APPLICATION OF CRITICAL THEORY IN APPLIED RESEARCH

International Journal of Research in Social Sciences
Vol. 8, Issue 7(1), July 2018,
ISSN: 2249-2496 Impact Factor: 7.081
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442 International Journal of Research in Social Sciences
http://www.ijmra.us, Email: editorijmie@gmail.com
APPLICATION OF CRITICAL THEORY IN APPLIED RESEARCH
By Vinay Babbar, Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Commerce, Rajdhani College
Abstract: Critical theorists view culture as the expression of human consciousness shaped by daily living
(Rose, 1990). So, it urges a transformation that enables individuals to create new truths for both themselves
and for society. By keeping this view this paper will try to discuss the applicability of critical theory in a
field of applied research. I have divided this paper in three sections to get the clear understanding about
both the terminologies. First part of the paper will find the roots of critical theory and its meaning as well
to create some understanding about the topic. Then, the second part of the paper will focus to understand
the area of applied research through its meaning and applicability in different areas. This section will also
explain how applied research is differed from the pure or basic research. Last section of the paper will try
to relate the applicability of critical theory in applied research with the help of a case study.
Keywords
Critical theory, applied research, culture, society
Section-I
Origin of Critical Theory
One may discover the origins of critical theory to a group of German social theorists known as the "inner
circle" at the Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt Germany in 1930s. Critical theory was established
as a school of thought primarily by five Frankfurt School theoreticians: Herbert Marcuse, Theodor
Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. With roots in Freudian and Marxist
philosophy, they represented expertise in economics, psychology, history and philosophy and are known
today as the Frankfurt School. Modern critical theory has additionally been influenced by György
Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, as well as the second generation Frankfurt School scholars, notably Jürgen
Habermas. In Habermas's work, critical theory transcended its theoretical roots in German idealism, and
progressed closer to American pragmatism. While, Marxist philosophical concepts in contemporary sense
have concern for social "base and superstructure" in critical theory. Further, we can persist that the notion
of critique and knowledge in critical theories came from Kant's philosophical approach and the Hegelian
philosophy brought the idea of an "emergence of spirit" (Held, 1989). And, the process of self-conscious
critique is embedded within the critical theory. Thus, it provides a basis to perceive the complex interactions
that exist among the individual, the school and society.
Critical Theory: Meaning
Critical theory is considered as a social theory which is oriented toward critiquing and changing society as
a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. Critical
theories aim to dig beneath the surface of social life and uncover the assumptions that keep us from a full
and true understanding of how the world works.

As we know critical theory emerged out of the Marxist tradition and it was developed by a group of
sociologists at the University of Frankfurt in Germany, they discussed the essential distinguishing features
of a ‘critical theory’ which are based on three thesis:
1. Critical theories considered as a special standing which guides for human action in that:
(a) Their main objective is to produce enlightenment to the agents who hold them, i.e. critical theory
enables those agents to determine what their true interests are;
(b) They are inherently emancipator, i.e. they free agents from a kind of coercion which is at least
partly self-imposed, from self-frustration of conscious human action.
2. Critical theories have cognitive content, i.e. they are forms of knowledge.
3. Critical theories are not similar to other theories of natural sciences, although these are differed
epistemologically in essential ways from them. Further, the theories in natural science are
‘objectifying’; while critical theories are ‘reflective’.
A critical theory is a reflective theory in that sense as it gives its agents a kind of knowledge inherently
productive of enlightenment and emancipation.
Further, Max Horkheimer defined critical theory in the book Traditional and Critical Theory. He asserted
that a critical theory must do two important things: it must account for the whole of society within historical
context, and it should seek to offer a robust and holistic critique by incorporating insights from all social
sciences.
Further, Horkheimer stated that a theory can only be considered a true critical theory if it is explanatory,
practical, and normative, meaning that the theory must adequately explain the social problems that exist, it
must offer practical solutions for how to respond to them and make change, and it must clearly abide the
norms of criticism established by the field.
Areas of Critical Theory
The main goal of the critical theory since its inception is its application to the practical world. Critical theory
is applicable to many fields such as economical, historical, philosophical, political, psychological, and
sociological studies. However, this does not mean that the Critical Theory is limited to only these fields.
Contrary to the belief of many scholars, the Critical Theory is self-reflective in its nature and value driven.
The ultimate goal of the Critical Theory is to transform our present society into a just, rational, humane,
and reconciled society.
Further we can elaborate some areas where the critical theory can deal as follows:
1. Critical theory promotes a diversified education for all individuals in order to steer them away from
over-specialization. This will create individuals with strong mental faculties who will be able to
think critically about the forces that affect their daily lives.
2. It plays role in steering humanity away from different future perspectives.
3. It creates a social balance between the personal autonomy of the individual and universal solidarity
of the collective.

4. It promotes revolution against all forms of fascism and nationalism.
5. It promotes revolution against all forms of discrimination including those based on sex, sexual
orientation, race, and religious belief.
6. It also guides to preserve the good moral values that promote universal solidarity and will help
bring about a more just, humane, rational, and reconciled society.
Above is the brief description about the critical theory and its areas of application. Now we will come to
our other area of this paper i.e. the applied research.
Section-II
Applied Research: Meaning
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge's sake only. In other words, applied research has direct applications to the
world which is used to answer specific questions. So, one might say that the goal of the applied scientist is
to improve the human condition. Further, applied research is a form of systematic inquiry involving the
practical application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities'
(the academia's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-
, business-, or client-driven purpose. Thus it also refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve
practical problems even of day to day life. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems,
cure illness, and develop innovative technologies. Further, applied research is designed to solve practical
problems of the modern world, usually in response to a specific articulated need from an organisation or
company. So, we can say that the motivation behind applied research is to engage with people, organizations
or interests beyond the academic discipline and for knowledge to be useful outside the context in which it
was generated. This engagement of applied research with the ‘outside world’ for example, government
departments, commercial organizations, pressure groups gives it some distinctive characteristics.
Applied Research vs. Basic Research
It is argued that basic and applied research differs in purposes, context and methods. Although the
differences are presented in dichotomous terms, the authors suggest that in reality they should be seen in
continuation. The differences of purpose can be described in terms of the goals of knowledge production.
For the basic researcher the production of knowledge is an end in itself whereas for the applied researcher
knowledge is used to further other ends or goals.
Here, the applied research is contrasted with pure research (basic research) in discussion about research
ideals, methodologies, programs, and projects. Applied research deals with solving practical problems and
generally employs empirical methodologies.
Moreover, differences between applied and basic research can be divided into three groups:
1. Differences in purpose. Purpose of applied studies is closely associated with the solution of specific
problems, while the purpose of fundamental studies is concerned with the creation of new knowledge or

expansion of the current knowledge without any concerns to its applicability. It means applied research is
solution oriented while basic research is concerned in expanding knowledge whether new or current.
2. Differences in context. In applied studies research objectives are set by clients or sponsors as a solution
to specific problems they are facing. Fundamental studies, on the other hand, are usually self-initiated in
order to expand the levels of knowledge in certain areas.
3. Differences in methods. Research validity represents an important point to be addressed in all types of
studies. Nevertheless, applied studies are usually more concerned with external validity, whereas internal
validity can be specified as the main point of concern for fundamental researchers.
Some examples of Applied Research
As we have discussed above that an applied research is a methodology used to solve a specific, practical
problem of an individual or group. The study and research is used in business, medicine and education in
order to find solutions that may cure diseases, solve scientific problems or develop technology.
The following are examples for applied research. Note that, each of these studies here aim to resolve a
specific and an immediate problem.
1. To conduct a study into the ways of improving the levels of customer retention for a departmental store.
2. To investigate into the ways for improving motivation of employees in an organisation.
3. Development of strategies to introduce change in company’s global supply-chain management with the
view on cost reduction.
4. A study into the ways of fostering creative deviance amongst employees without compromising respect
for authority.
5. A Study into the ways to cure Obsessive Compulsive Disorder.
6. To find ways to bridge the achievement gap of students from various socio-economic background.
Above are the some examples of applied research in different situations in different fields.
So far we have discussed the meaning of critical theory and the applied research, and their areas of
applications which have given us the brief understanding about our topic. Now we will try to point out how
the critical theory can relate to applied research.
Section-III
As we know, Critical Theory is an approach to challenging and destabilizing established knowledge in
various fields. Further, it focuses on political, cultural, economic, and social relationships within a culture.
So, issues of struggle, power, culture, hegemony and critical consciousness still remain paramount to
critical theorists today. On the other hand, the main purpose applied research is to solve practical problems
of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. Applied research is generally
done for the improvement of human condition than before such as how to improve the classroom learning,

to find new ways for treatment of disease and so on. Thus, we can say it is not that much simple to relate
critical theory in applied research. Hence, to understand how critical theory is applicable in applied research
we will discuss a case study to particular problem for which we will use the applied research and will also
try to find new paradigms by incorporating the knowledge of critical theory.
Case Study: How to motivate and enhance music learning skills among students with reference to
applicability of critical theory in music class?
This case study initially will focus on the ways that will motivate and enhance the learning of music among
students. The ‘self concept’ theory tells the perception of people have about themselves (Greenberg, 1970).
A person’s self-concept may be stronger in music than in other domains. This perception is reinforced by
evaluations received from others, as well as by comparing one’s self to others (Bong & Clark, 1999;
Greenberg, 1970; Lamont, 2011). Having a strong music self-concept is a crucial component as to whether
or not students will have the motivation to persist in music. Greenberg (1970) noted that children’s music
self-concepts begin to shape as soon as they are able to determine how well they performed on a certain
task. Marsh, Craven, and Debus (1991) confirmed that self-concept originates at an early age and becomes
more personalized as students grow older. Young students who engage in positive music experiences are
more likely to develop positive beliefs about themselves as musicians. So, they will strive more to learn
music. Further, Bandura (1995) defined ‘self-efficacy’ theory as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. It is associated with person’s
beliefs about their abilities have a profound impact on the motivation they bring to learning situations. Self-
efficacy in the music classroom describes the “beliefs about one’s ability to accomplish musical goals”.
Students who do not have a high self-efficacy struggle with internal dialogues reminding them of feelings
of ineptness at certain tasks and abilities. The other theory which also helps to understand factors that can
motivate students to participate in music is ‘attribution theory’, which focuses on how people make sense
of what they experience. The way students explain their successes or failures can also be a key insight into
how they will interact with the task in the future. The various research studies have identified three
psychological needs for sustaining self-motivation in learning: competence, autonomy, and relatedness
(Ryan & Deci, 2000). For students to participate it is necessary to create a warm and inviting atmosphere
in which they must feel they are competent in their musical skill and knowledge, and have power over their
own choices in learning and how they choose to participate in music activities, and have the need to belong
or feel connected.
In this way, these theories have provided a richer understanding of human behaviour related to motivation
and learning particular to music education. Although, when we look at the individual level, then one must
consider that all students are unique in their own personality and behaviour, how they experience the world
and interpret and make sense of these experiences (Chi-yue, Hong, & Dweck, 1997). Therefore, they
establish beliefs about themselves and establish their implicit theories, which profoundly affect how they
interact with the world and with others and behave in learning situations. Besides this, these theories helps
us to understand the students behaviour and guides us in which area to be focussed more to motivate the
students to learn.

There are other traits also which may also influence the learning skills in students. One of these trait is self-
beliefs, or mindsets, further it can be separated in two distinct and separate views of intelligence: fixed
mindset and growth mindset. Those with a fixed mindset believe the intelligence they have was fully formed
by birth, is innate, and is a fixed trait (Dweck, 2006). Children with a fixed mindset feel compelled to
protect their intelligence, at all costs, and are focused on how smart they appear to others (Dweck, 2000).
The consequence of this mindset is that students will avoid challenges or participating in activities in which
they predict they may fail. In contrast, growth mindset is the belief that intelligence can be both developed
and improved with effort and specific strategies (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Students with this mindset view
both challenges and failures as opportunities to learn. So, here the focus is that each person can improve
his or her learning with the right effort and direction (Mueller & Dweck, 1997).
Research findings suggest that mindsets are shaped by the feedback students receive throughout their life
and specifically in their academic training. Feedback can reinforce a fixed mindset or foster a growth
mindset (Dweck, 2007). Fortunately, some research studies show that students can actually increase their
motivation to learn simply by being informed about the two mindsets, as well as about how their brain
learns (Dweck, 2007).
On other side, Ericsson (2006) also supported this scientific conclusion of practicing to increase musical
skill. He suggested that students must practice deliberately with a specific goal in mind as they concentrate
on a specific task. Research findings identified that musicians, who were considered top performers in their
area, all shared in common their diligence in practicing for more than 10,000 hours (Ericsson, Krampe, &
Tesch-Römer, 1993). This confirmed that it matters not how talented a student is; instead, committing to
deliberate practice is what is necessary for musical skill development (Ericcson, 2006). So, the teachers
must motivate their students to practice to enhance their learning.
Music teachers have also known for quite some time that practice is necessary to strengthen musical skill.
With the emergence of current research, educators may now explain to their students the reason why.
Teachers can educate their students on how the brain works, which can provide them with tools necessary
if they desire to be a skilled musician. This knowledge can help students in becoming responsible for their
own learning. Students can now strategize toward engaging in tasks that will strengthen their musical skill
and knowledge.
Thus, each of these theories and models shine light on the multi-dimensions of who each student is as a
learner. Teachers, and ultimately students, would greatly benefit by the inclusion of these motivation and
learning theories and models in teacher training and ongoing professional development. Further, the music
educator plays a crucial role in creating a strong motivational foundation on the fragile balancing beam that
students walk on as they engage in music learning. Educators should be encouraged to provide enrichment
activities for students who have mastered the current lesson to enhance their creativity, as well as apply
their learning. Music teachers have been consistent in creating these opportunities in various ways such as
having students compose, perform original or others’ compositions, works on solo and ensemble literature,
form vernacular music groups, and present to their class an aspect of personal music interest. These
additional activities have been well known methods of motivating students in the past also.

So far the case study has discussed various means in forms of different theories and views to motivate and
enhance the learning skills in students. Now, we will inherit the critical aspect to our case study which will
point out the curriculum of music education. It is generally found that the cultural values of the dominant
class may be known as ‘popular culture’ is followed in the society, and that popular culture turns art into a
commodity, and produces a mechanical world filled with standardized, stereotyped and false images of
mass culture. So do its effect can also be seen in curriculum of education in general and music in particular.
Therefore, Critical theory visualizes a process of critique which is self-conscious and that leads the
participants to develop a dialogue on social transformation and emancipation. In this streak, critical theory
raises our consciousness beyond the walls of the classroom and the boundaries of the school to broader
social and cultural concerns. These broad social and cultural concerns connect well to education in general
and for music education in particular.
Through the development of a curriculum based on the principles of Critical Theory, the music teacher and
his students were able to meet the benchmarks of traditional outcomes thorough a flexible curriculum,
developed cooperatively by teacher and student. Such a curriculum was more interesting to the students.
And the curriculum of their choice will also motivate them to learn and practicing more. The commitment
to Critical Theory supports a curriculum in which the making of music is liberating and transforming
because the curriculum is individualized. It provided opportunities where the students are able to record
their own experiences which give them the feelings of epiphany. Classroom teachers also reported that their
students are looking forward to music classes with enthusiasm. The music teacher reports similar feelings.
When presented with the opportunities, students and their teacher are excited to share their music with each
other. Students said they felt valued when the music teacher acknowledged their music as important and
worthwhile. Teachers also agree that they learned much about their students and about music that was new
to them. In short, while it is hard to pinpoint "transformation," both students and their teacher believed that
the general music classes changed and enriched their interactions with each other. Because lessons included
making music, students acted as real musicians. This was a significant change from previous years when
students learned "about" music and performed the music of others, often to the exclusion of music they
could have created themselves. This research and teaching process greatly informed the music teacher and
the college music education students who developed the lesson materials. Thus, the applications of critical
theory in curriculum lead to transformation from the conventional way of learning. At one hand, it motivates
students to learn and create something new and on other hand, it neglects the learning process based on the
cultural values of the dominant class of the society. Thus, we can conclude that Students enjoy working
cooperatively with their teachers to solve problems and also able to rise to the occasion when challenged
to think, feel and act in a sophisticated, critical manner.
In this way the case study discussed the ways to motivate students to learn music which are based on
sidelines of applied research. This study also points out in critical manner that the students should also be
the part of the curriculum which they are going to study rather than learn the pre-determined curriculum
which was influenced by the dominant class of society. In this way, critical theory points out that the
‘popular culture’ can’t be taken as the mass culture.

Conclusion
Above discussion clearly clarifies the meaning of critical theory and the applied research. Both the terms
are quite different in their meaning and stance. Critical theory which singles out for criticism and critique
knowledge, which in itself presents as certain, final, and beyond human interests or motivations. The critical
sees its own central purpose is to destabilize such knowledge and in place to generate alternative knowledge
forms, specifically, those shaped by social interests who are democratic and egalitarian. While applied
research deals with the specific problems of the society and tries to solve them rather than only to acquire
knowledge, it applies such knowledge to meet society’s requirement. The case study we discussed above
has analysed the different aspects that can motivate the students to enhance their learning in music
education. The critical aspect of the case study highlights that the conventional ways of learning based on
pre-determined curriculum not worthy always, and new ideas should be incorporated by making students
the part of curriculum which they are going to learn. This practice will motivate the students to learn and
they will be more cooperated. At last we can conclude that however both the terms are unrelated but at the
same time their applicability can be seen in common area also. As our case study identifies different aspects
to motivate students to learn music at the same time we have found that the critical aspect here can also be
act as a motivating source. In this way both can be related even if they are not relating to each other in
realty.
Bibliography
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Sciences.
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