overall process
exothermic.
• Attractive forces between oppositely charged particles are termed
Intramolecular forces – Ionic Bond
17. COVALENT BONDS
• The covalent, or shared electron pair, model of chemical bonding was
first suggested by G. N. Lewis of the University of California in 1916.
• Lewis proposed that a sharing of two electrons by two hydrogen
atoms permits each one to have a stable closed-shell electron
configuration analogous to helium.
• The amount of energy required to dissociate a hydrogen molecule H2
to two separate hydrogen atoms is called its bond dissociation energy
(or bond energy).
• For H2 it is quite large, being equal to 435 kJ/mol (104 kcal/mol).
18. DOUBLE BONDS AND TRIPLE BONDS
• Lewis’s concept of shared electron pair bonds allows for 4-electron
double bonds and 6-electron triple bonds.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) has two carbon–oxygen double bonds, and the
octet rule is satisfied for both carbon and oxygen.
• Similarly, the most stable Lewis structure for hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
has a carbon–nitrogen triple bond.
19. Hydrogen Bonding - Intramolecular
• A hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction which
occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to a strongly electronegative
atom exists in the vicinity of another electronegative atom with a lone
pair of electrons.
• These bonds are generally stronger than ordinary dipole-dipole and
dispersion forces, but weaker than true covalent and ionic bonds.
20. The cohesion-adhesion theory of transport in vascular plants uses
hydrogen bonding to explain many key components of water movement
through the plant's xylem and other vessels.
21. • Hydrogen bonding is present abundantly in the
secondary structure of proteins, and also sparingly
in tertiary conformation.
• The secondary structure of a protein involves
interactions (mainly hydrogen bonds) between
neighboring polypeptide backbones which contain
N-H bonded pairs and oxygen atoms.