This presentation contain the information of the components structure and function and of the blood like ( RBC , WBC(Classifications ), Platelets , plasma )and its also Composition & Function 1) Coagulation of blood 2) Disorders of blood

1. Presented by : Marathe Jagruti

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Blood –
i)Composition & Function
ii) Blood groups
iii) Coagulation of blood
iv) Disorders of blood

3. Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals
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4. • Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals
that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients
and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic
waste products away from those same cells.
• Chemical formula : There is no formula for blood, as
it is a chemical mixture and not a chemical
compound. It is made up of hemoglobin and plasma.
• Normal Ph : 7.35-7.45
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5. • Blood, fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to
the cells and carries away carbon dioxide and
other waste products.
• Technically, blood is a transport liquid pumped by
the heart to all parts of the body, after which it is
returned to the heart to repeat the process.
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6. • Blood is a specialized body fluid.
• It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
• The blood that runs through the veins, arteries, and capillaries is known as whole blood.
• A mixture of about 55 percent plasma and 45 percent blood cells.
• About 7 to 8 percent of your total body weight is blood.
• An average-sized man has about 12 pints of blood in his body, and an average-sized woman has
about nine pints.
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7. • Many people have undergone blood tests or donated blood, but
• Doctors who specialize in hematology (hematologists) are leading the many
advances being made in the treatment and prevention of blood diseases.
• If you or someone you care about is diagnosed with a blood disorder, your
primary care physician may refer you to a hematologist for further testing
and treatment.
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Plasma constitutes 55% of total blood
volume.
Composed of 90% water, salts, lipids and
hormones
It is especially rich in proteins (including its
main protein albumin), immunoglobulins,
clotting factors and fibrinogen.

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• Plasma performs several functions: transporting blood cells and nutrients; regulating the
body’s water and mineral salts; irrigating tissues; providing a defence against infections;
and coagulating blood.
• The albumin contained in plasma prevents the blood from losing too much water and
consistency as it travels through the narrow, water-permeable blood vessels
(capillaries).
• Albumin transports various blood components and nutrients. The immunoglobulins also
contained in plasma are antibodies that, along with white blood cells, play an important
role in fighting against pathogens. Clotting factors, in combination with platelets, control
hemorrhaging.
• A deficiency in these proteins can cause various health problems. For example, the lack
of albumin can lead to the inability to retain water in the vessels, the lack of
immunoglobulins can lead to a decline in the body’s immune defences and a lack of
clotting factors can lead to blood clotting anomalies.
• Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended in plasma.

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What Does Plasma Do?
Plasma is designed to carry nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the different parts of the
body. It also carries away the waste products of cell metabolism from various tissues to the
organs responsible for detoxifying and/or excreting them. In addition, plasma is the vehicle for
the transport of the blood cells through the blood vessels.

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Plasma Components
Plasma contains about 90 percent water, with 10 percent being made up of ions,
proteins, dissolved gases, nutrient molecules, and wastes.
The proteins in plasma include the antibody proteins, coagulation factors, and the
proteins albumin and fibrinogen which maintain serum osmotic pressure.
Each of these can be separated using different techniques so that they form
various blood products, which are used to treat different conditions. For instance,
clotting factors are used to treat coagulation disorders like hemophilia or
disseminated intravascular coagulation.

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Specific Components and Their Function
The pH and osmotic pressure of blood are maintained by the plasma ions, proteins, and
other molecules.

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Plasma Proteins
Plasma proteins are the most abundant substances in the plasma and are present in three
major types, namely, albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen. They play specialized roles as
follows:

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Albumin
Albumin helps maintain the colloid osmotic pressure of the blood.
It is the smallest in size among the plasma proteins but makes up the largest percentage.
The colloid osmotic pressure of the blood is important in maintaining a balance between
the water inside the blood and that in the tissue fluid, around the cells.
When the plasma proteins are deficient, the water in the plasma seeps out into the space
around the blood vessels and may result in interstitial edema, a feature of liver disorders,
kidney disease and malnutrition, for instance.
Albumin also helps transport many substances such as drugs, hormones, and fatty acids

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Globulins
• Globulins are of three types, alpha, beta, and gamma, from smallest to largest ,gamma-
globulins are called antibodies.
• The alpha globulins include the high-density lipoproteins (HDL)
• HDL which are important in carrying fats to the cells for building various substances as
well as for energy metabolism.
• HDL is best known for its role in preventing plaque formation by keeping cholesterol in
transport within the blood.
• The beta globulins Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are which transport fat to the cells for
steroid and cell membrane synthesis.
• Antibodies or gamma globulins are also called immunoglobulins. They are produced by
the B lymphocytes, a subset of the immune cells.
• Antibodies are responsible for the body’s humoral immune function, recognizing
pathogens via specific receptors and neutralizing them by various mechanisms.

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Fibrinogen
Fibrinogen is an important soluble plasma clotting factor precursor, which is converted
to a threadlike protein called fibrin on contact with a sticky surface.
The fibrin threads formed in this way trap platelets to form the primary platelet clot on
which a stable blood clot is formed by the process of coagulation.
Clotting Factors and Inhibitors
The clotting factors in plasma cause a blood clot to form at the site of any break in the
smooth endothelial lining of the blood vessels. This not only prevents blood loss but
protects the body against invading microbes.
Coagulation inhibitor proteins prevent the clotting of blood at unwanted locations or
times.

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Other Plasma Components
Proteins
•Cytokines are cellular signaling molecules produced by cells in order to communicate with
each other and to regulate important cellular processes.
•Hormones are molecules released by one organ or cell type to act upon another at a distant
location, being carried through the bloodstream, to produce long-distance effects.
Electrolytes
Sodium is the most abundant ion carried in plasma and contributes most of the plasma
osmolarity.
Amino acids
Tissues or plasma proteins may be broken down and the amino acids recycled for use in the
synthesis of other biological structures. This may involve macrophages in the gut, the lymphatic
system, and the lungs.
Nitrogenous compounds
Nitrogenous waste compounds such as urea are produced by the breakdown of various
substances in the body. These are carried in the plasma to the kidneys to be excreted.
Nutrients
Nutrients absorbed from the gut or from other organs of origin are carried in the plasma, such
as glucose, fats, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins.
Dissolved gases
Plasma also contains dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, in small amounts, as well as a
significant amount of nitrogen.

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Other Functions
•Plasma proteins keep the blood pH slightly alkaline by binding excess hydrogen ions in
the blood
•Plasma proteins can also supply amino acids if required by being broken down by
macrophages.
•Plasma proteins are also often carriers for small molecules, each binding after absorption
from
• the gut with its own specific protein carrier for transport to the tissue or organ that uses it.

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Red blood cells, also referred to as red cells, red
blood corpuscles, haematids, erythroid cells or
erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood
cell .
The normal RBC range for men is 4.7 to 6.1 million
cells per microliter (mcL). The normal RBC
range for women who aren't pregnant is 4.2 to 5.4
million mcL. The normal RBC range for children is
4.0 to 5.5 million mcL.

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• RBC Known for their bright red color.
• red cells are the most abundant cell in the blood, accounting for about 40 to 45 percent of its
volume.
• The shape of a red blood cell is a biconcave disk with a flattened center - in other words, both
faces of the disc have shallow bowl-like indentations (a red blood cell looks like a donut).
• Production of red blood cells is controlled by erythropoietin, a hormone produced primarily by the
kidneys.
• Red blood cells start as immature cells in the bone marrow and after approximately seven days
of maturation are released into the bloodstream.
• Unlike many other cells, red blood cells have no nucleus and can easily change shape, helping
them fit through the various blood vessels in your body.
• However, while the lack of a nucleus makes a red blood cell more flexible, it also limits the life of
the cell as it travels through the smallest blood vessels, damaging the cell's membranes and
depleting its energy supplies.
• The red blood cell survives on average only 120 days.

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• Red cells contain a special protein called hemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen
from the lungs to the rest of the body and then returns carbon dioxide from the
body to the lungs so it can be exhaled.
• Blood appears red because of the large number of red blood cells, which get their
color from the hemoglobin.
• The percentage of whole blood volume that is made up of red blood cells is called
the hematocrit and is a common measure of red blood cell levels.

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• A typical human red blood cell has a disk diameter of
approximately 6.2–8.2 µm
• A thickness at the thickest point of 2–2.5 µm
• A minimum thickness in the center of 0.8–1 µm
• These cells have an average volume of about 90 FL
• with a surface area of about 136 μm2.
• Human red blood cells take on average 60 seconds to
complete one cycle of circulation
• The blood's red color is due to the spectral properties of
the hemic iron ions in hemoglobin
• Each hemoglobin molecule carries four heme groups;
hemoglobin constitutes about a third of the total cell
volume.
• Hemoglobin is responsible for the transport of more than
98% of the oxygen in the body (the remaining oxygen is
carried dissolved in the blood plasma).
• The red blood cells of an average adult human male store
collectively about 2.5 grams of iron, representing about
65% of the total iron contained in the body.

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Production of Erythrocytes

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• Erythropoiesis (from Greek 'erythro' meaning "red" and 'poiesis' meaning "to make") is the
process which produces red blood cells (erythrocytes), which is the development from
erythropoietic stem cell to mature red blood cell.
• It is stimulated by decreased O2 in circulation, which is detected by the kidneys, which then
secrete the hormone erythropoietin[EPO]
• This hormone stimulates proliferation and differentiation of red cell precursors, which
activates increased erythropoiesis in the hemopoietic tissues, ultimately producing red blood
cells .
• This usually occurs within the red bone marrow.
• In the early fetus, erythropoiesis takes place in the mesodermal cells of the yolk sac. By the
third or fourth month, erythropoiesis moves to the liver
• After seven months, erythropoiesis occurs in the bone marrow. Increased level of physical
activity can cause an increase in erythropoiesis.
• The bone marrow of essentially all the bones produces red blood cells until a person is
around five years old.
• The tibia and femur cease to be important sites of hematopoiesis by about age 25

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HEMOGLOBIN
• Hemoglobin has a critical role in your body. It's the protein in red blood cells (RBCs) that
carries oxygen from your lungs to the tissues of your body. As such, abnormal levels of
hemoglobin, or abnormal types of hemoglobin can result in serious disease.

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• White blood cells (WBCs), also
called leukocytes or leucocytes
• The WBC cells of the immune system that are
involved in protecting the body against
both infectious disease and foreign attackers.
• All white blood cells are produced and derived
from multipotent cells in the bone
marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells.
• Leukocytes are found throughout the body,
including the blood and lymphatic system

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White Blood Cell (WBC)
• white blood cells account for only about 1% of your blood, but their impact is big. White
blood cells are also called leukocytes. They protect you against illness and disease.
• white blood cells as your immunity cells. In a sense, they are always at war.
• They flow through your bloodstream to fight viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders
that threaten your health.
• When your body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white blood cells
rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness.
• White blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They are stored in your blood and
lymph tissues.
• Because some white blood cells called neutrophils have a short life less than a day,
your bone marrow is always making them.

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Age Normal range
Newborn infant 13,000–38,000
2-week-old infant 5,000–20,000
Adult 4,500–11,000
Normal ranges
The normal range (per cubic millimeter) of white blood cells based on age are:
The normal range for a pregnant women in the 3rd trimester is 5,800–13,200 per cubic millimeter.

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• All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the
anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets.
• The different white blood cell types are classified in standard ways; two pairs of broadest
categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes or agranulocytes) or
by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells).
• These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main
types: neutrophils, eosinophils (acidophiles), basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes.
• These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics. Monocytes
and neutrophils are phagocytic.
• Further subtypes can be classified; for example, among lymphocytes, there are B
cells (named from bursa or bone marrow cells), T cells (named from thymus cells),
and natural killer cells.
• The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease, and thus the white
blood cell count is an important subset of the complete blood count.
• The normal white cell count is usually between 4 × 109/L and 1.1 × 1010/L. In the US, this is
usually expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood.
• White blood cells make up approximately 1% of the total blood volume in a healthy
adult, making them substantially less numerous than the red blood cells at 40% to 45%.
• However, this 1% of the blood makes a large difference to health,
because immunity depends on it.

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• An increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limits is called leukocytosis. It is
normal when it is part of healthy immune responses, which happen frequently.
• It is occasionally abnormal, when it is neoplastic or autoimmune in origin. A decrease below
the lower limit is called leukopenia.
• This indicates a weakened immune system.

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Types of white blood cells
Among your white blood cells are:
•Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down
bacteria.
•Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially
harmful invaders.
•Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type of white
blood cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
•Basophils. These small cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood.
They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the
body's immune response.
•Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.

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Problems affecting white blood cells
• Your white blood cell count can be low for a number of reasons.
• This includes when something is destroying the cells more quickly than the body can
replenish them.
• Or when the bone marrow stops making enough white blood cells to keep you healthy.
• When your white blood cell count is low, you are at great risk for any illness or infection,
which can spiral into a serious health threat.
• Our healthcare provider can do a blood test to see whether your white blood cell count is
normal.
• If your count is too low or too high, you may have a white blood cell disorder.

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A number of diseases and conditions may affect white blood cell levels:
•Weak immune system. This is often caused by illnesses such as HIV/AIDS or by cancer
treatment. Cancer treatments such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy can destroy white
blood cells and leave you at risk for infection.
•Infection. A higher-than-normal white blood cell count usually means you have some type
of infection. White blood cells are multiplying to destroy the bacteria or virus.
•Myelodysplastic syndrome. This condition causes abnormal production of blood cells.
This includes white blood cells in the bone marrow.
•Cancer of the blood. Cancers including leukemia and lymphoma can cause uncontrolled
growth of an abnormal type of blood cell in the bone marrow. This results in a greatly
increased risk for infection or serious bleeding.
•Myeloproliferative disorder. This disorder refers to various conditions that trigger the
excessive production of immature blood cells. This can result in an unhealthy balance of all
types of blood cells in the bone marrow and too many or too few white blood cells in the
blood.
•Medicines. Some medicines can raise or lower the body's white blood cell count.

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• Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell
fragments in our blood that form clots and stop or prevent
bleeding.
• Platelets are made in our bone marrow, the sponge-like
tissue inside our bones.
• Bone marrow contains stem cells that develop into red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood

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• Platelets, also called thrombocytes
• Platelets are a component of blood whose function (along with the coagulation factors) is
to react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by clumping, thereby initiating a blood clot.
• Platelets have no cell nucleus; they are fragments of cytoplasm that are derived from
the megakaryocytes of the bone marrow.
• which then enter the circulation. Circulating unactivated platelets are biconvex discoid
(lens-shaped) structures.
• 2–3 µm in greatest diameter.
• activated platelets have cell membrane projections covering their surface. Platelets are
found only in mammals, whereas in other vertebrates (e.g. birds, amphibians),
thrombocytes circulate as intact mononuclear cells.
• On a stained blood smear, platelets appear as dark purple spots, about 20% the diameter
of red blood cells.
• The smear is used to examine platelets for size, shape, qualitative number, and clumping.
A healthy adult typically has 10 to 20 times more red blood cells than platelets.

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A Blood film- or peripheral blood smear- is an thin layer of blood smeared on a glass
microscope slide and then stained in such a way as to allow the various blood cells to allow
the various blood cells to be examined microscopically. Blood films are examined in the
investigation of hematological disorders and are routinely employed to look for
blood parasites, such as those of malaria .

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What Are Platelets Used For?
• Platelets control bleeding in our bodies, so they can be essential to surviving
surgeries such as organ transplant, as well as fighting cancer, chronic diseases, and
traumatic injuries.
• Donor platelets are given to patients who don’t have enough of their own, a condition
known as thrombocytopenia, or when a person’s platelets aren’t working correctly.
• Raising the patient’s blood platelet count reduces the risk of dangerous or even fatal
bleeding.

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What Causes Low Platelets?
A low platelet count occurs when:
•A person’s bone marrow is damaged and unable to make enough of its own platelets. This
can be caused by certain cancers, such as Leukemia – and it can also be caused by cancer
treatments.
•Platelets have been lost due to severe bleeding, such as following a traumatic injury or
during surgery.
•Platelets have been destroyed by autoimmune diseases, certain medicines, infections, or
other conditions.
•The patient’s spleen, which filters the blood stream, removes too many platelets.
Symptoms of low platelets include bruising easily and unusual bleeding, such as excessive
bleeding from a small cut or blood in urine or stool.

42. •Anemia of Chronic Disease
•Aplastic Anemia
•Erythrocytosis
•Hemochromatosis
•Hypercoagulable Disorder
•Immune Thrombocytopenic Purpura
•Iron Deficiency Anemia
•Leucocytosis
•Leucopenia
•Polycythemia Vera
•Sickle Cell Anemia
•Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura