Background Judith and Eric Sultan own a business providing HR dec.docx

Background: Judith and Eric Sultan own a business providing
HR decision-making expertise to employers across the nation.
The name of their business is HRM Analysis Services. Their
business is located in Phoenix and has grown exponentially
since 2005. Up to this point they have not had their own
employees, but instead hired established consultants (often
called management analysts) to work on a project-by-project
basis.
They want to hire three full-time management analysts to work
in three different locations: San Francisco, Philadelphia, and
Miami. The analysts would scout out work in their designated
regions and manage the contracting and oversight of contractual
consultants.
Judith and Eric plan to keep ownership of the company, but
want to step away from the day-to-day as soon as the business is
working well enough without them.
The focus of this assignment is to assist Judith and Eric with the
selection of three Management Analysts by coming up with a
weighted formula of important selection factors. The Job
Applicants Table shows the applicants who applied for the
position. See What Management Analysts Do for a description
of the position.
Your task is to:
1. Develop a formula to quantify the merits of each applicant
based on the factors provided. Justify why you gave heavier
weight to some factors over others.
2. Develop your own visual/graphic showing how each applicant
fared.

3. Discuss your visual/graphic in essay format.
4. Recommend 6-8 applicants to proceed to a panel interview
phase.
5. Critique the process of identifying best candidates to proceed
in a selection process by using a custom-designed formula
applied to each candidate.
Use at least 3 library sources to help strengthen your
discussion. Reference all material cite
Duties
Management analysts typically do the following:
· Gather and organize information about the problem to be
solved or the procedure to be improved.
· Interview personnel and conduct onsite observations to
determine the methods, equipment, and personnel that will be
needed.
· Analyze financial and other data, including revenue,
expenditure, and employment reports.
· Develop solutions or alternative practices.
· Recommend new systems, procedures, or organizational
changes.
· Make recommendations to management through presentations
or written reports.
· Confer with managers to ensure changes are working.

Although some management analysts work for the organization
that they analyze, most work as consultants on a contractual
basis.
Individuals Applying for HR Management Analyst:Applicant
(no specific order):Average number of months worked for
Sultan Services (in past 3 years):Performance Appraisal Rating
by Sultan Services:
1 = below average
2 = average
3 = above average
4 =excellentHRM-Related Certifications:
SHRM, HRCI, or WorldatWork# of Publications in past 5
years:Terminal Degree:Degree Granting Institution—Regional
Accreditation?Total # Years Classroom Experience (teaching
college or facilitating training courses): Total # Consulting Jobs
in HRM strategy formulation:Total # Consulting Jobs in HR
metrics analysis:Total # Consulting Jobs in Base Wage and
Salary Admin:Total # Consulting Jobs in Total Rewards
Admin:Total # Consulting Jobs in Labor Relations:Other
Practitioner Experience:Comments:aa42y1PhD—
Managementn11.513--1041212 yr. HR
managementbb42.5n8PhD— Managementy101043638 yrs. Army
HRcc0 (external applicant)n.a.y--DBA—Intl. Businessy98
612212016 yrs. HR managmentdd42y--JD; MBAy1022418518
yrs. HR managementee53y3EdDy3025 --51969 years mfg.
operationsff82.5y4PhD—Org. Mgt &
Leadershipy1818811251021 years military logisticsgg0
(external applicant)n.a.n7PhD—Managementn6303811845 years
mfg. QA mgr.hh43n6PhD—Business/HRM n1730--55819 yrs.

Accounting mgt.ii0 (external applicant)n.a.y6PhD--
HRMy61718--221 years CEO Insurance companyjj0 (external
applicant)n.a. n2EdDy10222106115 yrs. hair dresserkk62y--
DBA--HRy615 --4--33 yrs. Gymnastics coachll43n2PhD—
HRMy1215 116201811 yrs. HRM mgt.mm0 (external
applicant)n.a. y3PhD—Management n139 4610236 yrs.
pastornn73y6PhD--Businessn1428113115Studio artist 30
yearsoo72y3PhD—Mgt. Info Systemsy12--12101612 yrs.
Landscape businesspp6 3y2PhD--HRDy2012394615 mgt. temp
staffing agencyqq0 (external applicant)n.a.n4DBA, JDy822 --
682011 yrs. FMCS Arbitratorrr0 (external applicant)n.a.y3PhD-
Businessy10313--14119 yrs. IRS auditorss0 (external
applicant)n.a. y2PhD—Business, HRMn1522 51110263 yrs. 3rd
grade teachertt0 (external applicant)n.a. y5JD; PhD—
Management y3010-1220318 yrs. Retail clothing store manager
Title:
History of psychology.
Authors:
Delahanty, Everett J., Jr.
Source:
Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health, 2019. 8p.
Article
Subject
W
link to this record (Permalink):

History of psychology
Type of psychology: Origin and definition of psychology
Psychological inquiry and psychology as a field have a varied
history going back thousands of years.
Introduction
Psychology can be assessed from points of view that regard it as
a folk, cultural, or religious process; as a philosophical
approach; as a scientific method; as an academic discipline; or
as a set of postmodern assumptions.
A gathering of psychologists at Clark University around the
beginning of the twentieth century. From left to right, bottom
row, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, and Carl Jung; top row,
left to right, A. A. Brill, Ernest Jones, and Sandor Ferenczi.
(Library of Congress)
From the folk process point of view, peoples have formed their
own cultures and religions from the beginning of human history.
These different cultures and religions have unique values and
norms within which the person is considered and evaluated. Out
of these norms come the everyday beliefs and expectations that
members of the group will hold about themselves, other people,
and the world. Thus, in every culture there is an implicit theory
of psychology. Since this process is always operative, it has
always been a factor in how specific thinkers such as
philosophers, scientists, and psychologists, as well as
laypeople, have been able to think about the human person. The
folk process remains an especially important factor in some
areas of psychology, such as humanistic psychology and clinical
psychology.
Philosophy began to emerge about the year 600 BCE. At that
time, Thales, a Greek thinker, began to consider systematically
the nature of the world. His view that the world’s basic element
is water demanded that the philosopher give up the folk process,

or “common sense,” and argue for a conclusion based on
rational premises. This new way of thinking led to a much
broader set of possibilities in the understanding of the world
and the human being. In terms of psychology, philosophers
would concentrate on topics such as the relationship between
the mind and the body and the process of acquiring knowledge,
especially about what is outside the body. This influence has
gone in and out of fashion throughout the history of psychology.
In the last decade of the twentieth century, cognitive
psychology was strongly influenced by philosophic thinking, for
example.
By the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the
Renaissance, another way of thinking and solving problems
began to emerge. As a result of dissatisfaction with both
religious and philosophic answers to understanding the world
and its place in the cosmos, as well as knowledge about the
nature of the human being, a process of systematic and repeated
observation and rigorous thinking began to emerge. This new
process, which has been labeled a part of modern thinking, has
become the scientific method, requiring another separation from
the folk process. For instance, when the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus and the Italian mathematician
and astronomer Galileo Galilei argued from their observations
that the earth revolved around the sun rather than the opposite,
“common-sense” view, they offended both religious authorities
and philosophers, but they opened the door to a new way of
solving problems and understanding the world and human
beings. This new way was named science.
Thanks to both philosophy and science, by the middle to end of
the nineteenth century various scholarly areas had emerged,
each with a unique use of methodology and subject matter. One
of these disciplines was psychology. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt, a
German philosopher and physiologist, set up what is generally
considered the first laboratory in experimental psychology.
From that point, psychology began to be recognized as a
discipline by scholars in the Western world.

Through an interaction with disciplines such as anthropology
and linguistics, which were thriving on relativistic assumptions,
and a philosophy of language that limited meaning to the
particular and situational case, a psychological point of view
developed in the mid- to late twentieth century called social
constructionism. Although promoted by those who identify with
the discipline of psychology, social constructionism is at odds
with the assumptions of the modern period, including many of
those that go with science, and is, therefore, labeled
postmodern. Such an approach seeks only to describe and
interpret rather than to explain, as is the aim in science. Parallel
developments such as deconstruction in the field of literary
criticism were taking place at the same time.
The Philosophers
Over the years, philosophers asked questions about the world
and how humans come to have knowledge of it, provided
assumptions that would limit or promote certain kinds of
explanations, and attempted to summarize the knowledge that
was available to an educated person.
Those thinkers who considered the nature of reality and the
world between the years ca. 624 to 370 BCE were called pre-
Socratics. One of them, Heraclitus, opposed Thales’s idea of
water as the basic element with his idea that fire was the basic
element, and therefore the world and everything in it was in a
state of flux and constant change. Empedocles went a step
further to propose that there were four basic elements: earth,
air, fire, and water. This scheme, when applied by physicians
such as the Greek Hippocrates and the Greco-Roman Galen led
to the notion of the four humors and a prototheory of
personality that has been influential for almost two thousand
years.
From his understanding of the thinking of Socrates and
Pythagoras, Plato constructed a systematic view of the human as
a dualistic creature having a body that is material and a soul
that is spiritual. This doctrine had significant consequences for
religion, for philosophy, and for psychology. Plato also saw

knowledge as acquired by the soul through the process of
recollection of the form, which exists in an ideal and abstract
state. Plato’s student Aristotle systematized the study of logic,
promoted the use of observation as a means of acquiring
knowledge, and presented a different view of the human as one
whose senses were reliable sources of information and whose
soul, while capable of reasoning, was the form that kept the
body (and the person) in existence.
The philosophers who came during the medieval period
generally split into two camps: those who followed Plato and
those who followed Aristotle. Just prior to the medieval
period, Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo (now part of Algeria),
had combined Neoplatonism, Christianity, and Stoicism (to the
extent of believing that following the natural law was virtuous).
The Neoaristotelian tradition was typified by Thomas Aquinas,
an Italian Dominican priest, who integrated Aristotelian thought
with Christianity and who promoted the use of reason in the
obtaining of knowledge. Although not anticipated by Aquinas,
this point of view would ease the way for what would become
scientific thinking.
René Descartes, a French Renaissance philosopher, created a
dualistic system called interactionism, where the soul, which
was spiritual, interacted with the body, which was material.
Both the notion of interaction and its proposed site, the pineal
gland, were so open to debate that the theory led to two
different traditions: a rationalist tradition and an empiricist
tradition. The rationalist tradition was led by German thinkers
such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was also an inventor of
the calculus; Immanuel Kant, who taught that the mind had an
innate categorizing ability; and Johann Friedrich Herbart, who
held that, if expressed in mathematical terms, psychology could
become a science. All the rationalists opted for the notion of
“an active mind,” and Herbart’s thinking was very influential
for those, such as Wundt, who would view psychology as a
scientific discipline. The empiricist tradition was stronger in
France and England. Several decisive representatives of

empiricism were Englishmen John Locke, David Hume,
and John Stuart Mill. Empiricism postulated that all knowledge
came through the senses and that the ideas that made up the
mind were structured on the percepts of the senses. Eventually,
in Mill’s thinking, the ideas of the mind were held together
through the laws of association.
Another tradition developed past the midpoint of this period
was positivism. Positivism, as developed by Frenchman August
Compte, argued that the only knowledge that one can be sure of
is information that is publicly observable. This would strongly
influence both the subject matter and the methodology of
science in general and psychology in particular.
In the beginning of the twentieth century, Englishman Bertrand
Russell introduced symbolic logic, and his student Ludwig
Wittgenstein created a philosophy of language. Both of these
developments were necessary precursors of the late twentieth
century interest in the nature of mind, in which many
disciplines came together to form cognitive science.
Wittgenstein’s work would open the door for social
constructionism.
The Scientists
The development of the scientific method was only one of the
factors that was associated with the change from the Middle
Ages to the Renaissance. Developments in anatomy, physiology,
astronomy, and other fields from the middle of the sixteenth
century to the beginning of the twentieth century have had a
major impact on the understanding of science and have paved
the way for psychology as a science. The work of Copernicus
and Galileo, in freeing astronomy from folk and religious belief,
was a start. In the field of anatomy Flemish scientist Andreas
Vesalius published in 1543 the first accurate woodcuts showing
the anatomy of the human body. This was a decisive break with
the tradition of Galen. By 1628, Englishman William Harvey
had described accurately the circulation of blood.
In the meantime, Englishman Francis Bacon, a contemporary of
Galileo, offered a view of science that favored inductive

reasoning on the basis of a series of observations. This was
another break with the tradition of relying on the classical
authorities. In 1687, the Principia was published by
Englishman Isaac Newton, who laid the foundation for the
calculus, enhanced the understanding of color and light, grasped
the notion of universal gravitation, and produced laws (natural
law) of planetary motion.
Soon Swiss mathematicians, members of the Bernoulli
family and Leonhard Euler, were refining the differential and
integral calculus that was invented independently of Newton by
the philosopher Leibniz.
In 1751, a Scot, Robert Whytt, working on frogs, noted the
importance of the spinal cord for reflex action. Localization of
function in the nervous system was beginning.
By 1754, Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus had produced a
system of classification for plants, animals, and minerals that
made observation and discussion in science simpler.
German anatomist Franz Gall maintained that “faculties” of the
brain were discernible by observing the contours of the
skull: Phrenology was another step in localization but a false
one that violated scientific axioms. It spread rapidly, especially
in the United States, as a form of folk psychology and
diagnosis.
In 1795, an assistant at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
England, was found to be recording times of stellar transit
consistently later than his supervisor. German
astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel recognized that this was
involuntary and might be calibrated as a personal equation. This
recognition of reaction time foreshadowed many studies in the
laboratories of psychology.
Italian physician and physicist Luigi Galvani in 1791 stimulated
movement in a frog’s leg with electricity, demonstrating that
electrical stimulation had a role in neural research. Englishman
Charles Bell, in 1811, and Frenchman François Magendi, in
1822, demonstrated differential functions of the dorsal
(sensory) and ventral (motor) roots of the spinal cord. Again,

localization of function was promoted. In 1824–1825, Pierre
Flourens introduced the technique of ablation studies for brain
tissue.
The field of physiology came together in the Handbuch der
Physiologie des Menschen für Vorlesungen(1833–1840; manual
of physiology), published by German Johannes Müller. Müller’s
law of specific nerve energies, which claimed that there was a
specific pathway and type of signal for each kind of sensation,
was a significant contribution.
German Ernst Weber expanded the study of touch and
kinesthesis and created the Weber fraction and the two-point
threshold. Gustav Theodor Fechner expanded Weber’s work into
Weber’s Law and provided a rationale and methodology for
early psychology with his development of psychophysical
methods.
Frenchman Paul Broca made use of the clinical method of
studying brain lesions. With this methodology, the language
area was localized in the third frontal convolution of the cortex.
German Hermann von Helmholtz, a student of Müller who
argued against his teacher’s support for vitalism, applied the
law of conservation of energy to living creatures, measured rate
of nerve conduction, and wrote esteemed handbooks on the
physics and physiology of vision and audition. An opposing
theorist, German Ewald Hering, a nativist, created the opponent
process theory of color vision.
In 1870, Germans Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig introduced
electrical stimulation of the brain, which demonstrated the
motor areas of the brain.
From the middle to the latter part of the nineteenth century,
Englishman Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin who
was also interested in evolution, promoted mental testing and
the study of individual differences. He also stimulated the work
of Englishman mathematician Karl Pearson, who invented the
statistics to support such studies and much of psychology.
By 1902, an American, Shepard Ivory Franz, combined the
ablation technique with training procedures to investigate the

function of the frontal lobes in cats. His work led to the work of
the great American neuropsychologist Karl Lashley, who led the
quest to find the neural basis for memory in his 1950 work In
Search of the Engram. Two of Lashley’s students, Canadian
Donald O. Hebb, with his work on cell assemblies and phase
sequences, and American Roger Sperry, with his work on split-
brain preparations in the 1960s, would do much to
promote neuropsychology and prepare for cognitive science.
Beginning of Psychology as a Discipline
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt, a student of Helmholtz, brought
together his two disciplines of physiology and philosophy by
creating a laboratory for experimental psychology at the
University of Leipzig in Germany. His laboratory attracted
many of the individuals who would become leaders in the new
science of psychology. Among these were German Oswald
Külpe, Englishman Edward Titchener, and American James
McKeen Cattell.
Meanwhile, in the United States, William James, a scientist and
philosopher who was familiar with European scholarly trends,
published the defining American work on psychology, The
Principles of Psychology (1890). This became the dominant text
in the English-speaking world and attracted many more
Americans to the study of psychology. Both Wundt and James
were instrumental in separating psychology from other
disciplines both in methodology and in subject matter. Both saw
psychology as an introspective science that was to study adult
human consciousness. Introspection required that the
investigator focus on her or his own experience or awareness,
that is, what the individual is thinking and feeling at any one
moment.
The Schools of Psychology
There were very quickly a number of individuals who either
agreed partly or disagreed wholly with Wundt and James. Some
of these individuals argued their points persuasively and a
number of schools or points of view coalesced around them
during the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first

several decades of the twentieth century.
Coming from the German rationalist tradition of philosophy,
Wundt took as his goal the understanding of consciousness
using the method of introspection. Wundt’s point of view has
become known as voluntarism. Wundt stressed the role of will,
choice, and purpose, all of which he saw present in attention
and volition.
Wundt’s student Titchener created a somewhat similar school of
thought when, in 1892, he came to Cornell University in Ithaca,
New York. Titchener also wanted to study consciousness using
the introspective method. He differed from Wundt in that his
preferred philosophy was English empiricism, and this led him
to a different understanding of consciousness. His approach was
to discover the elements of consciousness, and this approach
was called structuralism. His successful program led to a strong
interest in experimentation, especially on sensation and
perception, in American psychology. He trained a large number
of Americans in the almost four decades that he taught at
Cornell.
American psychologists were not wholly devoted to either
Wundt’s or Titchener’s approach to psychology even if they had
received their PhDs with them. Instead, they often were
motivated by their appreciation for the work of Charles Darwin,
who had published his theory of evolution in his famous On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859).
Darwin’s writing had been popularized in the English-speaking
world by the English writer and speaker Herbert Spencer, who
promoted the idea of social Darwinism, that is, that processes of
competition among groups of humans would weed out the unfit
and thus help to perfect the human race. Following Spencer,
many psychologists in the United States saw adaptation as a
fundamental concern for their academic field. Among these was
philosopher and psychologist John Dewey, whose 1896 article,
“The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,” was seen as the
formal beginning of the school of functionalism.
One student of both Wundt and James who was very influential

in early functionalism was American G. Stanley Hall, who
founded the American Journal of Psychology in 1887 and who
founded Clark University and its psychology department in
1888. He was a leading proponent for developmental
psychology, the founder of the American Psychological
Association (in 1892), and an untiring organizer.
Very influential in the promotion of applied psychology was a
Prussian student of Wundt who had followed James in the
laboratories of Harvard University, Hugo Münsterberg, who
arrived at Harvard University in 1892.
Two major branches of the school of functionalism were
associated with the University of Chicago and Columbia
University. There were three leaders at the University of
Chicago. Dewey served from 1894 to 1904, when he moved to
Teacher’s College at Columbia University. He was succeeded by
James Rowland Angell, who served for twenty-five years and
who was followed by his student, Harvey Carr, who specialized
in the adaptive acts of learning and perception.
At Columbia University, the first significant leader was James
McKeen Cattell, who accepted a professorship in 1891 and who
stayed for twenty-six years. In addition, very influential was a
student of Cattell, Robert S. Woodworth. Woodworth wrote
extensively on many topics in psychology, including
physiological psychology, the history of psychology,
motivation, and experimental psychology. He wrote the
significant Experimental Psychology in 1938. The third major
influence at Columbia was the very productive Edward L.
Thorndike. Thorndike was active at Columbia from 1899 until
1940. He wrote on animal learning, developing a theory called
connectionism that accounted for learning in an animal or
human on the basis of a strengthening of a connection between a
stimulus and a response. Besides learning theory, Thorndike
also wrote on verbal behavior, educational practices,
intelligence testing, and the measurement of other types of
psychological and sociological phenomena. As a school of
thought, functionalism came to represent the interests of a great

number of American psychologists who were involved in areas
that called for practical intervention such as testing, clinical,
social, and developmental psychology.
The reaction to Wundtian psychology took a different direction
in Europe. Influenced by a group of teachers who adopted a
more holistic view of human functioning, a system known
as Gestalt psychology started in Germany in 1910. Among the
teachers was Franz Clemens Brentano. Brentano, trained in
Aristotelian philosophy, promoted an “act psychology,” which
stated that the study of the mind had to do with mental acts
(such as willing or perceiving), not the study of consciousness
divisible into elements. One of Brentano’s students at the
University of Vienna was Austrian Christian von Ehrenfels, who
was himself licensed to teach at Vienna in 1888. Ehrenfels
wrote a paper, “Über Gestaltqualitäten” (1890; on Gestalt
qualities), that would be the formative document in the thinking
of all future Gestalt psychologists. This paper asserted that the
significant aspect in any perception was the pattern created by
the individual elements and not the individual elements
themselves, as with the melody rather than the individual notes
of the melody. Foremost among the Gestalt psychologists was
Czech-born Max Wertheimer, who received his PhD in 1904
from the University of Würzbürg. In 1910, Wertheimer involved
the two other founders of Gestalt psychology in a study of
apparent movement that became known as the phi phenomenon.
These two were German Kurt Koffka and Estonian Wolfgang
Köhler. Both had just received their PhDs at the University of
Berlin under the direction of German Carl Stumpf, who was
himself a student of Brentano and whose lifework was devoted
to the study of music, space perception, and audition. His work
would lead to the phenomenological approach that was common
to Gestalt psychology. In the 1930s, with the coming to power
of National Socialism in Germany, the three main Gestalt
psychologists—Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler—emigrated to
the United States, where they found behaviorism’s
associationism and elementism as unacceptable as it was in both

Wundtian psychology and psychoanalysis.
William McDougall was born in England, educated in England
and at the University of Göttingen in Germany, and began his
teaching at Oxford University in England. In 1920, he came to
the United States, where he developed his brand of psychology
called hormic psychology, from the Greek word horme, which
means “urge.” He called himself a behaviorist, but one who
viewed behavior as instinctually directed and at the same time
as purposeful. McDougall was widely admired but seemed out
of step with the dominant behaviorism of his time. His views
are much more congenial with the cognitive psychology of the
late twentieth century.
Basing part of his rationale on the work of Russian reflexologist
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, who discovered the principles
of conditioning while doing work on the digestive system of
dogs, American John Broadus Watson promoted a radical
behaviorism that rejected introspection as a method and
suggested that the study of animal behavior was the equivalent
of the study of human behavior. His lectures at Columbia
University, which were published in the Psychological
Review in 1913 under the title “Psychology as the Behaviorist
Views It,” are seen as the beginning of behaviorism. They
certainly separated behaviorism from both structuralism and
functionalism.
In 1900, Mary W. Calkins, an American student of James, began
her defense of a self psychology. Despite the functionalist
interest in adaptation and the behaviorist rejection of
introspection, Calkins would continue to assert that the self was
an existential reality; that is, it was knowable in one’s own
awareness. After her death in 1930, the self came to be
considered a conceptualization. Gordon Allport, an American
who studied extensively in Europe, became the leading self
psychologist for another thirty years. In Allport’s later years,
clinicians such as Carl R. Rogers, who developed client-
centered therapy (later known as person-centered therapy),
would keep the idea of self and its centrality alive in

psychology until the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and
1970s allowed the self to become a popular integrating
construct again.
Austrian physician Sigmund Freud published Studien über
Hysterie (1895; Studies in Hysteria, 1950) and began the school
of therapy known as psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis soon
became a general theory of personality. Freud’s possessiveness
about the theory led to the ouster from his inner circle of two
theorists who would go on to create their own approaches to
psychoanalysis. The first was Austrian Alfred Adler in 1911.
Adler’s point of view would become known as individual
psychology. The second, in 1913, was Swiss Carl Jung, who
questioned the sexual basis of the motivating energy proposed
by Freud. Jung’s point of view has become known as analytical
psychology. By the 1930s, Freud’s classic psychology of the
unconscious had shifted to a greater appreciation of the
conscious. Thus, Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, following the
interests of her father, published Das Ich und die
Abwehrmechanismen (1936; The Ego and the Mechanisms of
Defense, 1937). Classic psychoanalysis had changed into ego
psychology. The best-known representative of the new ego
psychology was the child analyst and writer Erik H. Erikson.
Erikson, who was born in Germany and who had been analyzed
by Anna, came to the United States in 1933. His Childhood and
Society (1950) made connections to and enriched developmental
psychology, especially in terms of his reworking of Freud’s five
developmental stages into the “eight ages of man.”
Applied Psychology
Frenchman Alfred Binet published the first
individual intelligence test in 1905. Lewis Madison Terman, an
American student of G. Stanley Hall, published his revision of
Binet’s test, called the Stanford-Binet test, in the United States
in 1912. An industry was born. The test was reissued in 1916,
1937, 1960, 1986, and 2003. Group tests of intelligence were
developed for the military during both World War I and World
War II. The needs of the military also promoted another applied

psychology: clinical psychology. In World War II, short-term
psychotherapy was found to be useful in returning combatants
to active service. Many academic psychologists were pressed
into training programs to become psychotherapists. By the time
the war ended, a number of psychologists viewed themselves as
clinicians and returned to redirect graduate programs in
psychology toward clinical psychology. By the late 1940s
testing, diagnosis, and clinical practice were well established.
Neobehaviorism
In 1924, a group of philosophers in Vienna, Austria, known as
the Vienna Circle, revised and refined positivism into logical
positivism, and in 1927, Percy Williams Bridgman, an American
physicist, proposed operationism, in which every theoretical
construct would be defined by the operations that were used to
measure it. These developments allowed experimenters to deal
positivistically with abstract variables and led to a more
sophisticated behaviorism labeled neobehaviorism.
Americans Edward C. Tolman, Clark L. Hull, and B. F.
Skinner were notable representatives of neobehaviorism, which
specialized in the study of learning and motivation, mostly with
nonhuman species. Skinner differed from the others in that he
favored induction and description as the basis for his studies.
Neobehaviorism was superseded by changes that brought about
the cognitive revolution in the 1960s and 1970s. Its heritage
remains in psychology in the area of methodology.
In addition, by the 1950s, a rift that had begun in the days of
Titchener between those who saw themselves as pure scientific
psychologists as opposed to those who practiced an applied
psychology was reconceptualized as a conflict between the
academic psychologists who maintained a behavioristic
approach and the clinicians who were heavily influenced by
psychoanalysis and were beginning to appreciate Rogers’s
person-centered approach. This struggle was exacerbated by the
growing number of practitioners, who began to outnumber the
academic psychologists. One result of this disciplinary conflict
was the foundation of a separate organization for the academics,

the American Psychological Society, formed in 1988 and later
renamed the Association for Psychological Science.
The 1960s and 1970s
The emergence of the computer both as a tool and as a model of
the human mind had a major effect on psychology.
Neuroscience, philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, artificial
intelligence, and psychology came together in the 1960s to form
the basis for a new discipline: cognitive science. The new
technology and the opportunity to work with people and ideas
from other disciplines freed psychology to reinvestigate
questions of mental functioning and consciousness.
In 1954, American Abraham Maslow published the
influential Motivation and Personality, which began humanistic
psychology, a movement seen by Maslow as an antidote to the
dehumanizing assumptions of both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. By 1961, there was the Journal of Humanistic
Psychology and, by 1962, the American Association of
Humanistic Psychologists. Rogers, with his person-centered
therapy, added to the attractiveness of the movement for
American psychologists. Its emphasis on admitting the whole
person to psychology gained more general acceptance and,
together with the cognitive revolution, promoted a more
humanistic and cognitively oriented general psychology.
The 1980s and 1990s
Developmental psychology, building on the work of Swiss Jean
Piaget from the 1920s through the 1960s, and cognitive
psychology, stimulated by the early 1960s work of Americans
George A. Miller and Jerome Bruner, began once again to study
consciousness and its development, but this time from infancy
through adulthood. A student of Miller, German-born Ulric
Neisser built on this and his earlier work, Cognitive
Psychology (1967), to bring to the 1980s and 1990s an
integrative approach to consciousness, concept formation,
perception, and selfhood. In general, the period was one of
eclecticism and was labeled neofunctionalism by one historian.
Social Constructionism

Another trend that impacted psychology was postmodern
thought. Although present in philosophy and anthropology
through the twentieth century, it became obvious in psychology
only in the 1970s, where it was known as social
constructionism. Since the 1970s, it has made its presence
obvious in the subfield called cultural psychology and in social
psychology. When applied to personality development, the
concept of narrative as an inborn mechanism has become a
focus for those who wish to describe the process of self-
development.
The 2000s and 2010s
Notable milestones in genetics and neuroscience during the
2000s and 2010s provided the basis for ongoing research into
human development and pathology. In April 2003, the Human
Genome Project reported that it had produced a finished version
of the human genome sequence, with 99 percent of genome
sequenced, an accuracy rate of less than one error per ten
thousand nucleotide base pairs, and less than four hundred
sequence gaps. In 2013, the Obama administration announced
the formation of Brain Research through Advancing Innovative
Neurotechnologies, also called the BRAIN Initiative or Brain
Activity Map Project. The initiative's goal is to map every
neuron in the human brain over a ten-year period. In April 2014,
the first installment of the National Institute of Mental Health–
funded BrainSpan Atlas of the Developing Human Brain
project, produced by Seattle's Allen Institute for Brain Science,
was reported online by Nature. The project intends to profile
gene activity over the course of the brain's development and
thereby help researchers understand the genesis of brain-based
disorders such as schizophrenia and autism.
Bibliography
Allen Institute for Brain Science. BrainSpan Atlas of the
Developing Human Brain. Allen Inst. for Brain Science, 2004–
2014. Web. 27 June 2014.
Brett, George Sidney. A History of Psychology. London:
Routledge, 2014. Digital file.

Gardner, Howard. The Mind’s New Science: A History of the
Cognitive Revolution. New York: Basic, 1998. Print.
Greenwood, John D. A Conceptual History of Psychology:
Exploring the Tangled Web. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2015.
Print.
Hergenhahn, B. R. An Introduction to the History of
Psychology. 6th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 2009. Print.
Hilgard, Ernest Ropiequet. Psychology in America: A Historical
Survey. New York: Harcourt, 1987. Print.
Hunt, Morton. The Story of Psychology. 2d ed. New York:
Doubleday, 2007. Print.
Koch, Sigmund, and David Leary, eds. A Century of Psychology
as Science. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 1992. Print.
Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. New York:
Simon, 1945. Print.
Stevenson, Leslie, and David L. Haberman. Ten Theories of
Human Nature. 5th ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.
Stroebe, Wolfgang, and Arie W. Kruglanski. Handbook of the
History of Social Psychology. New York: Psychology, 2012.
Digital file.
Copyright of Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health is the
property of Salem Press. The copyright in an individual article
may be maintained by the author in certain cases. Content may
not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission.
However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.
Source: Salem Press Encyclopedia of Health, 2019, 8p
Item: 93872026
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