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Development of translation theory (ling)
- 2. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 5th Cent, BC Torah, from Hebrew to Greek Literal translation No theory 3th Cent, BC Classical works, from Greek into Latin Literal (Help Latin readers with limited knowledge of Greek) No theory 1st Cent. BC Cicero, Classical Works, Greek into Latin Free translation - Not literal translation, seeking general style and force of the language
- 3. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 1st Cent. - Plinius Yunior Classical works, from Greek into Latin Literal translation No theory 4th Cent. - St. jerome Bible Sense-for-sense (Free Translation) “I render not word- for-word but sense- fpr-sense
- 4. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 14th – 15th Cent. (mulai Renaisans) – Penerjemahan karya klasik Yunani ke bahasa lokal, mudah dipahami – Dimulai upaya menerjemahkan Injil dalam bahasa sasaran yang mudah dimengerti. Literal translation No theory 16th Cent. Germany - Martin Luther - - Thomas Munzer, sponsor Perjanjian baru (Latin => Jerman, yang mudah dipahami) penerjemahan Injil untuk kaum Petani. - Orientasi penerjemahan “pesan untuk pesan”. Menggunakan bahasa yang biasa dipakai penutur asli Mengalihkan pesan secara alamiah Mengutamakan kejelasan dan kesederhanaan sesuai pembaca sasaran
- 5. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 16th Inggris William Tyndale Perjanjian Baru dengan. Hasil terjemahannya dibakar, dia dibakar hidup-hidup setahun kemudian Free translation (Luther’s principles) 16th Prancis Dolet menerjemahkan karya klasik. Karena dia menggunakan terjemahan bebas, dituduh ateis, kemudian dibakar dengan buku hasil terjemahannya. Free translation See next slide
- 6. Dolet’s principle Theory Penerjemah harus: (a) sepenuhnya memahami pesan (sense) dan makna (meaning) penulis asli, (b) memiliki pengetahuan yang bagus tentang bahasa sumber dan bahasa sasaran, (c) menghindari penerjemahan kata-demi-kata, (d) menggunakan ungkapan yang biasa digunakan di bahasa sasaran, (e) memilih dan menyusun kata-kata dengan baik untuk menghasilkan nada teks yang tepat.
- 7. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 17th UK Abraham Cowley (1618 - 1867) Advocated free translation John Dryden (1631 - 1700) • metaphrase, (literal) • paraphrase, (free) • imitation (Dryden 1680)
- 8. Year Who and what to translate Practice Theory 17th -18th Willam Jones: Translation is a tool to tame East nations and implant capitalist ideology.
- 9. After WW II (Cent. 20)
- 10. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies, Holmes, 1972.
- 11. Hatim and Mason (2004)
- 12. language-as-a-sign- system translation theory (structural- linguistic-based theory) language-as- communication translation theory (functional linguistic theory, pragmatics, etc.). Two main streams of linguistic-based translation theory
- 16. • Structural linguistics is an approach to language and language study based on the concept that language is a system of signs. • The sign has two interrelated elements, namely ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. The ‘signifier” is a means (sound or written code) that represents the idea or concept (called ‘signified’). Language-as-a-sign-system translation theory: INTRO
- 17. De Saussure • langue and parole Language-as-a-sign-system translation theory: INTRO
- 18. Roman Jakobson (1959, On Linguistic Works of Translation) 1. intralingual – rewording, paraphrasing, or summarizing a text into another text within a language 2. interlingual – rewriting a text into another text in a different language 3. intersemiotic – the changing of a written text into a different system of sign. TRANSLATION IN THE REAL SENSE IS THE INTERLINGUAL TRANSLATION
- 19. • sigfinier and the signified is arbitrary. • every language may have different grammatical rules and lexical form (words). • Therefore, a concept in one language can be reworded in other language with possibly different meaning. In other words, translation can be done with no really equivalent meaning. Roman Jakobson: Interlingual translation
- 20. • no full equivalent between words in different languages. • "keinginan" vs "ambition" • The semantic field of the words is different across the two languages. Therefore, according to Jakobson, interlingual translation involves substituting the entire message, not the meaning of individual word (code-unit) in another language (Jakobson, 1959/2000). Roman Jakobson
- 21. • meaning is universal; the linguistic rules and terminology are not the same across languages. • Therefore, the main point in translation is how to re-express the meaning in a different language with different grammatical rules and terminology or lexicon. • Semantic componential analysis – "menggendong", “carry on the back” Roman Jakobson Mbok Jamu menggendong dagangannya. GT: mbok herbs hold merchandise
- 22. • For Jakobson, all texts and linguistic forms can be translated, except poetry Roman Jakobson Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date.
- 23. • Chomsky’s ideas – Surface structure – Deep structure Eugene Nida Thou are more lovely and temperate
- 25. In transformational grammar, a kernel sentence is a simple declarative construction with only one verb.
- 26. • In transformational grammar, a kernel sentence is a simple declarative construction with only one verb. • "Even a sentence with an adjective, gerund or infinitive is not a kernel sentence. (i) This is a black cow is made of two kernel sentences This is a cow and The cow is black. (ii) I saw them crossing the river is made of I saw them and They were crossing the river, (iii) I want to go is made of I want and I go." (M.P. Sinha, Modern Linguistics. Atlantic Publishers, 2005)
- 27. Chomsky’s idea 1. Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is 2. transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another (e.g. active to passive), to produce 3. a final surface structure, which itself is subject to phonological and morphemic rules. – Thus, the deep structure “John marries Marry” can be transformed into “John marries Marry” or “Marry is married by John.” Eugene Nida
- 28. • According to Nida and Taber, as kernel is the 'basic structural elements out of which language builds its surface structures', it is also the basic elements of message in a text for translation. By reversing the model, Nida (and Taber) illustrate the process of translation as follows: Eugene Nida
- 29. Eugene Nida
- 30. • The basic elements of the deep structure: – back transformation by analyzing using four types of functional class of generative transformational grammar. – (a) events, – (b) objects, – (c) abstracts, and – (d) relationals. Eugene Nida
- 31. • Nida (1964a) examples: two different constructions with the preposition of. • 1) Surface structure: will of God • Back transformation: B (object, God) performs A (event, wills) • 2) Surface structure: creation of the world • Back transformation: B (object, the world) performs A (event, creates) Eugene Nida
- 32. • The translation is successful: – meaning or message of the original in 'complete naturalness of expression' and – elicits an equivalent response from the target text reader as the source text does from the source text reader. • Because the most important thing is the effect elicited, meaning is prioritized over style. Eugene Nida
- 33. • Nida (1964a) states that formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content . . . One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language (Nida 1964a: 159). He further states that dynamic, or functional, equivalence is based on what Nida calls ‘the principle of equivalent effect’, where ‘the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the message’
- 34. • “semantic translation” • “communicative translation” • Newmark (1981: 39), Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Newmark
- 35. Translation types (Newmark) SL oriented TL Oriented •harfiah (literal) •bebas (free) •setia (faithful) •idiomatik (idiomatic) •semantis •komunikatif BSu : The young man is wearing a heavy light blue jacket. Sem./Kom. : Pemuda itu memakai jaket tebal berwarna biru muda. Harfiah : Lelaki muda itu memakai jaket berat biru muda. BSu : It is wrong to assume that our people do not understand what a real democracy is. Sem. : Adalah keliru untuk menganggap bahwa rakyat kita tidak memahami apa demokrasi yang sesungguhnya. Kom.: Kelirulah kalau kita menganggap bahwa rakyat kita tidak memahami makna demokrasi yang sebenarnya. Transfer the meaning Recreate the effect in TT (transfer the message)
- 36. • the translation unit is not a word as an individual signifier, but ‘the smallest segment of the utterance whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually Viney and Darbelnet
- 37. • are three types of units of translation: – (a) simple unit, – (b) diluted unit, and – (c) fractional unit. Viney and Darbelnet I have five books. Saya mempunyai lima buku. Urusan tetek-bengek ini membuatku gila. (tetek bengek = trivial) Kelasi Satu = seaman I cannot reexpress my love.
- 38. • Correspondence • textual equivalence • translation shift. Catford
- 39. • Formal correspondent is ‘any category (unit, class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the 'same' place in the 'economy" of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL." • door vs pintu Catford
- 40. • Textual equivalent is any TL text or portion of it which is equivalent to a certain SL test or portion of it. Catford
- 41. • called translation shift: any deviation from the formal correspondence in the target text as a result of translating process – obligatory (called servitude) – optional (called option) • ST: No smoking • TT: Dilarang merokok Catford
- 42. • level shift : occurs if a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL translation equivalent at a different linguistic level. – ST: She is walking alone – TT: Dia sedang berjalan sendirian • category shift: occurs if the translation of a word or phrase is deviating from its formal correspondence in the target text. Catford
- 43. • Structure shift – ST: Your order has been sent via express courier service. TT: Kami telah mengirim pesanan Anda dengan layanan pengiriman kilat. • Class shift – ST: We had a very nice talk. – TT: Kami berbicara sangat menyenangkan. • Unit-shift – ST: son – TT: anak laki-laki • Intra-system shift – ST: This is the place for rabbits. – TT: Ini tempat untuk kelinci. Catford: Category shifts:
- 44. Language function and communication based translation theory • Buhler’s idea
- 45. • Reiss (1971)
- 47. Snell-Hornby (1988) • Translate the left side more literally and the right side more freely
- 48. Holz-Mänttäri • Translation is an intentional communication action, transferring meaning from one party to another. • roles in the translatorial action: – the initiator – the commissioner – the source text producer (author); – the target text producer – the target text user • The main pointy here is translation should fulfill its original purpose and deliver the message optimally. • Translator should translate the message in a manner that the target recipient understands it as fully as the sender did in their culture.
- 49. Vermeer, Reiss, Nord (Skopos Theory) • Skopos theory focuses on the purpose of the translation, which determines the methods and strategies of translating, which are employed to produce functionally adequate result (Munday, 2001: 79). • Three purposes: communicative, strategic, and general purposes (Hatim, 2001: 74). • The idea is from pragmatics. • success or protest?
- 51. Juliane House (from Halliday)
- 53. Baker’s Text and pragmatic equivalence • Thematic and information structure – Halliday • Theme = initial position, speaker’s point of departure • The order may be different in different language. Follow the natural one, identify the marked one.
- 54. Baker’s Text and pragmatic equivalence • Thematic and information structure – Prague School – A clause = foundation-laying/context-dept. element + core constituting/context-independent element • Maintain the theme and rheme if possible. If the theme-rheme cannot be reproduced naturally in TL, abandone it.
- 55. Meaning, choice, markedness Meaning Choicemarkedmess She is so beautiful …. vs So beautiful she is that ….. He goes there …… vs There he goes.
- 56. • Coherence - ‘depends on the hearer’s or receiver’s expectations and experience of the world’ (help the TT readers if needed) • Presuposition - linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge the sender assumes the receiver to have. • Implicature - ‘what the speaker means or implies rather than what s/he says’. – Gricean Maxims (quantity, quality, relevance, manner) – Be aware of different co-operative principles across languages
- 57. Hatim and Mason • the realization in translation of ideational and interpersonal functions – The ideational function may shift if the transitivity structure is changed – The interpersonal function may shift if there is shift in modality • Static and dynamic values of text • The stable text => literal • Dynamic text => more challenging
- 58. Static and dynamic values of text • Dynamic text – depart form the norms • The stable text => literal Dynamic text => more challenging
- 59. Bollanos (2007) • Translation is a human action which happens through three interconnected levels: historico-cultural context of SL and TL, intercultural bilingual communicative process, and text- linguistic level • Translation is a communicative process
- 60. (Bolaños, 2007)
- 61. (Bolaños, 2001)
- 62. • Equivalence is a constitutive translation relation that holds between a SL-text and a TL-text. • Translation process is a communicative event in the five text-levels in DTM: (stylistic) syntactic, (stylistic) lexical, semantic, pragmatic, and semiotic • Equivalences are established at various text-levels but the lower level affects the text level (pragmatic level).
- 63. Conclusion (1) Traces of the “literal – free battle” • Nida: - Formal and dynamic equivalence (Free) • Newmark: Semantic – Communicative equivalence (free) • Catford: Correspondence Vs Equivalence (Neutral) • Vermeer, Reiss, Holz-Manttarii, Nord, Baker: purpose is important (Free translation) • Hatim and Mason: Stable and Dynamic element (Free translation) The theories seem to take sides on the battle of free vs literal translation, but their arguments are voiced in more subtle manners taking ground from several theories. They consider literal translation is only suitable for basic sentence structure with the least of expressive content.
- 64. Conclusion (2) Efforts to reconcile • Snell-Hornby (free or literal, depends on the text type) • Reiss (free or literal, depends on the text type) • Bollaños (not about free and literal, but about linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of translation .
Editor's Notes
- Cicero was and orator, and translating Attic orators in 46 BCE. Attic = The ancient Greek dialect of Attica, Athens, in which the bulk of classical Greek literature is written.
- Kitab suci = re[ository of truth and the words of God
- De Saussure introduces the term langue and parole about a language. It is said that language has two facets: langue (linguistic system which is fairly stable) and parole (the real utterance produced in the language). Linguistics is the study of langue (fairly stable linguistic system). Structural linguistics is an approach to language and language study based on the concept that language is a system of signs. The sign has two interrelated elements, namely ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. The ‘signifier” is a means (sound or written code) that represents the idea or concept (called ‘signified’).
- I have five books. Saya mempunyai lima buku. In the example, each word is a unit of translation that can be translated individually with no sentence structure change required. Diluted unit of translation contains several words to form a lexicological unit as the unit expresses a single idea. (simple soldat = Kopral) Finally, fractional unit of translation consists of a fraction of a word. For the unit “re-“ in the word “re-express”.
- In the example above, the “-ing” (a bound morpheme) is translated into a lexicon (free morpheme) ‘sedang’.
- Structure shift involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. In other word, it is the changing of word sequence in the TLT. Class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of SL item is a member of a different class from the original linguistic item class. It is the shift from one part of speech in SLT to another part of speech in TLT Unit-shift occurs if the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL. It is a shift from one linguistic unit (e.g. word) in SLT into another linguistic unit of a different hierarchical position (e.g. phrase). Intra-system shift is a shift within a language system. In this case, SL and TL have formal correspondence, but the translator chooses a non-corresponding term in the TL. For example, “rabbits” actually can be translated into “kelinci-kelinci” because the plural form of a noun in Indonesian can be created by repeating the noun; however, the translator chooses “kelinci” instead of “kelinci-kelinci” in TLT.
- According to Buhler (1965), language can fulfill three types of function, i.e. representational function, connative function, and expressive function. A representational function is served by language signs ( text, utterance, sentence, etc.) when they refer to objects and facts in the real world. Second, a conative function is fulfilled when they appeal to the readers or hearers and influence their behaviours. Third, an expressive function is met when they express the inner state of the speaker.
- Holz-Mantarri identifies the roles in the translatorial action: the initiator (the person who needs the translation); the commissioner (the person that contacts the translator); the source text producer (author); the target text producer (the translator or translation agency); the target text user (e.g. teachers in the case of text book transaltion or business owner in the case of product documentation) and the target text recipient, (e.g. students in a target user's class or the product end users).
- Three major kinds of purpose are already recognized: communicative (to inform), strategic (to choose which translation method is suitable), and general purposes (whe the translator performs the translation) (Hatim, 2001: 74). Such purposes cannot be equally important. The success or failure of a translation is ultimately decided whether it can be interpreted successfully by the targeted recipient in a manner that is consistent whit what is expected of it (Hatim, 2001: 75)
- Genre (conventional text type taht is associated with a specific communicative function, for example a business letter) is conditioned by the sociocultural environment and itself determines other elements in the systemic framework. The first of these is register, which comprises three variable elements: (1) field: what is being written about, e.g. a delivery of goods; (2) tenor: who is communicating and to whom, e.g. a sales representative to a customer; (3) mode: the form of communication, e.g. written. Each of the variables of register is associated with a strand of meaning. These strands, which together form the discourse semantics of a text, are the three metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual. The metafunctions are constructed or realized by the lexicogrammar, that is the choices of wording and syntactic structure. The links are broadly as follows (see Eggins 2004: 78): The field of a text is associated with ideational meaning, which is realized through transitivity patterns (verb types, active/passive structures, participants in the process, etc.). The tenor of a text is associated with interpersonal meaning, which is realized through the patterns of modality (modal verbs and adverbs such as hopefully, should, possibly , and any evaluative lexis such as beautiful, dreadful ). The mode of a text is associated with textual meaning, which is realized through the thematic and information structures (mainly the order and structuring of elements in a clause) and cohesion (the way the text hangs together lexically, including the use of pronouns, ellipsis, collocation, repetition, etc.).
- Basically House's model is composed of a functional analysis of ST and a comparison of the ST's textual profile and TT's textual profile. House also adopts Halliday’s Field, Tenor and Mode to make her model more applicable. Field refers to the topic of the text or its subject matter. Social action is about how general or specific the language used is to present the topic. Tenor deals with the participants, the author and the audience, as well as their relationship. The Author’s Provenance indicates his temporal, geographical and social provenance. In addition to this, the Author’s Stance indicates his intellectual, emotional and affective position towards the subject he presents and his personal point of view. Social Role Relationship portrays the relationship between author and audience (symmetrical or asymmetrical). Social Attitude is the degree of formality and thus the degree of social distance, which is identified as: formal, consultative and informal. Under Mode, she has Medium and Participation. The first refers to the channel of communication (written or spoken), which can be simple or complex. Borrowing Biber’s dimensions, she proposes three new dimensions of Medium: (a) Involved vs Informational Text Production, (b) Explicit vs Situation-Dependent Reference, and (c) Abstract vs Non-Abstract Presentation of Information. Participation refers to how author and audience participate, which can be simple (monologue or dialogue) and complex that employs various linguistic means to evoke and involve addressee’s participation. Different from Al-Qinai’s proposal, this model is strongly supported by a theory. However, the pointers are still relatively very technical and no contextual aspect of translation is taken into account.
- Linguistic element carries meaning to the extend that it is selected. The meaning is stronger if the speaker has more option to choose. The more it is unexpected, the more marked is the ling. Unit and the stronger is the meaning. (expectation = degree of markedness)
- it is known that as a human action, translation is affected by the whole cultural context, here called historico-cultural context. Within the context, the translation process—here it is called bilingual communicative process—happens. Considering the cultural context and norms of the TL, s/he textualizes the meaning or intention s/he gets from the ST into a text is TL. The textualization is the very process of translation and it is done at the text-linguistic level.