Describes factors that are responsible for emergence of zoonoses at the interface. Besides it also includes current scenario of food borne out-breaks, emergence of AMR.

1. Zoonoses at
interface of
Human-Animal
Ecosystem
Radhakrishna Sahu
PhD 1st yr
P-2043
Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology

2. Introduction
 816/1,407 (58%) human pathogens:
zoonotic
 130/177 (73%) “emerging pathogens,”
zoonotic Woolhouse and Gowtage-Sequeria 2005
 ~286/816 (35%) of zoonotic pathogens
communicable in human
Taylor et al. 2001
 80% of Human viral pathogen are zoonotic
 94% of zoonotic viruses are RNA viruses
Johnson et al., 2015

3. Emergence at human-animal interface
 Evolutionary distance (rodents> ungulates> primates)
Cleaveland et al. 2007
 Plasticity of pathogens (spill over properties)
Cleaveland et al. 2007; Johnson et al., 2015
 Frequency of contact with reservoir Greger et al., 2007
 Mosquito borne viruses undergoes evolution rapidly as
compared to tick borne viruses
Dodd et al., 2011

4. The Red Queen & The Court Jester
Host-pathogen
interaction
Pathogen-environment
interaction
Evolution of
pathogen
 Origin of ACE-2 binding corona virus in bats: SARS
epidemic
 Positive selection of DPP4 (dipeptidyl peptidase):
MERS epidemic vidence of positive selection
(Vespertilionidae bat, panda, ferret branches, dog)
 TRIM-5; resistance of HIV-1 in chimpanzee Benton et al., 2009; Sironi et al., 2015

5. Five stages of evolutionary transformation
Wolfe et al., 2007
Plasmodium spp.
Anthrax,Tularemia
Nipah, Rabies , WNV
Ebola, Marburg,
Monkeypox viruses
G.I Chagas disease, Yellow fever
G II Dengue fever
G III Influenza A, Cholera, Typhus fever and West African sleeping
sickness
Falciparum malaria Measles, Mumps
Rubella, Smallpox, Syphilis

6. Establishment of interface

7. First transition
Epidemiological transition
Domestic Origin Six million-11,000 years
Human
evolution
10,000 years
Dobson and Carper 1996
Wolfe et al. 2007
Human measles: RP like virus of sheep and goat Weiss 2001
Smallpox: from camelpox/ cowpox-like rodent-borne ancestor
Gubser et al. 2004
Perttussis: Ovine or porcine source Weiss 2001
Human influenza: waterfowl Shortridge 2003b
Leprosy: Water buffalo McMichael 2001
Mycobacterium tuberculosis & M. bovis: common ancestor
Sreevatsan et al. 1997; Brosch et al. 2002
Agriculture & rodent domicilation
Domestication of animals
Majority of temperate diseases: Old world domestic animals
(diphtheria, influenza A, measles, mumps, pertussis, rotavirus,
smallpox, tuberculosis)
Majority of tropical diseases: Old world primates (AIDS, dengue
fever, vivax malaria, yellow fever)
Wolfe et al., 2007

8. Second transition
Improved nutrition
Public health measures
Medical intervention
~100 years ago
Omran 1971
Era of complacency
Control over Polio, Rheumatic
fever, Smallpox
25,000 antibiotic preparations
Selgelid 2005
To write about infectious disease is almost to write of something that has
passed into history. . . .[T]he most likely forecast about the future of infectious
disease,” he continued, “is that it will be very dull”
Burnet and White, 1962

9. Third transition Present era (Since 30 years)
Emergence/re-emergence of infectious diseases
Armelagos et al. 2005;
Smolinski et al. 2003
Emerging/re-mergence of zoonotic pathogen
Woolhouse and Gowtage-Sequeria 2005
30 new agents emerged in last 30 years
Smolinski et al. 2003; Woolhouse 2002
Interspecies navigation of viruses with kingdom jumping
Clough 2004: Monath 1999
Edward Jenner: “Deviation of man from the state in which he was originally
placed by nature seems to have proved to him a prolific source of diseases”
(McMichael, 2004)
Long-distance live animal transport
Increasing demand for animal protein
Bushmeat consumption
Live animal markets
Intensification of animal agriculture
Habitat destruction
WHO/FAO/OIE 2004

10.  Habitat destruction
 Increase in demand for animal protein
 Bush meat consumption
 Live animal transport including food animal
 Expansion and intensification of animal agriculture
Anthropogenic contribution
WHO/FAO/OIE 2004; Wolfe et al., 2000

11. Habitat Destruction
Aldo Leopold , “[t]he real determinants of disease mortality are the
environment and the population, “doctored daily, for better or for worse, by
gun and axe, and by fire and plow” Friend et al. 2001
 More than half of the world’s tropical forest has been degraded (avg.
annual loss 2-3%) Pimm et al. 2001; Patz et al. 2004
Global Forest Resources Assessments (FRA) by FAO since 1948
 Grazing animals for human consumption demands an estimated 0.21
hectares per global capita Wackernagel et al. 2002
100, 000 yrs
Majority
population in
Eastern Africa
3000 yrs
100 million
20th Century
1 bn  6 bn
2050
10 billion
McMichael, 2001; Tilman et al. 2001

12. Expansion of ecotones
Goldberg et al., 2008; Jones et al., 2013

13. Forms of Habitat destruction
 Kyassanur forest disease in
India
 Lyme disease, Connecticut,
USA
 Haemorrhagic fever
Greger, 2007; Ostfeld, 2013
 Habitat fragmentation: lyme disease; Hendra virus, Australian bat
lyssa virus, Menangle virus
 Deforestation
 Replacement of natural vegetation (crops & planted forest)
Jones et al., 2013
Habitat destruction and zoonoses
 Australian bat lyssa virus
 SARS
 Nipah virus
 West Nile virus

14.  Habitat destruction
 Increase in demand for animal protein
 Bush meat consumption
 Live animal transport including food animal
 Expansion and intensification of animal agriculture
Anthropogenic contribution
WHO/FAO/OIE 2004; Wolfe et al., 2000

15. Bush Meat Consumption
 Direct contact with animal, infected tissue and blood
 Hunting of non-human primates and bats possess greatest risk
 Bushmeat related activities
 Expansion of sale to different parts of Africa
 Sick animals more susceptible to hunting
Wolfe et al. 2000; LeBreton et al. 2006; Subramanian ( 2012 ); United Nations 2014; Taylor et al.
Commonly encountered zoonotic diseases
Congo and Amazon river basin: 4.5 mt & 5 mt bushmeat consumption/ yr
Fa et al., 2002
 Contagious pustular dermatitis
 Ebola (primate)
 HIV (primate)
 Mokey pox (Rodent and primate)
 Anthrax Wolfe et al. 2000; Patin et al., 2000
“Bushmeat” refers to the meat derived from wild animals for human
consumption (Milner-Gulland and Bennett 2003 )
Rising population of Africa
Lack of alternative sources
Brashares et al. 2001; United Nations 2013

16. Zaire Ebola virus
Tai-Forest Ebola Virus
HIV-1
HTLV
Simian foamy virus
Marburg virus
Strongyloides fulleborni
Entamoeba histolytica
Balantidium coli
Giardia intestinalis
Primate Bats
Lagos Virus
Zaire Ebola Virus
Duvengahe virus
Rodents
Monkey pox
Leptospira
Rabies
Mokola virus
Lassa fever
Salmonella
Ungulates
Kurpiers et al., 2013
Anthrax
Leptospirosis
Rabies
Zaire Ebola Virus
Hepatitis E

17. Long lifespans >40 yrs Chronic persistence of virus
Dispersal over long distances Wide dissemination of pathogen
High body temperatures Co-evolution of febrile resistant virus
High density of sympatric species Random spillovers
Munshi-South and Wilkinson, 2010; Streicker et al. 2010; O’Shea et al. 2014
Regulation of immune systems Symptomless reservoir
Bat-Man

18.  Habitat destruction
 Increase in demand for animal protein
 Bush meat consumption
 Live animal transport including food animal
 Expansion and intensification of animal agriculture
Anthropogenic contribution
WHO/FAO/OIE 2004; Wolfe et al., 2000

19. Live Animal Transport
 Pet animal
 Laboratory purpose
 Food animal export
 Illegal smuggling of animals DEFRA 2005
40,000 primates
4 million birds
640,000 reptiles
Karesh et al. 2005
Animal trade/ yr (world wide) Transportation of food animal
Traded for food quintupled in
the 1990s
>One billion moved across
borders in 2005
350 million tropical fish trade
FAO 2007b

20. Live Animal Transport &
Zoonoses
 Increased contact with between different herds FAO 2002
 Increased faecal shedding (EHEC, Salmonella spp.)
Barham et al. (2002)
 Succeptibility to infection
 Disease precipitation of latent infections (Example: shipping
fever)
Crews 2004
Important epidemics
 Nipah virus spread across Malaysia: transportation of infected pig
Specter, 2005
 2004 H5N1 Pandemic (8 countries of SE Asia): transportation of live birds
FAO 2007a

21. Growth phase Decline phase
Avian influenza resurgence with
growth of chicken industry

22. Disease Species Importing
country
Imported from
Monkey pox Gambian giant rat Texas, US Ghana
Chomel et al. 2007
Equine influenza Horse Hong Kong and
South Africa
US
Rabies, M. bovis Fur-bearing
animals
Eastern Europe &
New Zealand
Woodford et al., 1993
Tularemia Hare West Virginia Central & Eastern
Europe
Godfroid et al. 2005
Avian Influenza Finche UK China—Taiwan
DEFRA 2005
Psittacosis, West
nile virus
Pet birds US Middle East
Lanciotti et al., 1999
Herpes-B virus Primates US African countries
Holmes et al. 1995
Salmonellosis Terrapins Ireland US
Lynch et al. 1999
Powell et al. 1995
Guthrie et al. 1999
Pet Animal transportation

23.  Habitat destruction
 Increase in demand for animal protein
 Bush meat consumption
 Live animal transport including food animal
 Expansion and intensification of animal agriculture
Anthropogenic contribution
WHO/FAO/OIE 2004; Wolfe et al., 2000

24. Expansion and intensification of
animal agriculture
 Beginning of livestock revolution in 1970 (Delgado et al. 1999)
 World meat production 4-5 folds sincs 1960s
 Asia is the largest meat producer, accounting for around 40-45
percent of total meat production
 Meat production 2014: 315.4 MT (World) (71.36 MT in 1961)
135.71 MT (Asia)
6.6 MT (India) FAO, 2017
 Meat consumption: 41.3 kg (2015) (24.02 kg during1964-66)
FAO, 2017
 Milk production 2014: 791.79 MT (World) (344.18 MT in 1961)
307.33 MT (Asia) FAO, 2017
 Egg production : 73.79 MT, 2013 (World) (15.07 MT, 1961)
China, US, India, Japan (four biggest contributor)
FAO, 2017

27. Livestock Revolution and Zoonoses
 Intensive approach (vs traditional) to animal farming increasing @ 5%
 Large number of genotypically similar individuals at a confined
place (easier adaptation of a pathogen)
 Increasing human-animal contact
 Rapid population turnover
 Limited air space (increased quantity of waste; transmission of
airborne diseases)
 Physiological stress
 Selective breeding– genetic bottle necking (indegenous breeds
extinction )
 Peri-urbanisation of livestock farming
Resource allocation hypothesis

28. Nipah emergence in Malaysia
 265 cases, 105 deaths Looi and Chua, 2009
Timeline (originated since 1950s)
Forest degradation (Burneo and
Sumatra; 1997-98)
Mass exodus & encroachment into
cultivated fruit tree (next to pig
farms) of fruit bat
Direct exposure to bat/ exposure to
contaminated fruits
Transportation of infected pigs
across country (misidentification as
JE)
Habitat destruction
Intensive animal agriculture
Long distance animal transport
• Intensive pig farming
• Rise in pig population
• Continuous influx of
immunologically naïve pig
2004; Bangladesh: consumption
of raw date palm sap
Presti et al., 2016

29. Sumatra
Buerno
Image Source: CDC
Ipoh, Malaysia

30. Emergence of HIV
 First recognised USA, 1981 (HIV I); West African Woman, 1987 (HIV II)
 Repeated jumping of species barrier (HIV-II from SIVsmm; western
Africa & HIV I from SIVcpz; central Africa)
Hahn et al. 2000: Peeters et al. 2002; Sharp and Hahn, 2010
 Recombination of various simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs)
Andrews and Rowland-Jones, 2017
 Animal blood infection (bush meat)
Van Heuverswyn and Peeters 2007
 Corporate logging :
 Increased bush meat tread
 Rotation of sex workers in
logging camp
 Non-sterile self-injection needle
Weiss and Wrangham, 1999; Larkin, 2000; Marx et al. 2001

31. Sharp; Hahn; 2010
Phylogenetic Analysis of M, N, O and
R types
Black: P. t. troglodytes
Grey: P. t. schweinfurthii
Red: Human
Blue: Gorilla

32. Emerging food-borne (FB) zoonoses
~600 million FB illness
~ 4,20,000 FB deaths (animal products tops) Delgado et al. 1999
~ 230,000 deaths FB diarrhoeal disease agents (NTS)
~18 million DALYs: FB diarrhoeal disease agents (NTS and EPEC)
~40% of the FB disease: children < five years of age
Other top contributors :
FB death: S typhi, Taenia solium, hepatitis A virus, and aflatoxin
FB illness: Norovirus and Campylobacter
Diarrhoeal causes:
Low income regions: EPEC, ETEC and Vibrio cholerae;
High-income sub-region: Campylobacter spp.
SEAR subregions there was a considerable burden of Salmonella Typhi
World Health Organization, 2015

33.  Incidence of food borne diseases doubled since 1970
 Aquaculture: greatest stocking density of animal agriculture: rise of
Streptococcus iniae
Newell et al., 2010
 Emerging pathogens
Listeria monocytogenes (meningo-encephalitis)
E. coli O:157 H:7, O26, O103, O111, O145, E. coli O157
Noroviruses and hepatitis A (bivalve molluscan shellfish)
Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp.,
Taeniasis

34. Antibiotic resistance emergence
at human-animal interface
 India: World’s biggest consumer of
antibiotics (human health 10.7
units/capita) SEARO, 2016;
Venkatasubramanian, 2018
 No MRL standards has been set in food
industry
 India manufactures 1/3rd of worlds
antibiotic (2012)
 Antibiotic use in livestock industry:
therapeutic and animal food industry
 Aquaculture (China largest followed by
Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, India,

35.  80% of total consumption of antibiotics is in the animal sector (US)
WHO, 2018
 Upsurge in demand in India in animal industry

36. Antibiotic-resistance food borne
outbreak between 1973-2011
 Dairy products, ground beef
and poultry (37/55) (Other:
Sea-food, pork, egg)
 Salmonella spp most
common 48/55 (Other: ETEC,
S. aureus, Campylobacter)
 MDR (>5 antibiotic) in
outbreak: 31/55
 Tetarcycline: 47/55,
Streptomycin: 39/55,
Ampicillin: 36/55
CSPI, 2013
CSPI, 2013

37.  Antibiotics milk: tetracycline, oxytetracycline, gentamicin, ampicillin,
amoxicillin, cloxacillin, and penicillin
Grover and Bhavadesan, 2013
 Poultry: 40% of the samples ≥ 1 antibiotics (Oxytetracycline,
Doxycycline, Enrofloxacin, Ciprofloxacin) Sahu and Saxena, 2014
 Drug resistant E.coli: Gujarat and the Kashmir Valley in calf diarrhoea,
Arya et al., 2008; Kawoosa et al., 2007
 Mastitis associated with MRSA, VRSA, carbenicillin, oxacillin,
imipenem, quinolone resistance
Dutta et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2012; Bandyopadhyay et al., 2015; Bhattacharya et al., 2016; Koovapra et al., 2016
 Antibiotic resistance in poultry: streptomycin, kanamycin, erythromycin,
kanamycin, tobramycin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin,
norfloxacin and oxytetracycline
Suresh et al., 2006; Dhanarani et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2012; Samanta et al., 2014; Kar et al., 2015
 MDR in aquaculture in Salmonella spp.: sulfamethizol, carbenicillin,
oxytetracycline, nalidixic acid, and streptomycin
Kumar et al., 2009; Deekshit et al., 2012
AMR & India

38. India: a hotspot for zoonoses
Global status of India
Poor livestock keepers: 1st
Protein energy malnutrition: 1st
Zoonoses global burden: 1st
Endemic zoonoses prevalence: 5th
19 million stray dogs (urban:
areas 2.6 M) Rathore, 2008
New Delhi: 20,000 stray cows
Rathore, 2008
Grace, 2012

39. Mixed crop livestock extensive
Agro-pastoral and pastoral system
Mixed crop livestock Intensive
Other-urban, forests, and
landless systems
South Central Asia region: Farming systems
Herrero et al 2009

40. India as hot-spot for following zoonotic diseases:
 Brucellosis
 Tuberculosis (Both M. bovis: Amphixenoses cycle and M.
tunerculosis: zooanthroponotic cycle)
 Q fever
 Bacterial food borne pathogens
 Echinococcosis
Grace et al., 2012

41. Solution
 Maintenance of human-ecosystem integrity (Establishment of
protected areas, national parks)
 Evoutionary insights
Phylogenetic analysis: origin of disease Sharp and Hahn, 2010
Analysis of host an pathogen interaction at genomic level
Sironi et al., 2015
 Population growth control
 MRLs establishment, enforcement for use of antibiotics in animal
industry
 Sustainable animal raising (Pasture based system)
 Discouragement to bush meat
 Promotion of native breeds in animal farming
FSS (Contaminants, Toxins and Residues) Amendment

42. GatesFoundation, April 26, 2018
Thank You
Wished me on 100th anniversary???