2. Methods of Data collection
• The task of data collection begins after a
research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out.
• The data can be from primary sources and
secondary sources.
2
3. Methods of data collection
• Questionnaire
• Interview
• Observation
• Document analysis
3
4. Questionnaire
• Main aspects of a questionnaire: Quite often
questionnaire is considered as the heart of a
survey operation. Hence it should be very
carefully constructed. If it is not properly set
up, then the survey is bound to fail.
• General form: structured or unstructured
4
5. Cont…
• Structured questionnaires --- definite, concrete and
pre-determined questions.
• The questions are presented with exactly the same
wording and in the same order to all respondents.
• The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of
the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free
response) but should be stated in advance and not
constructed during questioning
• have fixed alternative questions in which responses of
the informants are limited to the stated alternatives.
5
6. Cont…
• wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own
words cannot be obtained with structured
questionnaires.
• Data for attitudes and reasons for certain actions or
feelings. They are equally not suitable when a problem
is being first explored and working hypotheses sought.
In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be
used effectively.
• Then on the basis of the results obtained in pretest
(testing before final use) operations from the use of
unstructured questionnaires, one can construct a
structured questionnaire for use in the main study.
6
7. Question sequence:
• to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher should pay attention to the
question-sequence in preparing the
questionnaire.
• A proper sequence of questions reduces
considerably the chances of individual
questions being misunderstood. The question-
sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving.
7
8. Cont…
• With questions that are easiest to answer
being put in the beginning.
• The first few questions are particularly
important because they are likely to influence
the attitude of the respondent and in seeking
his desired cooperation.
• The opening questions should arouse human
interest.
8
9. Cont…
• The following type of questions should
generally be avoided as opening questions in a
questionnaire:
– questions that demand the memory or intellect of
the respondent;
– questions of a personal character;
– questions related to personal wealth, etc.
9
10. Question formulation and wording
• all questions should meet the following
standards—(a) should be easily understood;
• (b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one
thought at a time;
• (c) should be concrete and should conform as
much as possible to the respondent’s way of
thinking. (For instance, instead of asking. “How
many razor blades do you use annually?” The
more realistic question would be to ask, “How
many razor blades did you use last week?”
10
11. Forms of questions
• Closed ended or open ended
• Closed ended questions have the advantages
of easy handling, simple to answer, quick and
relatively inexpensive to analyse. They are
most amenable to statistical analysis
• but restrict respondents to not give their
opinion freely.
• Not good for exploratory research that rather
require open-ended question
11
12. Cont…
• There should be some control questions in the
questionnaire which indicate the reliability of
the respondent by cross checking items in the
questionnaire.
12
13. Pilot study
• it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’
(Pilot Survey) for testing the questionnaires.
• It is very much important for a big enquiry. Pilot
survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of the
main survey. Such a survey, being conducted by
experts, can curb the weaknesses (if any) of the
questionnaires and also of the survey
techniques.Then,improvement can be effected.
13
14. Other data collection tools
Interview-The interview method of collecting
data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses.
• through personal interviews
• and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
14
15. Cont…
• Observation-common for behavioral sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is
systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and
reliability.
• There is structured(by the help of guideline) and
unstructured observation
• But it is expensive
15
16. Cont…
• Content-analysis: Content-analysis consists of
analyzing the contents of documentary
materials such as books, magazines,
newspapers and the contents of all other
verbal materials which can be either spoken or
printed.
16
17. Cont….
• The analysis of content is a central activity for verbal
materials.
• A review of research in any area, for instance, involves the
analysis of the contents of research articles that have been
published. The analysis may be at a relatively simple level
or may be a subtle one.
• It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of
certain characteristics of the document or verbal materials
that can be identified and counted (such as on the basis of
major scientific concepts in a book).
• It is at a subtle level when researcher makes a study of the
attitude, say of the press towards education by feature
writers.
17
18. Secondary data
• Secondary data means data that are already
available i.e., they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
• before using secondary data, it should be
checked against the following characteristics:
• Reliability of data, Suitability of data,and
Adequacy of data
18
19. Processing and analysis of data
• Processing implies
• editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected
data so that they are amenable to analysis.
• Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures
along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist
among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to
statistical tests of significance to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.
• It has the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in such a manner that they answer the
research question(s).
19
20. Types of analysis
• Analysis may, therefore, be categorized as
descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
(Inferential analysis is often known as
statistical analysis). “Descriptive
analysis(unidimensional is largely the study of
distributions of one variable.
20
21. Cont..
• Inferential analysis is concerned with the
various tests of significance for testing
hypotheses in order to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions.
21
22. Cont….
• Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two
or more variables for determining the amount of
correlation between two or more variables.
• Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one
or more variables affect changes in another variable. It
is thus a study of functional relationships existing
between two or more variables. This analysis can be
termed as regression analysis. Causal analysis is
considered relatively more important in experimental
researches.
22
