4. WHAT IS RESEARCH?
• Research comprises of two words , ‘Re’ implies a repetitive
,Search denotes making a through examinations of or looking over
carefully in order to find something
• Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of
scientific investigation.
• Research methodology can be defined as scientific procedure to
solve various problems related to research
5. • Research, a somewhat intimidating term for some, is simply the
process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study
and analysis of the situation factors
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
• 1. Empirical – research is based on direct experience or
observation by the researcher.
• 2. Logical – research is based on valid procedures and principles.
• 3. Cyclical – research starts with a problem and ends with a
problem solving.
• 4. Analytical – research utilizes proven analytical procedures in
gathering data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental, and
case study.
• 5. Critical – research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
7. • 6. Methodical – research is conducted in a methodical manner
without bias using systematic method and procedures.
• 7. Replicability – research design and procedures are repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
8. Characteristics of the Researcher
• 1. Intellectual Curiosity – researcher undertakes deep thinking and
inquiry of the things, problems, and situations around him.
• 2. Prudence – researcher is careful to conduct his study at the right time
and at the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.
• 3. Healthy Criticism – the researcher is always doubtful as to the
truthfulness of the results.
• 4. Intellectual Honesty – researcher is honest to collect or gather the
data or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
• 5. Intellectual creativity – a resourceful investigator always creates new
researches.
9. Need for Research/Importance of
• The main importance of research is to produce knowledge
• Research helps in problem solving
• Marketing research is important because it allows consumers and
producers to become more familiar with the products, goods, and
services around them.
• Research is important to society because it allows us to discover
more and more that might make are lives easier, more comfortable,
and safer
10. • Research encourages interdisciplinary approaches to find solution
to problems and to make new discoveries.
• Research is a basic ingredient for development and therefore
serves as a means for rapid economic development.
• It provides basis for government policies
• Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of
business
• It is useful to students, professionals, philosophers, literary men,
analysts and intellectuals
12. • Step 1 – Selecting the research topic
• • Basic Step in research
• • Research is possible in Marketing, banking insurance, transport,
export etc
• • For e.g.: In marketing we have areas of research such as product
research, price research, etc….
• • Primary decision in a research process is to select the research
area.
13. • Step 2 - Define the research problem The second, and the most important step
in research: most crucial step in the research process is a researcher has to
formulate the problem related to his research work.
• The sources of research problems in social sciences revolves around four Ps:
• • People- Study of population, a group of individuals, organizations, groups,
communities
• • Problems- issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles examine the
existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain
attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• • Programs- content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers,
Service providers, etc to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• • Phenomena- cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself
to establish the existence of regularity.
14. • Considerations in selecting a research problem are:
• Interest,
• Magnitude,
• Level of expertise,
• Relevance,
• Availability of data,
• Ethical issues.
15. • For selecting the correct problem researcher may contact expert,
refer library books, discuss with teachers etc. After selecting the
correct problem the researcher has to formulate the problem. The
Steps in formulation of a research problem are-
• • Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
• • Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
• • Select what is of most interest to you.
• • Raise research questions
16. • Step 3: Establish Research Objectives
• • If you do not know what you are looking for, you won’t find it”
• • In establishing research objectives, the researcher must answer
the following questions:
• i) What specific information should the project provide?
• ii) If more than one type of information will be developed from
the study, which is the most important? and finally,
• iii) What are the priorities?
17. • The objectives should start with words such as
• ‘To determine’,
• ‘To find out’,
• ‘To ascertain’,
• “To describe ‘
• “To measure’,
• ‘To explore’ etc
18. • Step 4: Literature Review or Extensive Literature Survey
• After the selection of research problem, in this step literature
review is done with mostly connected with the topics. The
availability of the literature may bring ease in the research. For
this purpose academic journals, conference and govt. reports and
library must be studied.
19. • Step 5: Making/Formulating Hypothesis
• Hypotheses is a assumption, assertion or an idea about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of
which you do not know. A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion
logically drawn. The research work is conducted to test the truth
of this hypothesis.
• The development of hypothesis is a technical work depends on the
researcher experience. The hypothesis is to draw the positive &
negative cause and effect aspects of a problem. Hypothesis
narrows down the area of a research and keep a researcher on the
right path.
20. • Step 6: Research Design
• Preparing the Research Design After the formulation of the problem and
creating hypothesis for it, research Design is to prepare by the researcher. It
may draw the conceptual structure of the problem. Any type of research design
may be made, depend on the nature and purpose of the study. Design the
information about sources, skill, time and finance is taken into consideration.
• Step 7
• Sampling The researcher must design a sample. It is a plan for taking its
respondents from a specific areas or universe. The sample may be of two types:
• 1. Probability Sampling
• 2. Non-probability Sampling
21. • Step 8. Data collection
• Data collection is the most important work, is researcher. The collection of information must
be containing on facts which is from the following two types of researcher. Primary Data
Collection: Primary data may be from the following.
• 1. Experiment
• 2. Questionnaire
• 3. Observation
• 4. mail, telephone, fax, Internet, or personal interview
• 4. Interview Secondary data collection: it has the following categories:
• 1. Review of literature
• 2. Official and non-official reports
• 3. Library approach
22. • Step 9: Design the questionnaire.
• • You need to have a questionnaire to collect Primary data
• • A primary responsibilities of a marketing researcher is to design
the data collection instrument or questionnaire in a manner so
that it is easily understood by the respondent and administered to
them.
23. • Have you ever ........? • Do you ever ........? • Who do you know
........? • When did you last ........? • Which do you do most often
........? • Who does it ........? • How many ........? • Do you have
........? • In what way do you do it ........? • In the future will you
........? Behavioral questions address the following: They
determine people's actions in terms of what they have eaten (or
drunk), bought, used, visited, seen, read or heard. Behavioral
questions record facts and not matters of opinion.
24. • Step 10. Data Analysis When data is collected, it is forwarded for
analysis which is the most technical job. Data analysis may be
divided into two main categories.
• Data Processing: it is sub-divided into the following. Data editing,
Data coding, Data classification, Data tabulation, Data
presentation, Data measurement Data Exposition: Date Exposition
has the following sub-categories. Description, Explanation,
Narration, Conclusion/Findings, Recommendations/Suggestions
25. • Step 11: Hypothesis Testing :Research data is then forwarded to
test the hypothesis. Do the hypothesis are related to the facts or
not? To find the answer the process of testing hypothesis is
undertaken which may result in accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.
• Step 12: Generalization and Interpretation The acceptable
hypothesis is possible for researcher to arrival at the process of
generalization or to make & theory. Some types of research has no
hypothesis for which researcher depends upon on theory which is
known as interpretation.
26. Report Writing
• Final step
• It requires skill & knowledge so appropriate data can be
represented correctly
• It communicate & present data
• A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the
researcher’s credibility. At a bare minimum, a research report
should contain sections on:
• An executive summary;
• Background of the problem;
27. • Literature review;
• Methodology;
• Data Analysis & interpretation
• Findings;
• Conclusions and
• Recommendations
29. Basic research
• What is basic research/Theoretical Research/Pure?
• Basic research, or fundamental research, is a type of investigation focused on
improving the understanding of a particular phenomenon, study or law of nature.
• It conducts the research without any specific purpose in the mind.
• It does not solve any immediate problem.
• Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses
on generating knowledge, regardless of its practical application. Here, data
collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a
particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.
• This type of research examines data to find the unknown and fulfill a sense of
curiosity. Usually, these involve "how," "what" and "why" questions to explain
occurrences. Basic research looks at how processes or concepts work. Information
obtained from basic research often creates a foundation for applied studies.
30. • Examples of basic research
• Here are some examples of basic research:
• A study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain
• A study to discover the components making up human DNA
• A study accessing whether stress levels make people more aggressive
• A study trying to find out what makes up a proton
• A study seeing what/Which areas of the India have the most rain
• A study examining whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with meat
• A study on the origination of cryptocurrency
• A study on the various types of kiwis grown in Chile
31. Applied research
• Applied research is a type of examination looking to find practical
solutions for existing problems.
• To find immediate solution for a problem.
• These can include challenges in the workplace, education and society.
This research type uses empirical methodologies, such as experiments,
to collect further data in an area of study.
• Findings are applicable and usually implemented upon completion of a
study. Applied research focuses on answering one specific question for a
client or sponsor.
• It's a type of research method for applying natural sciences to real life to
improve the human condition. There are three types of applied
research:
32. • A study on how to improve illiteracy in teenagers
• A study looking for ways to market products for millennials
• A study trying to decrease fraud on social media platforms
• A study searching for ways to encourage high school graduates to attend
college
• A study to find ways to make car tires last longer
• A study on how to treat patients with COVID 19
• A study looking for ways to improve patient retention at a dentist's office
• A study providing solutions for how to train dogs to stay in their yard
• A study to find what marketing strategies to use on college campuses
33. Exploratory Research
• Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a
subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It
serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an
in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to
be generated.
• Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied
phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data
to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.
• Pilot study.
34. • Exploratory research •
• Exploratory research that is undertaken to gain background information
about the general nature of the research problem. Exploratory research
is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the
problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent
information.
• Exploratory research is used in a number of situations:
• To gain background information
• To define terms
• To clarify problems
• To establish research priorities
35. • Descriptive Research
• The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the
characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily
investigating the causes that produce it.
• OBSERVING, DOCUMENTING AND DESCRIBING the thing which is
happening naturally.
• In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care
not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its
behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.
• For example,
36. • What is social research?
• Social research is the study of social trends, dynamics and principles
that exist between individuals and within societies. Professionals
perform social research in order to better understand the social factors
that motivate and influence human beings and to analyze how and why
humans interact with each other.
• This broad category of research includes topics in many social science
fields, such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. Organizations
may use social research to improve their marketing practices, and
government institutions can use this research to inform legislature and
other policies.
37. • Psychology - the scientific study of the human mind and its
functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given
context.
• Sociology- is a social science that focuses on society, human
social behavior, patterns of social relationships, social
interaction, and aspects of culture
• Anthropology- is the scientific study of humanity, concerned
with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and
linguistics, in both the present and in the past.
38. Empirical research
• Empirical research: Definition
• Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is
strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable”
evidence.
• This empirical evidence can be gathered using quantitative market
research and qualitative market research methods.
• In this the researcher observe, experience and experiment.
• For example: A research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy
music while working may promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by
using a music website survey on a set of audience who are exposed to happy
music and another set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects
are then observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical
evidence if it does promote creativity or not
39. Conclusive market research
• Conclusive market research, also known as conclusive research, is
a formal study meant to enable clients or commission individuals
to make a more knowledgeable and correct decision on how to
continue with a particular issue or a set of issues.
• conclusive research is intended to provide useful information for
reaching conclusions or making decisions.
• Conclusive market research typically contains a set of
recommendations and plans on 'next moves,' and it may employ a
variety of research approaches.
40. Historical Research
• Historical Research- is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains etc to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time.
41. BUSINESS RESEARCH
• Business research can be described as a systematic and organized
effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work
setting, which needs a solution
• DEFINITION OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
• We can define business research as an organized, systematic,
data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation
into a specific problem, undertaken with purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it
42. SOME COMMONLY RESEARCHED AREAS IN
BUSINESS
• 1. Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and
turnover
• 2. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and
organizational commitment
• 3. Supervisory performance, managerial leadership style, and
performance appraisal systems.
43. Questions Covered
• What is RESEARCH explain the features of RESEARCH and
RESEARCHER
• Explain the importance of Research
• What are the Process of Research
• Explain in deatail the Types of Research
• What is BUSINESS RESEARCH
45. Research problem
• A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a
condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or
in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding
and deliberate investigation.
• In some social science disciplines the research problem is
typically posed in the form of a question. A research problem does
not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question.
46. • A research problem is exactly what it sounds like: a problem or
issue in or with the research. Although the research problem
stems from a social or organizational issue, the actual research
problem itself is developed by looking into the literature
47. • For example, let’s say there is a problem with special education
teachers leaving the profession. The first thing to do is to go to
the research to see what is already known about the topic. So, the
research says they are leaving because they are not satisfied in
their jobs, jobs demands are high, and pay is commensurately low.
They also leave because they do not feel adequately prepared and
feel they are not supported by administration.
48. Importance of Research problem
• Introducing the importance of the study topic:
• The research problem orients the reader to the significance of the study
and the research questions or hypotheses to follow in the research.
• Defines the context of the problem
• The research problem defines the parameters and elements that are
being studied in the research work.
• Framework for reporting the results
• It indicates and provides all necessary requirements to conduct the
study. Furthermore, it explains how the findings will be presented to
with reference to the information.
49. Sources of Research Problems
• Past researches and literature review
• A body of knowledge should be developed on the sound foundation of research
findings.
• Usually, at the end of research further research problems are suggested, based on
the shortcoming of previous research, which can be investigated.
• Personal experience
• The day-to-day personal experience of the researcher may serve as a good source of
ideas to formulate a research problem.
• For example, a researcher may have to experience violence from his or her
alcoholic father and try to investigate the relationship between alcohol
consumption and violence.
50. • There may be so many life experiences that researcher may use to
develop a research problem
• Practical experience.
• Research problems may be formulated from challenges and
problems experienced during day-to-day work for example nurses
may get research problem ideas from their clinical experience.
• For example, a nurse may observe that the application of ice at
the site of heparin injection reduces the chance of ecchymosis.
• Such clinical experience could be a rich source of ideas to identify
a significant research problem
51. • Casual observation
• Sometimes casual observation of what is going on in our life and environment
may trigger our desire to know more, and to have concrete knowledge of what
is going on it can lead to the formulation of a hypothesis and conducting of
systematic research.
•
Related literature
• Current social and economic issues
• Sometimes topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or political
issues.
• For example HIV/AIDS, female feti
• cide, sexual harassment, domestic violence, and gender equality.
52. • The idea for a study may stem from a familiarity with a social
concerns or controversial social issues.
• Brainstorming
• Brainstorming sessions are a good technique to find new questions,
whereby an intensified discussion among interested people of the
profession is conducted to find more ideas to formulate a research
problem.
53. • Intuition
• Traditionally, intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge
as well as source to find new research problems.
• It is believed that the reflective mind is a good source of ideas,
which may be used to formulate a good research problem
59. What is a Research Hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question
and proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the
scientific method that forms the basis of scientific experiments.
Therefore, you need to be careful and thorough when building
your hypothesis. A minor flaw in the construction of your
hypothesis could have an adverse effect on your experiment.
60. • A hypothesis is one of the earliest stages of the scientific method.
It’s essentially an educated guess—based on observations—of what
the results of your experiment or research will be.
• Example:
• If you’ve noticed that watering your plants every day makes them
grow faster, your hypothesis might be “plants grow better with
regular watering.” From there, you can begin experiments to test
your hypothesis; in this example, you might set aside two plants,
water one but not the other, and then record the results to see
the differences.
61. • The language of hypotheses always discusses variables, or the
elements that you’re testing. Variables can be objects, events,
concepts, etc.—whatever is observable.
• There are two types of variables: independent and dependent.
• Independent variables are the ones that you change for your
experiment, whereas dependent variables are the ones that you
can only observe. In the above example, our independent variable
is how often we water the plants and the dependent variable is
how well they grow.
62. Importance of Hypothesis:
• It ensures the entire research methodologies are valid.
• It helps to assume the probability of research failure and progress.
• It helps to provide link to the underlying theory and specific
research question.
• It helps in data analysis and measure the reliability of the
research.
• It helps to describe research study in concrete terms rather than
theoretical terms.
63. Types of Hypothesis
• Simple hypothesis
• A simple hypothesis suggests only the relationship between two
variables: one independent and one dependent.
• Examples:
• If you stay up late, then you feel tired the next day.
• Turning off your phone makes it charge faster.
64. • Complex hypothesis
• A complex hypothesis suggests the relationship between more than
two variables, for example, two independents and one dependent,
or vice versa.
• Examples:
• People who both (1) eat a lot of fatty foods and (2) have a family
history of health problems are more likely to develop heart
diseases.
• Older people who live in rural areas are happier than younger
people who live in rural areas.
65. • Null hypothesis
• A null hypothesis, abbreviated as H0, suggests that there is no
relationship between variables.
• Examples:
• There is no difference in plant growth when using either bottled
water or tap water.
• There is no relationship between smoking and stomach pain.
66. • Alternative hypothesis
• An alternative hypothesis, abbreviated as H1 or HA, is used in
conjunction with a null hypothesis. It states the opposite of the
null hypothesis, so that one and only one must be true.
• Examples:
• Plants grow better with bottled water than tap water.
• There is a relationship between stomach pain and cancer.
67. • Logical hypothesis
• A logical hypothesis suggests a relationship between
variables without actual evidence. Claims are instead based on
reasoning or deduction, but lack actual data.
• Examples:
• An alien raised on Venus would have trouble breathing in Earth’s
atmosphere.
• Dinosaurs with sharp, pointed teeth were probably carnivores.
68. • Empirical hypothesis
• An empirical hypothesis, also known as a “working hypothesis,” is one
that is currently being tested. Unlike logical hypotheses, empirical
hypotheses rely on concrete data.
• Examples:
• Customers at restaurants will tip the same even if the wait staff’s base
salary is raised.
• Washing your hands every hour can reduce the frequency of illness.
• Plants with different fertilizers will grow to different heights
69. How to write a hypothesis in 6 steps
• Ask a question
• Curiosity has inspired some of history’s greatest scientific achievements,
so a good place to start is to ask yourself questions about the world
around you. Why are things the way they are? What causes the factors
you see around you? If you can, choose a research topic that you’re
interested in so your curiosity comes naturally.
• Conduct preliminary research
• Next, collect some background information on your topic. How much
background information you need depends on what you’re attempting. It
could require reading several books, or it could be as simple as
performing a web search for a quick answer. You don’t necessarily have
to prove or disprove your hypothesis at this stage; rather, collect only
what you need to prove or disprove it yourself.
70. • Define your variables
• Once you have an idea of what your hypothesis will be, select which
variables are independent and which are dependent. Remember that
independent variables can only be factors that you have absolute control
over, so consider the limits of your experiment before finalizing your
hypothesis.
• Phrase it as an if-then statement
• When writing a hypothesis, it helps to phrase it using an if-then format,
such as, “If I water a plant every day, then it will grow better.” This
format can get tricky when dealing with multiple variables, but in
general, it’s a reliable method for expressing the cause-and-effect
relationship you’re testing.
71. • Collect data to support your hypothesis
• A hypothesis is merely a means to an end. The priority of any scientific
research is the conclusion. Once you have your hypothesis laid out and
your variables chosen, you can then begin your experiments. Ideally,
you’ll collect data to support your hypothesis, but don’t worry if your
research ends up proving it wrong—that’s all part of the scientific
method.
• Write with confidence
• Last, you’ll want to record your findings in a research paper for others to
see. This requires a bit of writing know-how, quite a different skill set
than conducting experiments.
72. Question Covered
• What is Research problem explain its importance and sources.
• Explain in brief the STEPS OF FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM.
• What is a Research Hypothesis and its importance.
• Exaplin in detail the types of Hypothesis
• Explain in brief how to write a hypothesis
73. Chapter 3: Sampling
• What is sampling?
• Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a
subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them
and estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different
sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market
research so that they do not need to research the entire
population to collect actionable insights.
• It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence
forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can
be used in a research survey software for optimum derivation.
74. • For example,
• If you want to take 100kg of rice you will 1st take small sample
size of rice and check if it is right to take the 100 kg of rie from
this shop.
• If doctor wants to check if you have any disease he will take only
2ml of blood from your body for blood test and not entire blood .
75. Types of sampling: sampling methods
• Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique
where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and chooses
members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal
opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection
parameter.
• Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the
researcher chooses members for research at random. This
sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process.
This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have
equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
76. Types of probability sampling with examples:
• Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers
choose samples from a larger population using a method based on
the theory of probability. This sampling method considers every
member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed
process.
• For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member
will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a
sample. Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the
population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in
the sample.
77. Example
• If a teacher wants to ask question from the class of students she
will come and ask questions from any students by randomly
picking them without any preplanned decisions.
• Here all students have equal chances of getting selected.
78. There are four types of probability
sampling techniques:
79. • Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling
techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple
Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining
information where every single member of a population is chosen
randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of
being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example.
• IF A teacher wants to make two leader from 100 students she will write
every students name in a chit and will randomly choose any 2 among the
100.
• Here all the 100 students have equal chance of getting selected.
• Its like lucky draw and lottery system.
80. • Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the
researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters
that represent a population. Clusters are identified and included
in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, gender,
location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to
derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example,
81. • Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling
method to choose the sample members of a population at regular
intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for the
sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals.
This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and hence
this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample
of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she numbers each
element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th
individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample
Size = 5000/500 = 10).
82. • Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in
which the researcher divides the population into smaller groups that
don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these
groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group
separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of
people belonging to different annual income divisions will create strata
(groups) according to the annual family income. Eg – less than 20,000,
21,000 – 30,000, 31,000 to 40,000, 41,000 to 50,000, etc. By doing this,
the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to
different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to
target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear
fruitful results.
83. Non-probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling is a method of selecting units from a
population using a subjective (i.e. non-random) method. Since
non-probability sampling does not require a complete survey
frame, it is a fast, easy and inexpensive way of obtaining data.
84. Example
• If a teacher wants to ask question from the class of students she
will come and ask questions from the students she has already
planned to whom to ask the question .
• Here all students does not have equal chances of getting selected.
85. Types of non-probability sampling with examples
• Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to
subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It
is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of
carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects
• . This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost
limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource
limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
•
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall
to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that
by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
86. • Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive
samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher. Researchers
purely consider the purpose of the study, along with the understanding
of the target audience.
• For instance, Here’s a simple example of how purposive sampling works
in market research
• Before launching a new wine product, an organization conducts pilot
testing to gather feedback from the market. For the sample population,
the researcher chooses expert wine tasters to provide valuable feedback
for product improvement
• .
87. • Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in
this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set standard. In
this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the
created sample will have the same qualities found in the total
population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
88. PROCESS IN DETAIL
1. Identify the Target population (Population of interest)
• Target population refers to the group of individuals or objects to which
researchers are interested in generalizing their findings. The target population
is the group of individuals or objects, from which the sample might be taken. A
well - defined population reduces the probability of including the participants
who all are not suitable for the research objective.
• For example, researcher wants to study the behaviour of toddlers in playgroup.
He has to select a particular area (e.g., all playgroups in his city) for his study
because it is impossible to study the whole world toddlers.
• .
89. • 2. Select a sampling frame
• While selecting sample units from the population, it is sometimes
desirable to choose a list of the population from which the
researcher select units. Sampling frame is the group of individuals
or objects (e.g., list of all playgroups in researcher’s city) from
which researcher will draw his/her sample. It is the list of all units
in a study population from which the sample is taken.
• For example, researcher takes 3 playgroups near to his house in
his sampling frame to conduct his study
90. • 3. Specify the sampling technique
• Sampling can be done through probability (random selection) or non-probability
(non-random) technique. Now, if the sampling frame is approximately the same
as the target population, random selection may be used to select sample. On
the other hand, if the sampling frame does not really represent the target
population, the researcher may choose non-random selection which can give at
least an idea about the population in his nearby area.
• 4. Determine the sample size
• The sample size is simply the number of units in the sample. Sample size
determination depends on many factors such as time, cost, facility. In general,
larger samples are better, but they also require more resources.
91. •
• 5. Execute the sampling plan
• Once population, sampling frame, sampling technique and sample
size are identified, researcher can use all that information to
choose his/her sample.
92. Question Covered
• What is sampling explain in detail its types
• Write down the sampling process in detail
94. • Term data is derived from word called ‘Datum’ means ‘something
given’
• Data is collection of raw & unorganised facts that has no individual
meaning. When raw data is processed ,organised & presented in
certain structure in such way that it become meaningful & useful
it is called as information.
• It is called as life blood of research ,any research can not be
completed without data
96. PRIMARY DATA : Those data which are
collected afresh and for the first time and thus
happen to be original in character and known
as Primary data. These data are in the shape of
raw material.
97. Original and independent collection
increased the authenticity of data.
Directly Collection enhance the reliability of
data.
Used in both quantitative and
qualitative research methods.
Hidden information can be collected
through primary data.
After analyzed primary data can be
used as secondary data.
98. Reliability depend on respondents
information accuracy.
Information can be bias.
Expensive and time consuming in nature.
Lack of experience among researcher.
Requires field work.
99. SECONDARY DATA: Those data which have
been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the
statistical process or analyzed by someone
else are known as Secondary data. It is the
data which may be published or unpublished,
but has been collected and is used for some
other purpose earlier.
100. These data can be quickly manageable.
Time and cost balance remains maintained.
Information available is already analyzed by
experts.
Used to update data or reinterpret existing
ones.
Helpful for philosopher, thinker or authors
for developing new concept.
Field work is less.
101. No standard measurement of validity.
Need expertise.
Accuracy and reliability is always lesser than
primary data.
102.
103. Primary Data Collection Methods
• 1. Interviews
• An interview is a method of data collection that involves two
groups of people, where the first group is the interviewer (the
researcher(s) asking questions and collecting data) and the
interviewee (the subject or respondent that is being asked
questions).
• Interviews can be carried out in 2 ways, namely; in-person
interviews and telephonic interviews. An in-person interview
requires an interviewer or a group of interviewers to ask questions
from the interviewee in a face-to-face fashion.
104. • Some of the tools used in carrying out in-person interviews include
a notepad or recording device to take note of the conversation—
very important due to human forgetful nature.
• On the other hand, telephonic interviews are carried out over the
phone through ordinary voice calls or video calls. The 2 parties
involved may decide to use video calls like Skype to carry out
interviews.
• A mobile phone, Laptop, Tablet, or desktop computer with an
internet connection is required for this
105. • Pros
• In-depth information can be collected.
• The samples can be controlled.
• Cons
• It is more time-consuming.
• It is expensive.
• The interviewer may be biased.
106. These are as follows:
A)Personal interviews: The interviewer asks
questions generally in a face to face contact to
the other person or persons.
B)Telephonic interviews: When it is not
possible to contact the respondent directly,
then interview is conducted through –
Telephone.
C)Structured interviews: In this case, a set of
pre- decided questions are there.
D)Unstructured interviews: In this case,we don’t
follow
a system of pre-determined questions.
107. Advantages
• Interviewer can collect supplementary information about respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which has value in interpreting
results.
• 2)-Non Responses are generally low.
• 3)-Samples can be controlled more effectively.
• 4)-Allows respondents to describe what is important to them.
• 5)-There is greater flexibility; due to restructuring questions can be
done
108. 1)-Respondent may give bias information.
2)-Expensive method.
3)-Some Executive people are not approachable so data collected may be
inadequate.
4)-Takes more time when samples are more, Systematic errors may be
occurred.
109. • Surveys & Questionnaires
• Surveys and questionnaires are 2 similar tools used in collecting
primary data. They are a group of questions typed or written down
and sent to the sample of study to give responses.
• After giving the required responses, the survey is given back to the
researcher to record. It is advisable to conduct a pilot study where
the questionnaires are filled by experts and meant to assess the
weakness of the questions or techniques used.
• There are 2 main types of surveys used for data collection,
namely; online and offline surveys.
110. • Online surveys are carried out using internet-enabled devices like
mobile phones, PCs, Tablets, etc.
• They can be shared with respondents through email, websites, or social
media. Offline surveys, on the other hand, do not require an internet
connection for them to be carried out.
• The most common type of offline survey is a paper-based survey.
However, there are also offline surveys like Formplus that can be filled
with a mobile device without access to an internet connection.
• This kind of survey is called online-offline surveys because they can be
filled offline but require an internet connection to be submitted.
111. • Pros
• Respondents have adequate time to give responses.
• It is free from the bias of the interviewer.
• They are cheaper compared to interviews.
• Cons
• It is inflexible and can’t be changed once sent.
• It is a slow process.
112. 1)- Low cost even the geographical area is
large to cover.
2)- Answers are in respondent’s own words sofree
from bias.
3)-Adequate time to think for answers.
4)-Non approachable respondents may be
conveniently contacted.
5)-Large samples can be used so results are more
reliable.
113. 1)-Time consuming
2}-Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire.
3)- It can be used when respondent is educated
and cooperative
4)-Difficult to know the expected respondent
have filled the form or it is filled by some one
else.
114. • 3. Observation
• The observation method is mostly used in studies related to behavioral science.
The researcher uses observation as a scientific tool and method of data
collection. Observation as a data collection tool is usually systematically
planned and subjected to checks and controls.
• There are different approaches to the observation method—structured or
unstructured, controlled or uncontrolled, and participant, non-participant, or
disguised approach.
• The structured and unstructured approach is characterized by careful definition
of subjects of observation, style of observer, conditions, and selection of data.
An observation process that satisfies this is said to be structured and vice versa.
• .
115. • A controlled and uncontrolled approach signifies whether the research
took place in a natural setting or according to some pre-arranged plans.
If an observation is done in a natural setting, it is uncontrolled but
becomes controlled if done in a laboratory.
• Before employing a new teacher, academic institutions sometimes ask
for a sample teaching class to test the teacher’s ability. The evaluator
joins the class and observes the teaching, making him or her a
participant.
• The evaluation may also decide to observe from outside the class,
becoming a non-participant. An evaluator may also be asked to stay in
class and disguise as a student, to carry out a disguised observation
116. • Pros
• The data is usually objective.
• Data is not affected by past or future events.
• Cons
• The information is limited.
• It is expensive
117. • 4. Focus Groups
• Focus Groups are gathering of 2 or more people with similar
characteristics or who possess common traits. They seek open-ended
thoughts and contributions from participants.
• A focus group is a primary source of data collection because the data is
collected directly from the participant. It is commonly used for market
research, where a group of market consumers engages in a discussion
with a research moderator.
• It is slightly similar to interviews, but this involves discussions and
interactions rather than questions and answers. Focus groups are less
formal and the participants are the ones who do most of the talking,
with moderators there to oversee the process.
118. • Pros
• It incurs a low cost compared to interviews. This is because the
interviewer does not have to discuss with each participant individually.
• It takes lesser time too.
• Cons
• Response bias is a problem in this case because a participant might be
subjective to what people will think about sharing a sincere opinion.
• Group thinking does not clearly mirror individual opinions.
119. METHODS/SOURCESOFSECONDARYDATA COLLECTION:-
Secondary data are available mainly in two forms- published data and
unpublished data:-
PUBLISHED DATA: Published data are more often the information required by
individuals and organizations is published in some form or the other in consideration of
user’s need. It can used in annexure too.
For e.g. the companies publish there financial statements in the form of quarterly or half
yearly or annual reports.
UNPUBLISHED DATA: - Unpublished data are that secondary information which is
available from records which are not published due to privacy or variety of reasons.
120. • Online Data
• Online data is data that is gathered via the internet. In recent
times, this method has become popular because the internet
provides a large pool of both free and paid research resources that
can be easily accessed with the click of a button.
• While this method simplifies the data gathering process, the
researcher must take care to depend solely on authentic sites
when collecting information. In some way, the internet is a virtual
aggregation for all other sources of secondary research data.
121. • Data from Government and Non-government Archives
• You can also gather useful research materials from government
and non-government archives and these archives usually contain
verifiable information that provides useful insights on varying
research contexts. In many cases, you would need to pay a sum to
gain access to these data.
• The challenge, however, is that such data is not always readily
available due to a number of factors. For instance, some of these
materials are described as classified information as such, it would
be difficult for researchers to have access to them.
122. • Data from Libraries
• Research materials can also be accessed through public and
private libraries. Think of a library as an information storehouse
that contains an aggregation of important information that can
serve as valid data in different research contexts.
• Typically, researchers donate several copies of dissertations to
public and private libraries; especially in cases of academic
research. Also, business directories, newsletters, annual reports
and other similar documents that can serve as research data, are
gathered and stored in libraries, in both soft and hard copies.
123. • Data from Institutions of Learning
• Educational facilities like schools, faculties, and colleges are also
a great source of secondary data; especially in academic research.
This is because a lot of research is carried out in educational
institutions more than in other sectors.
• It is relatively easier to obtain research data from educational
institutions because these institutions are committed to solving
problems and expanding the body of knowledge. You can easily
request research materials from educational facilities for the
purpose of a literature review.
124. Steps for Data Collection
• Identify issues and opportunities for collecting data: Every tool for
collecting data has its own pros and cons. Thus, for deciding the
best method, it is important to identify issues and opportunities
for collecting data according to the method. It might be helpful to
engage in a pilot study to review our tools and sample size.
• Setting goals and objectives: The researcher uses data to address
his/her research questions and must design his/her methodology
accordingly. Thus, every tool used by the researcher must have
certain objectives which could be used for addressing these
questions after analysis.
125. • Planning approach and methods: Researcher would make decisions
pertaining to who will be surveyed, how data will be collected,
sources and tools for data collection, and duration of the project.
• Collect data: While planning the data collection, it is important
to understand logistical challenges and prepare accordingly.
126. Questions Covered
• What is Data Collection.
• Explain what is primary data with its advantages and
disadvantages
• Explain what is secondary data with its advantages and
disadvantages
• Write down the difference between primary and secondary data.
• Explain in detail Primary Data Collection Methods
• What are the secindary data collection methods.
• Explain Steps for Data Collection
