The document provides an overview of cost analysis, including defining costs, analyzing major cost elements in a proposal, and evaluating profit. It discusses direct vs indirect costs, acceptable cost estimating methods, and templates for breaking down costs. Key steps in cost analysis include understanding requirements, reviewing the contractor's proposal and basis of estimate, and evaluating profit using weighted guidelines or statutory limits. The purpose of cost analysis is to determine if proposed costs represent reasonable economy and efficiency.
This document defines key concepts in cost accounting and cost management. It discusses how cost accounting provides information for both management and financial accounting by measuring and reporting costs. It also describes different types of costs like direct, indirect, fixed and variable costs. Finally, it summarizes standard costing and analysis of variance, which are techniques used to evaluate actual performance against pre-established cost standards.
This document discusses different methods of costing including job costing, batch costing, contract costing, and process costing. It provides details on each method:
- Job costing involves producing products to meet specific customer orders. Batch costing is used when units are manufactured in batches for assembly. Contract costing is for large jobs that take over a year to complete.
- Process costing is used when production is continuous, with the output of one process becoming the input of the next. It describes normal loss, abnormal loss/gain, and how to record these in process accounts with or without opening/closing work in progress.
- The key differences between job/batch costing and process cost
This document discusses cost analysis and various cost concepts. It begins by defining cost analysis and its importance in business decision making. It then outlines several types of costs including: opportunity cost, economic cost, accounting cost, private and social costs, incremental and sunk costs, direct and indirect costs, average, marginal and total costs. It also discusses cost-output relationships in the short-run and long-run, factors determining costs, and break-even analysis. The key purpose is to provide an overview of different cost concepts and cost-output relationships that are important for business analysis and decision making.
Process costing is used when production is continuous and outputs are homogeneous. Costs are accumulated over multiple processes and time periods, then divided by total units to calculate average unit costs. Key differences from job costing include homogeneous outputs, sequential cost flows between processes, and inventory accumulating between processes. Costs are calculated periodically rather than by individual jobs.
Law of Variable Proportions and Law of Returns to ScaleAyush Parekh
This presentation puts emphasis on
Law of Variable proportion and Law of Returns to Scale
It also puts light on production function, cost function, etc.
This document defines and compares cost control and cost reduction. It discusses key areas to focus on for each, including labor, material, sales and energy. Cost control aims to maintain costs according to standards while cost reduction lowers unit costs without affecting quality. Some advantages of cost control are improved profitability and competitiveness, while disadvantages include reduced flexibility and innovation. Advantages of cost reduction include lower product prices and meeting competition, while quality may be sacrificed. The document outlines techniques for each, such as budgetary control, standard costing and inventory control for cost control, and material handling, automation and work study for cost reduction.
This document discusses overhead costs and their accounting treatment. It defines overheads as indirect costs that cannot be directly attributed to a specific cost object. The document outlines the key steps in overhead accounting: classification of overheads, codification and collection, allocation and apportionment to cost centers, and absorption into product costs. It provides examples of different bases for classifying, allocating, and apportioning overheads. The document also discusses reapportioning service department costs to production departments through various secondary distribution methods like repeated distribution and trial and error.
This document defines key concepts in cost accounting and cost management. It discusses how cost accounting provides information for both management and financial accounting by measuring and reporting costs. It also describes different types of costs like direct, indirect, fixed and variable costs. Finally, it summarizes standard costing and analysis of variance, which are techniques used to evaluate actual performance against pre-established cost standards.
This document discusses different methods of costing including job costing, batch costing, contract costing, and process costing. It provides details on each method:
- Job costing involves producing products to meet specific customer orders. Batch costing is used when units are manufactured in batches for assembly. Contract costing is for large jobs that take over a year to complete.
- Process costing is used when production is continuous, with the output of one process becoming the input of the next. It describes normal loss, abnormal loss/gain, and how to record these in process accounts with or without opening/closing work in progress.
- The key differences between job/batch costing and process cost
This document discusses cost analysis and various cost concepts. It begins by defining cost analysis and its importance in business decision making. It then outlines several types of costs including: opportunity cost, economic cost, accounting cost, private and social costs, incremental and sunk costs, direct and indirect costs, average, marginal and total costs. It also discusses cost-output relationships in the short-run and long-run, factors determining costs, and break-even analysis. The key purpose is to provide an overview of different cost concepts and cost-output relationships that are important for business analysis and decision making.
Process costing is used when production is continuous and outputs are homogeneous. Costs are accumulated over multiple processes and time periods, then divided by total units to calculate average unit costs. Key differences from job costing include homogeneous outputs, sequential cost flows between processes, and inventory accumulating between processes. Costs are calculated periodically rather than by individual jobs.
Law of Variable Proportions and Law of Returns to ScaleAyush Parekh
This presentation puts emphasis on
Law of Variable proportion and Law of Returns to Scale
It also puts light on production function, cost function, etc.
This document defines and compares cost control and cost reduction. It discusses key areas to focus on for each, including labor, material, sales and energy. Cost control aims to maintain costs according to standards while cost reduction lowers unit costs without affecting quality. Some advantages of cost control are improved profitability and competitiveness, while disadvantages include reduced flexibility and innovation. Advantages of cost reduction include lower product prices and meeting competition, while quality may be sacrificed. The document outlines techniques for each, such as budgetary control, standard costing and inventory control for cost control, and material handling, automation and work study for cost reduction.
This document discusses overhead costs and their accounting treatment. It defines overheads as indirect costs that cannot be directly attributed to a specific cost object. The document outlines the key steps in overhead accounting: classification of overheads, codification and collection, allocation and apportionment to cost centers, and absorption into product costs. It provides examples of different bases for classifying, allocating, and apportioning overheads. The document also discusses reapportioning service department costs to production departments through various secondary distribution methods like repeated distribution and trial and error.
Cost accounting deals with determining the costs of products and services by recording, classifying, and analyzing expenses and revenues. It provides information internally for cost control and decision making, but does not depict the overall financial position of the company. Some limitations of cost accounting include that it is not an exact science, there is no uniformity in procedures, and it can be an expensive system to implement for some businesses.
This document provides an introduction to cost and management accounting. It discusses key concepts such as cost accounting, management accounting, costing, and the differences between financial accounting and management accounting. The objectives of cost accounting are to ascertain costs, control costs, aid decision-making, determine selling prices, and more. Management accounting builds on cost and financial accounting data to provide information for planning, control, and decision-making. It focuses on the internal needs of management rather than external reporting.
1. A production function shows the maximum output that can be produced from a given set of inputs over a period of time. It can be expressed as an equation, table, or graph.
2. The Cobb-Douglas production function is an important example that was formulated by Paul Douglas and Charles Cobb. It expresses output as a power function of labor and capital inputs.
3. The law of variable proportions states that as one variable input is increased, initially average and marginal products will increase until diminishing returns set in, after which average and marginal products will decrease.
This document discusses productivity and operation management. It defines productivity as the output of any production process per unit of input. The goal of production and operation management is to produce the right quality, quantity, and time at a pre-established cost. Productivity can be measured at the partial level looking at individual inputs like labor, capital, and materials, or at the total factor and total levels considering all inputs. Factors that affect productivity include product development, specialization, research, value analysis, process planning, and training. Improving productivity increases efficiency and leads to lower costs, higher sales, and greater profits.
Chapter 2 cost terms, concepts and classifications 2012 students(1)Abu_Islam
This chapter discusses cost terms, concepts, and classifications. It defines costs and gives examples. It explains that a cost object is anything for which cost data is desired, like products or organizational subunits. It's important to know costs according to a cost object to determine selling prices. Costs are classified in different ways like variable/fixed, direct/indirect, and sunk/differential/opportunity costs for income statements, predicting behavior, assigning to cost objects, and making decisions. Manufacturing and merchandising activities are also compared.
Cost reduction involves identifying and eliminating unnecessary costs to improve business profitability. It can be achieved through cost savings, avoidance, containment, and value enhancement. Key areas for cost reduction include product design, organizational rationalization, factory layout, production planning, marketing costs, personnel costs, and financial costs. Techniques include organization and method studies, work study, simplification, standardization, value analysis, automation, production control, design, material control, and quality control. The goal is to continuously and innovatively look for alternative measures to reduce costs across all business activities.
Activity based costing is considered to be useful only for Manufacturing Organizations whereas reality is that it is equally usefull to Service providers
A customer-centric costing system that bases all cost workings for a product from its market price. The purpose is to reduce cost of a product as low as possible to arrive at a price that would be either equal to or less than that of competitors’ product while delivering the same functionality.
Isoquants, MRTS, Concept of Total Product, Average & Marginal Product, Short Run and Long Run analysis of production, The Law of Variable proportion, Returns to scale,
Production Cost – Concept of Cost, Classification of Short run cost – Long run cost,
This document provides an introduction to cost accounting, including its purpose and key concepts. It discusses the limitations of financial accounting and how cost accounting addresses these. The main objectives of cost accounting are to ascertain costs, determine selling prices, set efficiency standards, value inventory, and provide information for decision making. Key cost accounting concepts covered include cost elements, cost classifications, cost sheets, costing methods, and the installation of cost accounting systems. The relationship between cost and financial accounting is also explained.
The document discusses cost sheets, which break down the total costs of producing a product into various components. It explains that cost sheets are used to determine accurate product costs, fix selling prices, compare costs over time for cost control, and help with decision making. The document then defines different types of costs like fixed, variable, operating, and direct costs. It also outlines the components that make up total cost, such as prime cost, factory cost, office cost, and discusses how to calculate costs like material consumed. Finally, it provides an example of the information needed to prepare a cost sheet statement.
8 measurement of elasticity of demand copyDr. Raavi Jain
This document discusses four methods of measuring elasticity of demand: 1) Percentage or proportionate method, 2) Total outlay (expenditure) method, 3) Geometric (point) method, and 4) Arc method. The percentage method measures the percentage change in quantity demanded relative to the percentage change in price. The total outlay method compares the change in price to the subsequent change in total expenditure. The geometric method measures elasticity as the ratio of the lower portion of the demand curve to the upper portion. Finally, the arc method uses the average of the original and new price and quantity to calculate elasticity.
The document discusses marginal costing and its advantages for managerial decision making. Marginal costing involves separating variable and fixed costs. It allows companies to determine contribution margins, break-even points, and margins of safety to aid in decisions around pricing, production levels, and profitability. The key advantage is it focuses on the impact of changes in output on profits. Some disadvantages are it understates inventory values and fixed costs are excluded from short-term decision making.
This document discusses cost analysis and control, including definitions and classifications of different types of costs and expenses. It defines direct and indirect expenses, and classifications of overheads including by function, element, behavior, control, and nature. It also covers allocation and apportionment of overheads, and various methods for secondary distribution of overheads between cost centers and departments.
This document discusses labour cost accounting. It defines direct and indirect labour costs and explains they are a significant production cost. The purposes of labour cost accounting are for wages calculation, financial reporting, management decisions, and control. Labour costs include basic wages, overtime, idle time, and labour turnover. Remuneration methods comprise fixed salaries, time-based pay, and piecework. Idle time and labour turnover are also defined.
Process costing is a costing method used when homogeneous units are produced continuously in large quantities. It assigns costs equally over the units produced in a period. There are five steps to process costing: 1) analyze physical flows, 2) calculate equivalent units, 3) determine total costs, 4) calculate unit costs, and 5) assign costs to completed and ending work-in-process units. Process costing uses journal entries to record raw material costs, conversion costs, and transfers between departments. The weighted average and first-in, first-out (FIFO) methods are two approaches to assign costs in process costing.
Cost accounting is a formal system used to ascertain and control costs of products and services. The objectives of cost accounting include ascertaining costs, controlling costs, and guiding business policies. Cost accounting differs from financial accounting in its purpose, statutory requirements, cost analysis, periodicity of reporting, and control aspects. Cost centers, cost units, and methods of costing like job costing and process costing are used to allocate costs. Elements of cost include direct and indirect materials, direct and indirect labor, and expenses like production, administration, selling and distribution overheads. Total cost is made up of prime cost, works cost, cost of production and total cost or cost of sales.
1. Khalid Aziz teaches financial accounting and cost accounting courses for various qualifications including ICMAP stages 1-4, ICAP modules B and D, B.Com, BBA, MBA, and PIPFA.
2. He provides crash courses and fresh classes in financial accounting and cost accounting for individuals and groups.
3. Contact information is provided for Khalid Aziz located in Karachi, Pakistan.
Life cycle costing is defined as the total cost of owning an asset over its entire life, from acquisition through operations and maintenance to disposal. It considers all costs associated with a product or asset over multiple stages - planning and design, manufacturing and sales, and service and abandonment. Calculating life cycle costs helps management understand cost consequences, identify areas for cost reduction, and make better decisions around product development, pricing, and discontinuation.
Cost analysis is an important part of project management. It involves reviewing project costs, evaluating cost elements, and ensuring costs are reasonable and necessary. Key aspects of cost analysis include verifying cost data, analyzing cost trends, evaluating the necessity of costs, and comparing costs to actual past costs and other estimates. Clinical trials are a major cost and involve expenses for manufacturing, staff, payments to sites and researchers, and materials. Instrumentation costs depend on equipment size and material. Raw material costs are based on material balances and unit prices. Effective project cost management can help reduce stress, prioritize goals, drive efficiency, and increase accountability.
This document discusses cost analysis and cost concepts. It provides definitions of cost, including how costs are influenced by factors like output, price of inputs, technology, and managerial efficiency. It then defines and explains various cost concepts used in business like opportunity costs, fixed vs variable costs, sunk costs, etc. Finally, it discusses cost-output relationships and how total, average, and marginal costs change with different levels of output in the short run.
Cost accounting deals with determining the costs of products and services by recording, classifying, and analyzing expenses and revenues. It provides information internally for cost control and decision making, but does not depict the overall financial position of the company. Some limitations of cost accounting include that it is not an exact science, there is no uniformity in procedures, and it can be an expensive system to implement for some businesses.
This document provides an introduction to cost and management accounting. It discusses key concepts such as cost accounting, management accounting, costing, and the differences between financial accounting and management accounting. The objectives of cost accounting are to ascertain costs, control costs, aid decision-making, determine selling prices, and more. Management accounting builds on cost and financial accounting data to provide information for planning, control, and decision-making. It focuses on the internal needs of management rather than external reporting.
1. A production function shows the maximum output that can be produced from a given set of inputs over a period of time. It can be expressed as an equation, table, or graph.
2. The Cobb-Douglas production function is an important example that was formulated by Paul Douglas and Charles Cobb. It expresses output as a power function of labor and capital inputs.
3. The law of variable proportions states that as one variable input is increased, initially average and marginal products will increase until diminishing returns set in, after which average and marginal products will decrease.
This document discusses productivity and operation management. It defines productivity as the output of any production process per unit of input. The goal of production and operation management is to produce the right quality, quantity, and time at a pre-established cost. Productivity can be measured at the partial level looking at individual inputs like labor, capital, and materials, or at the total factor and total levels considering all inputs. Factors that affect productivity include product development, specialization, research, value analysis, process planning, and training. Improving productivity increases efficiency and leads to lower costs, higher sales, and greater profits.
Chapter 2 cost terms, concepts and classifications 2012 students(1)Abu_Islam
This chapter discusses cost terms, concepts, and classifications. It defines costs and gives examples. It explains that a cost object is anything for which cost data is desired, like products or organizational subunits. It's important to know costs according to a cost object to determine selling prices. Costs are classified in different ways like variable/fixed, direct/indirect, and sunk/differential/opportunity costs for income statements, predicting behavior, assigning to cost objects, and making decisions. Manufacturing and merchandising activities are also compared.
Cost reduction involves identifying and eliminating unnecessary costs to improve business profitability. It can be achieved through cost savings, avoidance, containment, and value enhancement. Key areas for cost reduction include product design, organizational rationalization, factory layout, production planning, marketing costs, personnel costs, and financial costs. Techniques include organization and method studies, work study, simplification, standardization, value analysis, automation, production control, design, material control, and quality control. The goal is to continuously and innovatively look for alternative measures to reduce costs across all business activities.
Activity based costing is considered to be useful only for Manufacturing Organizations whereas reality is that it is equally usefull to Service providers
A customer-centric costing system that bases all cost workings for a product from its market price. The purpose is to reduce cost of a product as low as possible to arrive at a price that would be either equal to or less than that of competitors’ product while delivering the same functionality.
Isoquants, MRTS, Concept of Total Product, Average & Marginal Product, Short Run and Long Run analysis of production, The Law of Variable proportion, Returns to scale,
Production Cost – Concept of Cost, Classification of Short run cost – Long run cost,
This document provides an introduction to cost accounting, including its purpose and key concepts. It discusses the limitations of financial accounting and how cost accounting addresses these. The main objectives of cost accounting are to ascertain costs, determine selling prices, set efficiency standards, value inventory, and provide information for decision making. Key cost accounting concepts covered include cost elements, cost classifications, cost sheets, costing methods, and the installation of cost accounting systems. The relationship between cost and financial accounting is also explained.
The document discusses cost sheets, which break down the total costs of producing a product into various components. It explains that cost sheets are used to determine accurate product costs, fix selling prices, compare costs over time for cost control, and help with decision making. The document then defines different types of costs like fixed, variable, operating, and direct costs. It also outlines the components that make up total cost, such as prime cost, factory cost, office cost, and discusses how to calculate costs like material consumed. Finally, it provides an example of the information needed to prepare a cost sheet statement.
8 measurement of elasticity of demand copyDr. Raavi Jain
This document discusses four methods of measuring elasticity of demand: 1) Percentage or proportionate method, 2) Total outlay (expenditure) method, 3) Geometric (point) method, and 4) Arc method. The percentage method measures the percentage change in quantity demanded relative to the percentage change in price. The total outlay method compares the change in price to the subsequent change in total expenditure. The geometric method measures elasticity as the ratio of the lower portion of the demand curve to the upper portion. Finally, the arc method uses the average of the original and new price and quantity to calculate elasticity.
The document discusses marginal costing and its advantages for managerial decision making. Marginal costing involves separating variable and fixed costs. It allows companies to determine contribution margins, break-even points, and margins of safety to aid in decisions around pricing, production levels, and profitability. The key advantage is it focuses on the impact of changes in output on profits. Some disadvantages are it understates inventory values and fixed costs are excluded from short-term decision making.
This document discusses cost analysis and control, including definitions and classifications of different types of costs and expenses. It defines direct and indirect expenses, and classifications of overheads including by function, element, behavior, control, and nature. It also covers allocation and apportionment of overheads, and various methods for secondary distribution of overheads between cost centers and departments.
This document discusses labour cost accounting. It defines direct and indirect labour costs and explains they are a significant production cost. The purposes of labour cost accounting are for wages calculation, financial reporting, management decisions, and control. Labour costs include basic wages, overtime, idle time, and labour turnover. Remuneration methods comprise fixed salaries, time-based pay, and piecework. Idle time and labour turnover are also defined.
Process costing is a costing method used when homogeneous units are produced continuously in large quantities. It assigns costs equally over the units produced in a period. There are five steps to process costing: 1) analyze physical flows, 2) calculate equivalent units, 3) determine total costs, 4) calculate unit costs, and 5) assign costs to completed and ending work-in-process units. Process costing uses journal entries to record raw material costs, conversion costs, and transfers between departments. The weighted average and first-in, first-out (FIFO) methods are two approaches to assign costs in process costing.
Cost accounting is a formal system used to ascertain and control costs of products and services. The objectives of cost accounting include ascertaining costs, controlling costs, and guiding business policies. Cost accounting differs from financial accounting in its purpose, statutory requirements, cost analysis, periodicity of reporting, and control aspects. Cost centers, cost units, and methods of costing like job costing and process costing are used to allocate costs. Elements of cost include direct and indirect materials, direct and indirect labor, and expenses like production, administration, selling and distribution overheads. Total cost is made up of prime cost, works cost, cost of production and total cost or cost of sales.
1. Khalid Aziz teaches financial accounting and cost accounting courses for various qualifications including ICMAP stages 1-4, ICAP modules B and D, B.Com, BBA, MBA, and PIPFA.
2. He provides crash courses and fresh classes in financial accounting and cost accounting for individuals and groups.
3. Contact information is provided for Khalid Aziz located in Karachi, Pakistan.
Life cycle costing is defined as the total cost of owning an asset over its entire life, from acquisition through operations and maintenance to disposal. It considers all costs associated with a product or asset over multiple stages - planning and design, manufacturing and sales, and service and abandonment. Calculating life cycle costs helps management understand cost consequences, identify areas for cost reduction, and make better decisions around product development, pricing, and discontinuation.
Cost analysis is an important part of project management. It involves reviewing project costs, evaluating cost elements, and ensuring costs are reasonable and necessary. Key aspects of cost analysis include verifying cost data, analyzing cost trends, evaluating the necessity of costs, and comparing costs to actual past costs and other estimates. Clinical trials are a major cost and involve expenses for manufacturing, staff, payments to sites and researchers, and materials. Instrumentation costs depend on equipment size and material. Raw material costs are based on material balances and unit prices. Effective project cost management can help reduce stress, prioritize goals, drive efficiency, and increase accountability.
This document discusses cost analysis and cost concepts. It provides definitions of cost, including how costs are influenced by factors like output, price of inputs, technology, and managerial efficiency. It then defines and explains various cost concepts used in business like opportunity costs, fixed vs variable costs, sunk costs, etc. Finally, it discusses cost-output relationships and how total, average, and marginal costs change with different levels of output in the short run.
Economic Presentation: Cost Theory and AnalysisBilal Mughal
The document discusses different types of costs including:
1. Accounting costs include expenses incurred during production adjusted for depreciation, while economic costs include explicit payments to factors of production as well as implicit opportunity costs.
2. In the short-run, costs are classified as fixed, variable, total, average fixed, average variable, and marginal based on their relationship to changing output levels.
3. In the long-run, all factors are variable and long-run total, average, and marginal cost curves are defined based on minimum cost production at different output scales.
In this presentation, we will discuss in details about cost of production and various concepts of cost like fixed cost, variable cost, average cost, marginal costs, etc.
To know more about Welingkar School’s Distance Learning Program and courses offered, visit:
http://www.welingkaronline.org/distance-learning/online-mba.html
The document is an elemental cost analysis report prepared by 12 group members for the Gamuda Walk Kota Kemuning community mall project. The mall includes shops for groceries, food and beverages, gifts, entertainment, and office suites. The report includes the project timeline from the initial tender submission in March 2013 to completion in November 2014 and various cost analysis forms.
This document provides information on the elemental cost analysis for a proposed 1 block apartment development with 32 floors and 1 basement in Cheras, Kuala Lumpur. It includes floor plans and gross floor areas for each floor. Forms 1-3 present the elemental cost breakdown for items like substructure, superstructure, finishes, fittings and furnishings, services, and external works. The development will consist of a basement for car parking up to the 7th floor, recreational facilities on the 8th floor, and 294 apartment units from the 9th to 31st floors.
This document provides an elemental cost analysis for a proposed 20-storey apartment block with 375 units and public facilities on level 5. It includes summaries of the gross floor area, functional units, and a breakdown of costs for elements like the frame, upper floors, roof, stairs, walls, doors, finishes, fittings and plumbing. The total estimated cost is RM59,103,612.65 with discounts and rationalizations applied to individual element costs.
This document provides an elemental cost analysis for a proposed development comprising two blocks of apartments with shops in Kepong, Selangor. It includes details of the building components to be analyzed, contract details, and summaries of the gross floor area, net floor area including circulation, ancillary and usable spaces, room types, quantities of materials, and forms for recording cost data.
This document proposes building a sustainable housing development in Setia Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. It discusses selecting a location near existing infrastructure like malls and schools. A feasibility study examines distance to cities and airports, reliable water and electricity supply. Plans show a master plan, floor plan and side view of the proposed housing that incorporates sustainability features like solar panels, rainwater catchment and sustainable building materials. The development aims to reduce environmental impact through its design and facilities.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF A PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAM USING FRP TENDONGirish Singh
Concrete prestressed structural components exist in buildings and bridges in different forms. Understanding the response of these components during loading is crucial to the development of an overall efficient and safe structure. Different methods have been utilized to study the response of structural components. Experimental based testing has been widely used as a means to analyse individual elements and the effects of concrete strength under loading.
While this is a method that produces real life response, it is extremely time consuming, and the use of materials can be quite costly. In this paper we used finite element analysis to study behaviour of these components. The use of computer software (Ansys) to model these elements is much faster, and extremely cost- effective. To fully understand the capabilities of finite element computer software (Ansys), we look back to experimental data and simple analysis.
Data obtained from a finite element analysis package is not useful unless the necessary steps are taken to understand what is happening within the model that is created using the software. Also, executing the necessary checks along the way, is key to make sure that what is being output by the Ansys is valid.
This paper is a study of prestressed concrete beams using finite element
analysis to understand the response of prestressed concrete beams due to transverse loading and to analyse the behaviour of FRP material under these circumstances.
This paper also includes the comparison of steel and FRP on the same module and also gives the final load v/s deflection curve under the both linear and non-linear properties of the materials.
This WES ECA report provides an educational credential assessment for Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) and verifies Jayanta Kumar Mandal's Bachelor of Engineering degree in Metallurgical Engineering from Bengal Engineering College in India is equivalent to a four-year Bachelor's degree in Canada. The report will be voided if altered or modified, and CIC will verify it against an electronic copy from WES.
The document provides information on elemental cost analysis, including:
1) It explains the purposes of elemental cost analysis and the principles of preparing an analysis.
2) It describes the forms used in an analysis, including Form 1 which contains project and building information.
3) It details the specific information required in Form 1, such as building description, areas, storey heights, and ratios. Providing accurate cost data in the defined structure allows for comparison across projects.
This document provides an analysis of costs and revenues. It defines and explains various cost concepts including actual and opportunity costs, fixed and variable costs, as well as average, marginal, and total costs. Cost behavior in the short-run and long-run is examined. Revenue concepts such as total, average, and marginal revenue are also introduced. Learning curves and cost functions are discussed. The importance of understanding costs for business decision making is emphasized.
Domes and vaults are architectural elements that provide covered interior spaces. Domes are rounded vaults that can be made from curved masonry segments or a shell of revolution. Vaults are ceilings constructed from materials like brick, stone or concrete arranged in an arched manner. Common types of domes include hemispherical domes, geodesic domes, and onion domes. Elements of domes include features like coffering, pendentives, and lanterns. Vaults have been used since ancient times by civilizations like the Romans and Egyptians and include styles like barrel vaults and groin vaults.
This document provides an elemental cost analysis for constructing a single-story surau in Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia. It includes information on the project location, client, construction type and codes, contract details, and a breakdown of costs for various building elements such as substructure, superstructure, internal and external finishes, and preliminaries. Costs are provided per element in Malaysian Ringgit along with calculations of element unit rates and ratios. The total contract sum presented is RM789,384.02 for constructing the surau based on the elemental cost analysis.
This document provides information for conducting an elemental cost analysis of a proposed 3-storey nursing home building project. It includes:
- Details of the project such as location, contract sum, and completion dates.
- A summary of the gross floor area which is 2310m2 across three floors.
- Breakdowns of the net floor area and other floor spaces.
- Forms to extract cost data from the bill of quantities and normalize the costs by unit rates and floor area to enable cost comparisons.
- Specifications of materials used for various building elements like the piling foundations, roofing, doors, windows and finishes.
The document aims to analyze the costs of different building
The document provides an overview of price and cost analysis processes. It defines price analysis as examining a proposed price without evaluating separate cost elements, to determine if the price is fair and reasonable. Cost analysis evaluates separate cost elements and proposed profit to determine cost and price reasonableness, cost realism, and most probable cost. Cost analysis requires more time and resources than price analysis.
The document summarizes a training on cost analysis for government contracts held from June 19-21 in Bethesda, MD. It covers an overview of cost elements, price analysis, identifying cost drivers, and regulations related to cost analysis including the FAR, unallowable costs, and profit calculations. The document provides details on limitations of cost clauses, analyzing cost proposals, modeling proposals, and evaluating cost drivers. It emphasizes thoroughly documenting all aspects of cost analysis.
Engineering economy is the analysis and evaluation of factors that will affect the economic success of engineering projects to recommend the best use of capital. It examines alternatives from a consistent viewpoint using monetary units, considering all relevant criteria like costs, benefits, risks and uncertainties. The principles of engineering economy guide developing alternatives, focusing on differences, using consistent units of measure, and revisiting decisions. Money-time relationships like interest, present worth, and future worth are key concepts in engineering economy analysis.
This document discusses various topics related to construction project management including:
- Project cost control methods like cost planning, direct costs, indirect costs, and total cost curves.
- Economic analysis methods for construction projects such as present worth, equivalent annual cost, and discounted cash flow.
- Depreciation analysis and break-even cost analysis for construction projects.
- The importance of cost planning and economic comparisons of alternatives in selecting the most cost-effective option.
- An example comparing the present worth of two alternatives for purchasing a concrete mixer to demonstrate the economic comparison method.
This document provides information on cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and how it can be used to evaluate the economic feasibility of projects. It discusses how CBA works by quantifying and comparing the costs and benefits of a project in monetary terms. A key decision criterion is the benefit-cost ratio (BCR), where a project is acceptable if BCR is greater than 1. The document also outlines limitations of CBA and challenges in applying it to social projects due to difficulties in valuation of certain costs and benefits.
This document discusses the importance of estimating costs for construction projects and defines key terms related to estimating labor costs. It explains that estimating involves gathering information to visualize the construction process and forecast component and collective costs. For labor costs, the document outlines a three-part process: (1) identifying the craft and determining its hourly labor rate; (2) estimating the craft's productivity rate; and (3) calculating the unit labor cost by dividing the rate by productivity. It provides examples of direct labor costs like wages and indirect costs like insurance that make up the total hourly labor rate.
introduction of cost accounting , classification, cost sheet , tender sheet, etc. this ppt is prepared for all commerce and management students of all universities specifically for RTM Nagpur University. this ppt will gives basic insight about costing , cost acoun ting, cost accountancy, cost control, cost reduction.
The document provides an overview of cost accounting concepts. It defines cost accounting as the process of identifying, measuring, accumulating, analyzing, preparing, interpreting, and communicating information to permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information. It discusses the objectives, scope, importance and limitations of cost accounting. It also covers the classification of costs based on different criteria such as nature, variability, controllability, and managerial functions. The document provides examples and explanations of key cost accounting terms and concepts.
This document provides an introduction to cost accounting. It defines cost accounting as the process of identifying, measuring, accumulating, analyzing, preparing, interpreting, and communicating information to permit informed judgments and decisions by users of the information. It discusses the differences between cost accounting, financial accounting, and management accounting. Key aspects of cost accounting covered include objectives, scope, importance, limitations, and classifications of costs based on nature, variability, component, controllability, and managerial function. The document also provides examples to illustrate different types of costs.
Cost-benefit analysis is used to determine if a planned action will have positive or negative outcomes. It quantifies all the benefits and costs to calculate the net impact. Some key applications include deciding whether to hire additional staff, purchase new equipment, or invest cash. A proper cost-benefit analysis involves identifying and monetizing all relevant costs and benefits to help make efficient decisions.
The presentation describes Elements of cost and classification, cost estimation approaches and method, break even analysis, steps and limitation with examples
Here are the key steps of the high-low method without inflation:
1) Select the highest and lowest levels of activity from the available cost and activity data. In this case, the highest activity level is 20 units and the lowest is 10 units.
2) Calculate the change in total cost between the highest and lowest activity levels. Here, the change in total cost is Rs. 200 (Rs. 600 - Rs. 400).
3) Calculate the change in activity level between the highest and lowest points. Here, the change in activity is 10 units (20 units - 10 units).
4) Calculate the variable cost per unit by dividing the change in total cost by the change in activity level. Here, the
Running Head THE TMA QUESTIONS CASE STUDIES ANSWERS 1The TM.docxMARRY7
Running Head: THE TMA QUESTIONS CASE STUDIES ANSWERS 1
The TMA Questions Case Studies Answers 10
The TMA Questions Case Studies Answers
03 November 2013
PART A: Capital Budgeting – Zenobia Case Study
1. State the approaches that Zenobia might be used to recognize risk in capital budgeting (Hint: some research is mandatory here). (180 words)
The approach that Zenobia might be used to recognize risk in capital budgeting are
Net present value: The difference between the present value of inflows of cash and the present value of outflows of cash. NPV is applied in capital making allowance for to investigate the profitability of doing a project. A positive NPV shows that the project is feasible.
Payback period: The Payback period is the period which shows the time needed to realize the initial investment. If Cash flows are discounted using the appropriate discount rate to arrive at the Payback Period then it is called Discounted Payback period.
Internal Rate of Return: The discount rate often used in capital budgeting that makes the present value of all the future cash flows equal to zero. Generally, the higher a project's internal rate of return, the more attractive it is to attempt the project. As such, IRR can be used to grade some projects that a firm is considering. Assuming all other components are identical amidst the diverse projects, the project with the highest IRR would likely be advised as more feasible.
Profitability Index: A ratio of PV of all future cash flows of the project over Cost of investment in project.
= Present Value of the Future Cash Flows / Cost of Investment.
2. State for the Company what would be the effect of using a depreciation method other than straight-line when considering the role of income taxes on the net present value process. (100 words)
The straight-line method of depreciation is used to depreciate the cost of the asset over its useful life consistently over the years. As a result of utilizing a depreciation method other than straight-line, lets say Diminishing method of deprecation, the depreciation charge in the initial years will be high as compare to later years which means the Company will charge more expense to initial years of project and hence less cost in future years. This leads to decrease in net profit in the initial years and hence the income tax accordingly. This would affect the NPV in a positive manner as the Company earns higher taxable revenue in initial years so the increase in taxable expenditure would lead to less taxable net income.
3. Explain why it is useful for Zenobia if their accountants have to concern themselves with qualitative factors when making choices. (180 words)
It is helpful for Zenobia because the accountant address the qualitative components when taking decisions. They have to consider the project’s qualitative components and future advantages for Zenobia. The Qualitative components may include:
(1) Effect on workers ...
Cost Reduction Strategies:Focus and TechniquesThomas Tanel
This is a highly concentrated presentation that addresses the differences among price, cost, and TCO; what cost reduction strategies to focus on; and an overview of various techniques, as well as when and where to use them. Faced with excruciating competitive pressures, many senior C-Level executives require maximum effort from every part of their organization to survive. Today, purchasing, acquisition, procurement, contracting, and supply management professionals must be the most progressive cost reduction oriented group in the company.
For many organizations, senior C-Level executives set forth annual purchasing, acquisition, procurement, contracting, and supply management goals that mandate cost reductions. Regardless of the cost savings, avoidances, or containments achieved previously, you are faced with new cost reduction initiatives and objectives.
To make the goal of cost reduction a reality, we cannot focus solely on the price. We must examine the total cost of ownership to your organization, which means moving beyond the organizational environs to include suppliers, internal customers, other allied business functional entities, and external customers. By working both internally and externally with these stakeholders, cost reduction opportunities will become visible.
A typical purchasing, acquisition, procurement, contracting, or supply management professional will help reduce supplier prices and avoid incremental costs. A good purchasing, acquisition, procurement, contracting, or supply management professional will reduce costs by lowering both costs of acquisition and risks of supply. A great purchasing, acquisition, procurement, contracting, or supply management professional will reduce total costs across the board, increase service levels to the internal customer, make a significant contribution to the bottom line, seek value-added opportunities, and help to delight the organization’s customer. This type of professional also balances supply related costs and cycle time for the lowest overall cost, at the best value, while seeking risk optimization rather than risk minimization strategies.
1. The chapter outlines the methodology used in the study, including the theoretical framework of cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis attempts to quantify the total social costs and benefits of a project in monetary terms.
2. The study area is Akure metropolis in Ondo State, Nigeria. Specific fish farms will be studied.
3. The sampling procedure will use purposive sampling to gather information from representative farms.
1. The document describes the methodology used for a study on cost-benefit analysis. It outlines the theoretical framework, study area, sampling procedure, data collection, and methods of data analysis.
2. Cost-benefit analysis compares the total expected costs of a project or decision to the total expected benefits to see if benefits outweigh costs. It is a key tool for project evaluation and investment decisions.
3. The study will use cost-benefit analysis methods like benefit-cost ratio, net present value, and internal rate of return to evaluate the costs and benefits of fish farms in Akure, Nigeria.
This document discusses a case study analysis of factors affecting the outcome of construction projects by urban local bodies (ULBs) in India. It provides background on rapid urbanization and the need for civic infrastructure development. The study involved questionnaires, interviews, and case studies to analyze factors impacting ULB project outcomes. It identified issues in project execution, administration, planning and control. The analysis aims to provide measures to ensure project success for ULBs in India.
This document provides an overview of basic cost concepts and engineering economy terms. It defines key cost terms like first cost, operation and maintenance costs, fixed costs, and variable costs. It also explains time value of money concepts like present value, future value, and compound interest. Methods for engineering economy analysis are discussed, including break-even analysis, payback period, net present worth, and internal rate of return. Cash flow diagrams are introduced as a way to visualize and simplify cash flows over time for decision making.
The document provides information on preparing cost estimates for manufactured products. It discusses gathering cost information, identifying and calculating labor costs, establishing resource requirements, developing estimated costs, and verifying estimates. It describes direct and indirect costs, and outlines methods of costing like process, job, and batch costing. Key components of a cost estimate like materials, labor, expenses/overheads are defined. The document is intended to guide understanding of cost estimation processes.
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5. Definition of Cost Analysis
The review and evaluation of the separate
cost elements and profit in an offeror’s or
contractor’s proposal (including cost or
pricing data or information other than cost
or pricing data), and the application of
judgement to determine how well the
proposed costs represent what the cost of
the contract should be, assuming
reasonable economy and efficiency (FAR
15.404(c)(1)). 5
6. Price and Cost Analysis
Compared
Price Analysis is the process of examining and
evaluating a proposed price without evaluating its
separate cost elements and proposed profit.
Determines whether the price is fair and reasonable.
Cost Analysis
Evaluates the separate cost elements, profit, and facilities
capital cost of money (if proposed).
Used to evaluate/determine any or all of the following:
cost and/or price reasonableness
cost realism
most probable cost and/or price
It is the more costly method in terms of time and manpower.
6
7. Cost Analysis: When to apply it.
It is performed if certified cost or pricing data are required.
It may be used to evaluate information other than cost or
pricing data, e.g., non-certified cost data.
Normally, it is not needed if adequate price competition
exists. In this case, it still may be used if the price is
determined to be unreasonable or you are considering a cost
realism evaluation [see FAR 15.305(a)(1)].
Cost analysis is one of the approaches that should be used
when a cost realism evaluation is required.
When you perform a cost analysis, you should also include a
price analysis to verify price reasonableness.
7
8. Section 2
Defining Costs
Performing a Cost Analysis
Examples: Proposed Price by
Major Cost Element
9. Contract Price = Cost + Profit
C o n tr a c t P r ic e
cost p r o f it
d ir e c t c o s t in d ir e c t c o s t
d ir e c t la b o r odc d ir e c t m a te r ia l b u r d e n (O /H ) G&A F C C M (C O M )
e n g in e e rin g tra v e l ra w m a te ria l e n g in e e rin g e n g in e e rin g
m a n u fa c tu rin g vendor p u rc h a s e d p a rts m a n u fa c tu rin g m a n u fa c tu rin g
fie ld s e rv ic e to o lin g s ta n d a rd c o m m e rc ia l fie ld s e rv ic e fie ld s e rv ic e
IL S ite m s IL S IL S
s u b c o n tra c ts m a te ria l m a te ria l
h a n d lin g h a n d lin g
G&A
9
10. Total Contract Cost
(FAR 31.201-1)
…is the sum of the direct &
indirect costs allocable to the
contract, incurred or to be
incurred, less any allocable
credits, plus any applicable cost of
money (Cost Accounting Standard
414). 10
11. Direct Costs (FAR 31.202)
Definition: Direct costs are identifiable to a final
cost objective (a particular contract).
Examples: direct material and direct labor.
All costs identified specifically with a contract
are direct costs for that contract and shall not be
charged to another contract directly, or indirectly.
No cost shall be charged to a contract as a direct
cost, if other costs incurred for the same purpose
in like circumstances have been charged as an
indirect cost.
11
12. Indirect Costs (FAR 31.203)
Definition: Indirect costs are not directly
identifiable with a final cost objective (e.g. a
particular contract), but identified with two or
more final cost objectives.
The distribution of indirect costs to various
contracts should roughly be based on the benefits
received on each contract.
No cost shall be charged to a contract as an
indirect cost if other costs incurred for the same
purpose in like circumstances have been charged
as a direct cost to that contract or any other
contract.
12
13. Alternative Direct Cost
Treatment (FAR 31.202)
For practicality, any direct cost of minor
dollar amount may be treated as an indirect
cost if this treatment:
Is consistently applied across all contracts,
and
Produces substantially the same results as
treating the cost as a direct cost
13
14. Proposal Major Cost Elements
Direct Labor Cost Indirect Costs
Labor Categories Material Handling
Labor Rates Fringe Benefits
Labor Hours Overhead (or burden)
Direct Material Cost G&A Expenses
The Actual Materials Other Direct Costs
Raw material Nonrecurring costs
Purchased parts and/or Subcontracts
assemblies
Travel
Subcontracts
Miscellaneous material Profit or Fee
Discounts, Scrap, Cost of Money
Inventory Shrinkage, & Escalation
Freight-in 14
15. Cost Analysis: First Step
Pre-solicitation involvement by the price/cost analyst
(FSO) and engineer (ESO) is recommended
Price/cost input
Section B set-up, Price/Cost Evaluation Template, Section L
price/cost data requirements, and Section M price/cost evaluation
factors
Engineering and price/cost input
SOW/PWS
Read the solicitation, section B, and SOW/PWS
What is being purchased?
Not as easy as looking at the Section B CLINs and/or SLINs
What are the solicitation requirements for the contractor and the
government?
15
16. Cost Analysis: Second Step
Read the contractor’s proposal price/cost
narrative
It will discuss the contractor’s proposal structure,
assumptions, rationale, etc.
The length and quality will vary
An important source of proposal information
Study/know the proposal set-up
Check the math:
Is the arithmetic correct? The Section B unit prices multiplied by
the quantities result in the total amounts?
Do the amounts “foot”? Do they add-up and/or calculate
correctly?
Do the numbers “track”? Can the figures be traced among the 16
support schedules?
17. Cost Analysis: Third Step
What is the basis of the proposed cost?
How did you come up with this number?
What is your rationale?
What are your assumptions?
What are the calculations you used?
The contractor’s responses provide the
answer to the question:
Why is this price and/or cost reasonable?
17
18. Cost Estimating Methods Used
by the Contractor
An offeror may use any generally accepted estimating
methods that are equitable and consistently applied in
similar situations.
Common methods:
Round Table: Experts get together and make
judgments on projected costs
Comparison: Adjustments are made to a past or
current item to derive the cost
Parametric: Projections are based on formulas, or cost
estimating relationships
Detailed: A thorough review is made, with detailed
information comprising the estimate
18
19. Basic Cost Element Breakdown
Proposed Price By Cost Element
Item/Service:
RFP:
CLIN:
SLIN:
Date/Time: 4/21/2006 13:43
File Name:
Base Period
Cost Element: Hours Rate Base Amount
Material:
Direct Material 100
Scrap/Discount/Miscellaneous 1% 100 1
Material Handling 2% 101 2
Total Material 103
Direct Labor:
Labor Category 1 5 5.00 25
Labor Category 2 6 2.00 12
Total 11 3.36 37
Fringe Benefits 3% 37 1
Overhead 4% 38 2
Other Direct Costs (ODC's)
Subcontracts 100
Travel 50
Total ODC's 150
Subtotal 193
G&A Expenses 5% 193 10
Total Costs 202
Profit 1% 202 2
Unit Price 204
Quantity 2
Total Price 409
19
20. Basic Cost Element Breakdown
Cost Element: Hours Rate Base Amount
Material:
Direct Material 100
Scrap/Discount/Miscellaneous 1% 100 1
Material Handling 2% 101 2
Total Material 103
Direct Labor:
Labor Category 1 5 5.00 € 25
Labor Category 2 6 2.00 € 12
Total 11 3.36 € 37
Fringe Benefits 3% 37 1
Overhead 4% 38 2
Other Direct Costs (ODC's):
Subcontracts 100
Travel 150
Transportation 50
Total ODC's 300
Subtotal 193
G&A Expenses 5% 193 10
Total Costs 202
Profit 1% 202 2
Unit Price 204
Quantity 2
Total Price 409
20
24. FAR 15.404-4(c) Contracting
Officer Responsibilities: Profit
Contracting officer responsibilities.
(1) When the price negotiation is not
based on cost analysis, contracting
officers are not required to analyze profit.
(2) When the price negotiation is based on
cost analysis, contracting officers in
agencies that have a structured approach
shall use it to analyze profit.
24
25. DFARS 215.404-4(b)(1) Profit
Departments and agencies must use a
structured approach for developing a pre-
negotiation profit or fee objective on any
negotiated contract action when cost or
pricing data is obtained, except for cost-plus-
award-fee contracts or contracts with
Federally Funded Research and
Development Centers.
DFARS 215.404-70 DD FORM 1547
DFARS 215.404-71 Weighted Guidelines Method
25
26. FAR 15.404-4(c)(4):
Fee - Statutory Limitations
For R&D work performed under a CPFF contract, the fee
shall not exceed 15% of the contract’s estimated cost,
excluding fee.
For architect-engineer services for public works or
utilities, the contract price or the estimated cost and fee
for production and delivery of designs, plans, drawings,
and specifications shall not exceed 6% of the estimated
cost of construction of the public work or utility,
excluding fees.
For other CPFF contracts, the fee shall not exceed 10% of
the contract’s estimated cost, excluding fee.
26
27. Profit-Miscellaneous
FAR 15.404-4(c)(5). The contracting officer shall not
require any prospective contractor to submit breakouts or
supporting rationale for its profit or fee objective but may
consider it, if it is submitted voluntarily.
FAR 15.404-4(c)(6). If a change or modification calls
for essentially the same type and mix of work as the basic
contract and is of relatively small dollar value compared
to the total contract value, the contracting officer may use
the basic contract’s profit or fee rate as the pre-
negotiation objective for that change or modification.
27
28. Profit and Fee Reporting
PGI 215.404-76(1):
send completed DD Forms 1547 on actions that exceed
the cost or pricing data threshold, where the contracting
officer used the weighted guidelines method, an
alternate structured approach, or the modified weighted
guidelines method, to designated office within 30 days
after contract award.
PGI 215.404-76(2):
use Army Weighted Guidelines Software for reporting DD Form
1547 data.
PGI 215.404-76(4):
Contracting offices outside the United States and its outlying
areas are exempt from reporting.
28
30. (Best Value) Source Selection:
Sect M Cost/Price Evaluation
Criteria
Three price/cost evaluation factors
Price reasonableness
No FAR definition
Price Reasonableness is determined by the results of a
price analysis.
Cost Realism
Defined in the FAR
Completeness
No FAR definition
Also Unbalanced Pricing
30
31. Source Selection Sect M:
Cost/Price Evaluation Criteria
Price Reasonableness: No FAR definition – see next slide
Cost Realism: Measure of the appropriateness of a cost to its
corresponding work element. The Government will determine if the
proposed costs/price(s) are realistic for the work to be performed,
reflect a clear understanding of the solicitation’s requirements, and
are consistent with the various elements of the Offeror’s technical
proposal (FAR 15.404-1(d)).
Completeness (non-FAR definition): An accurate reflection, within
the cost/price proposal, of all aspects of the technical proposal;
compliance with the cost/price preparation instructions in the RFP
Section L – Instructions, Conditions, and Notices to Offerors; and
compliance with any other applicable directions.
31
32. How to Define Price
Reasonableness?
A cost (substitute “price” for cost) is reasonable if, in its
nature and amount, it does not exceed what a prudent
person would pay in the conduct of competitive business
[FAR 31.201-3(a)].
Price reasonableness will be determined based on:
the results of a price/cost analysis
the results of the application of the price analysis techniques
detailed in the FAR
a comparison to the IGCE
a comparison of the competing offers
A combination of any of the above
Price reasonableness will be determined based on the results of a
price/cost analysis, including a comparison to the IGCE and
32
comparisons of the competing offers.
33. Reasonableness Per ESI’s
Advanced Source Selection
Are the offeror’s cost estimating methods
reasonable and accurately prepared?
What is the level of quality and credibility
of the offeror’s basis of estimates?
For example, are costs based on actual data or
engineering judgment?
Are the offeror’s cost metrics and methods
logical and appropriate for the product?
33
34. Completeness Per ESI’s
Advanced Source Selection
Has the offeror captured all proposed effort in the
cost estimates?
Did the offeror provide all information required
by the RFP?
Did the offeror claim some performance in
technical or management not included in the
cost?
Are the technical assumptions used in the cost
proposal traceable to the technical volume and
vice versa?
34
35. Cost Realism Analysis: General
FAR 15.404-1(d)
Review the specific elements of each
offeror’s cost estimate to determine:
If it’s realistic for the work to be done
If the offeror clearly understands the
requirements
If it’s consistent with the unique aspects
of their technical proposal
35
36. Cost Realism Analysis FAR 15.404-1(d)(2)
(Cost Reimbursement Contracts)
The following apply to both competitive and sole source
environments:
Government shall perform cost realism analyses for cost-
reimbursement contracts.
Individually determine the probable cost of performance of each
offeror.
Probable Cost is the government’s best estimate of the cost of any
contract that is likely to result from the offeror’s proposal.
Probable cost determined by adjusting each offeror’s
costs, and fee when appropriate, to reflect any
understatements or overstatements based on the results
of the cost realism analysis.
For a CPFF contract, the fee would not be adjusted.
Probable cost is used in deciding best value.
(Competitive environment only). 36
37. Cost Realism Analysis FAR 15.404-1(d)(3)
(Competitive Fixed Price Contracts)
May be performed on Fixed Price Incentive contracts.
Situations where cost realism analysis may be done on
competitive fixed price contracts:
When new requirements may not be fully understood by
competing offerors, or
There are quality concerns, or
Past experience indicates that contractors’ proposed costs have
resulted in quality or service shortfalls
You cannot adjust offered prices as a result of the cost
realism analysis.
Results of the analysis may be used in performance risk
assessments and responsibility determinations. 37
38. Cost Realism Analysis
and Cost Analysis
There is a difference between the two, but
Confusion between the terms
Often used interchangeably
Cost Realism Analysis applies to source
selections
Used to verify that the contractor’s technical approach
has been priced in the proposal
Used mainly on cost reimbursement type contracts
Used to determine the Probable Cost of Performance
(Most Probable Cost)
Cost Analysis methods/procedures are used to 38
determine Cost Realism.
39. Section 4 - Cost Data
Requirements
Certified Cost or Pricing Data
Information Other Than Cost or
Pricing Data
40. Obtaining Information to Establish
Price Reasonableness [FAR 15.402(a)]
(and Cost Realism)
Order of preference for type of data required and/
or requested:
1 No additional information
2 Information other than cost or pricing data
3 (Certified) cost or pricing data
Do not obtain more info than necessary
Rely first on information available within the
Government.
Second, on information obtained from sources other
than the offeror.
If necessary, on information obtained from the offeror.
40
41. Introduction to Cost Data
Two types:
1 (Certified) Cost or pricing data
2 Information Other than Cost or Pricing Data
Both can be the exact same information
What is the difference between the two?
For the first, the contractor certifies that the
data is current, accurate, and complete.
For the second, the contractor does not certify
that the data is current, accurate, and complete.
41
42. (Certified) Cost or Pricing Data
Defined [FAR 2.101]
All facts that, as of the date of price agreement or,
if applicable, an earlier date agreed upon between
the parties that is as close as practicable to the
date of agreement on price, prudent buyers and
sellers would reasonably expect to affect price
negotiations significantly.
Are factual, not judgmental, and are verifiable.
Includes data forming bases of judgements.
More than historic accounting data.
All facts contributing to soundness of estimates. 42
43. Certification of Cost or Pricing Data
[FAR 15.406-2]
When cost or pricing data are required, the
contracting officer shall require the contractor to
execute a Certificate of Current Cost or Pricing
Data.
“To the best of my knowledge and belief, the cost or
pricing data submitted, either actually or by specific
identification in writing, to the Contracting Officer or
the Contracting Officer’s representative in support of
(the proposal) are accurate, complete, and current as
of (date negotiations completed or price agreement
reached).” 43
44. Certification Implications for the
Contractor
Emphasis on non-certified data was an Acquisition
Streamlining change:
To reduce lead-times and costs to the Government & Contractors
Facilitate evaluations and reduce post award administration
Certification is expensive for the contractor in terms of
time, manpower, and cost to assemble, prepare, check,
and present the certified data package.
Administrative and legal problems for contractors with
certification:
Truth In Negotiations Act (TINA)
DCAA post award audits
Potential defective pricing 44
45. Defective Cost or Pricing Data
(FAR 15.407-1)
If, after award, cost or pricing data are found to be
inaccurate, incomplete, or non-current, as of the date of
final agreement on price or an earlier date agreed upon by
the parties given on the contractor’s/subcontractor’s
Certificate of Current Cost or Pricing Data,
the Government is entitled to a price adjustment, including profit
or fee, of any significant amount by which the price was
increased because of the defective data (Clauses 52.215-10 &
52.215-11).
Audit Tracking
Contract Audit Follow Up (CAFU)
Resolving the issue may involve repayment of disputed
amount plus penalty and interest.
45
46. Thresholds/Awards Where Certified
Cost or Pricing Data Are Required
Per 15.403-4(a)(1):
Award of any negotiated contract over $650K
Award of a subcontract over $650K at any tier, if
contractor and each higher-tier subcontractor also
have to submit certified data
Modification worth over $650K, of any sealed bid or
negotiated contract (consider absolute value of both
cost increases and decreases)
46
47. Subcontract Cost or Pricing Data
FAR 15.404-3 (1 of 2)
The contractor shall submit (or cause to be
submitted by the subcontractor (s)) cost or pricing
data to the Government for subcontracts that are
the lower of :
(1) $11.5 million or more; or (2) Both
more than the pertinent cost or pricing data
threshold ($650K) and more than 10% of the
prime contractor’s proposed price, unless the
Government believes such submission is
unnecessary.
47
48. Subcontract Cost or Pricing Data
FAR 15.404-3 (2 of 2)
The PCO may require the contractor or subcontractor to
submit to the Government subcontractor cost or pricing
data below the thresholds that the PCO considers
necessary for adequately pricing the prime contract.
The subcontractor cost or pricing data shall be current,
accurate, and complete as of the date of price agreement,
or, if applicable, an earlier date agreed upon by the parties
and specified on the contractor’s Certificate of Current
Cost or Pricing Data. The contractor shall update
subcontractor’s data, as appropriate, during negotiations.
48
49. Certified Cost or Pricing Data for
Actions Under $650,000
FAR 15.403-4(2): The head of the
contracting activity, without the power of
delegation, may authorize the PCO to
obtain cost or pricing data for pricing
actions below the pertinent threshold.
Shall justify the requirement with written
documentation and supporting facts, that cost
or pricing data are necessary to determine
price is fair and reasonable.
49
50. Exemptions from (Certified) Cost or
Pricing Data Requirements
Per FAR 15.403-1(b), five exemptions:
1 Adequate price competition
2 Prices set by law or regulation
3 Commercial items
4 Waivers (HCA approval, documentation with support)
DFARS: Canadian Commercial Corp (CCC) & Nonprofit
organizations with cost reimbursement/no fee contracts
5 Modifying commercial item contract or subcontract
FAR 15.403-2 adds the exercise of options if the price
was established at contract award or initial negotiation.
50
51. Information Other than Cost or
Pricing Data Defined [FAR 15.402]
Any type of information that is not required to be
certified IAW FAR 15.406-2 and is necessary to
determine price reasonableness or cost realism.
Such information may include pricing, sales, or
cost information, and includes cost or pricing
data for which certification is determined
inapplicable after submission.
Again, certification is the difference between the
two categories of cost/price data!
51
52. Information Other than Cost or Pricing Data,
with Adequate Price Competition -
FAR 15.403-3(b)
Generally, no additional info is needed,
unless the price is unreasonable.
If due to unusual circumstances
additional info is needed to determine
reasonableness, to the maximum extent
practicable obtain it from sources other
than the offeror.
You may request information to determine
the cost realism of competing offers or to
evaluate competing approaches. 52
53. Situations Where “Non-Certified Cost
Information” May be Needed
In general, you don’t expect certified data will be
required, but you need cost information to
determine price reasonableness or cost realism.
For example, you:
Expect adequate price competition on a source
selection but don’t expect to be able to rely on
comparisons between offers to determine price
reasonableness (e.g. offerors may use different
technical approaches).
Have determined the action is below the cost or
pricing data threshold ($650,000), but you need cost
information to determine price reasonableness. 53
54. Instructions for Submission of Information
Other than Certified Cost or Pricing Data -
FAR 15.403-5
In the solicitation, you should specify any
information other than certified cost or pricing
data that is required (Section L).
It may be submitted in the offeror’s own format,
unless the contracting officer decides use of a
specific format is essential and the format is
described in the solicitation.
If you didn’t specify the info in the solicitation,
you can still request and obtain the needed
information after initial proposals are submitted.54
55. Info other than Cost or Pricing Data:
Limitations on Commercial Items
- FAR 15.403-3(c)
Requests for offerors’ sales data is
limited to data for the same or similar
items during a relevant time period.
To the maximum extent practicable,
limit any request for info to include
only info that is in the form regularly
maintained by the offeror.
55
56. Things the Solicitation Must Specify on Cost or
Pricing Data, or Info Other than Cost or Pricing
Data (FAR 15.403-5) - P. 1 of 2
Whether certified cost or pricing data are required
That offerors may submit a request for exception,
instead of submitting certified data
Any information other than certified cost or
pricing data that is required
The required format for the cost or pricing data or
information other than cost or pricing data
Necessary pre-award or post-award access to
offeror’s records, if not provided by one of the
standard clauses
56
57. Things the Solicitation Must Specify on Cost or
Pricing Data, or Info Other than Cost or Pricing
Data (FAR 15.403-5) - P. 2 of 2
Standard Clauses are 52.215-20, and
52.215-21 (mods)
Called out in FAR 15.408(l) & (m)
You may use these if reasonably certain cost
or pricing data (or “Info Other than….”)
needed
These cover the requirements and allow
offerors to request one of the exceptions from
submitting the data
If you want specific data without exception, 57
don’t use the standard clause
59. Field Pricing Services
FAR 15.404-2(a)(2)
Technical, audit, and special reports associated with the cost elements
of a proposal, including subcontracts.
Information on related pricing practices and history.
Information to help contracting officers determine commerciality and
price reasonableness:
verify sales history to source documents
identify special terms and conditions
identify customarily granted or offered discounts for the item
verify the item to an existing catalog or price list
verify historic data for item to qualify as commercial
identify general market conditions affecting determinations of
commerciality and price reasonableness
Information relative to the business, technical, production, or other
capabilities and practices of an offeror. 59
60. Field Pricing Support
FAR 15.404-2(a)(b)(c)
Defense Contract Audit Agency (DCAA)
Trained in accounting, finance, and auditing
Access to contractor accounting records
Auditors (on-site/off-site) & Financial Advisors (FA)
Provide proposal analysis of material, labor, indirect rates,
G&A, COM, etc.
Defense Contract Management Agency (DCMA)
Pricing and/or Technical Personnel: production
specialist, engineer, etc.
Provide technical analysis and/or pricing support
60
61. Defense Contract Audit Agency
(DCAA)
DCAA provides the following:
Proposal audits by request
“Agreed Upon Procedures” Assignment
Forward Pricing Rate Agreements (FPRAs)
Direct labor and indirect rates w/DCMA ACO as lead
Incurred cost audits: on going
Qualifications/requirements:
Formal proposal request
Formal contractor proposal in a structured/auditable
format
Minimum 30 to 45 day request processing time
61
62. Other DCAA/DCMA Reviews
Accounting system reviews
Pre-award/post award
FAR/DFARS 9.106/209.106
Estimating system reviews
DFARS 215.407-5 Estimating systems
DCAA performs but DCMA/ACO function
Compensation System Reviews (CSR)
Contractor Purchasing System Review (CPSR)
Reference FAR 44.3 and DFARS 244.3
DCMA/ACO function with DCAA assistance
62
63. Technical Analysis
[FAR 15.404-1(e)]
Evaluation performed by personnel having specialized
knowledge, skills, experience, or capability in
engineering, science, or management on proposed
material types and quantities, labor, processes, special
tooling, facilities, reasonableness of scrap and spoilage,
and other factors in the proposal in order to determine the
need for and reasonableness of the proposed resources.
At a minimum:
examine the types and quantities of material (“kinds and
quantities” evaluation)
and the need for the types and quantities of labor hours and the
labor mix (skill and category)
63
64. Field Pricing Support & the
Cost or Pricing Data Threshold
DFARS 215.404-2(a):
PCO should consider field pricing support for
Fixed price proposals exceeding $650K
Cost type proposals exceeding $650K from offerors with
significant estimating system deficiencies
Cost type proposals exceeding $10 million from offerors
without significant estimating system deficiencies
PCO should not request field pricing support for
proposals less than $650K; exceptions:
lack of knowledge of particular contractor
sensitive conditions/problem areas
64
65. Points to Consider When
Requesting Field Pricing Support
Per FAR 15.404-2(a)(1):
The contracting officer should request field pricing assistance
when the information available at the buying activity is
inadequate to determine a fair and reasonable price; tailor
requests to reflect the minimum essential supplementary
information needed to conduct a technical or cost or pricing
analysis.
Consider cost risk!
Contract type: there is more risk on a FFP than CPFF or CPAF
contracts.
Proposal total dollar value
The DCAA PLA or FA can help determine the type of
65
field pricing support/audit services needed.
66. FSO is the POC for DCAA
Request DCAA audits through the FSO
Submit audit request to DCAA
Receive/file DCAA audit reports
Tracking/report status of DCAA audits
AFARS 5142.1-90-2
Contract Audit Follow Up (CAFU) Program
DoDD 7640.2
AFARS 5142.1-90-2
SOP Number 25
66
67. Contract Audit Follow Up
(CAFU) Program (1 of 2)
Track/provide status of “reportable audits”
Reportable Audits
Estimating/accounting system and internal control
reviews
Incurred costs including final indirect cost rates
Claims
Defective pricing reviews
Termination settlements
CAS issues/cost impact statement reviews
67
68. Contract Audit Follow Up
(CAFU) Program (2 of 2)
Recent revision: DCMA database now used
Rules/procedures?
Reviewed/updated:
March 31st
September 30th
Overage Audit Review Board
Discuss unresolved DCAA audits over 6 months old
with the Commander
Bottom Line: reportable audits must be resolved
in a timely manner
68
71. Reasonableness - (FAR 31.201-3)
Definition: A cost is reasonable if, in its
nature and amount, it does not exceed what
a prudent person would pay in the conduct
of competitive business.
Considerations
Is the cost necessary?
Is the cost consistent with sound business
practice and law?
Are the contractor’s purchases done on an
“arm’s-length basis”?
71
72. Allocability - (FAR 31.201-4)
Definition: A cost is allocable to one or more
cost objectives (e.g., contracts) if it is charged
based on the relative benefits received or some
other equitable relationship.
A cost is Allocable to a Government contract if:
It is incurred specifically for the contract, or
It benefits the contract and other work (e.g. it’s
an overhead cost), and can be fairly distributed
based on benefits received, or
It is necessary to overall operation of the
business (e.g. certain G&A expenses).
72
73. The Most Common Ways Costs are
Incurred
Expend Cash - Actual outlay of dollars (by cash,
check, etc.) in exchange for goods or services.
(e.g. Pay a vendor for raw materials)
Accrue Expense - For accounting purposes,
because a future obligation is being incurred or
an asset is being used. (e.g. Incurring an
obligation to current workers, for their future
pensions)
Use Inventory - For example, contractor buys
inventory in advance and charges it to contracts
73
as inventory is used.
74. Sources of Accounting
Principles & Standards
Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP)
Cost Accounting Standards (CAS)
FAR Part 31 Contract Cost Principles
and Procedures
74
75. Accounting: Financial & Cost
In semi-plain English:
Accounting is the process of identification, measurement,
and communication of financial information about
economic entities to interested parties. Two types:
Financial accounting focuses on measuring the results of an
organization’s operations for a period of time, reflected in the
financial statements.
Cost (or management) accounting focuses on cost allocation to
a product, service, or contract; management uses the information
to plan, evaluate, and control within its organization and to assure
appropriate use of, and accountability for, its resources.
75
76. Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles (GAAP)
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles or GAAP
refers to the common set of accounting concepts,
standards, and procedures which represent a general
guide.
GAAP principles are those that have substantial
authoritative support or are based on accounting practices
accepted over time by prevalent use.
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), American
Institute of CPAs (AICPA), Accounting Principles Board (APB),
etc.
The end products of the accounting cycle, the financial
statements (balance sheet, income statement, etc.) are
prepared in accordance with GAAP.
76
77. Cost Accounting Standards (CAS)
(1 of 2)
Purpose of CAS:
Promulgate standards to achieve uniformity
and consistency in cost accounting practices
to be followed by contractors and
subcontractors for defense contracts. It is an
attempt to provide common ground between
the contractors and the federal government on
cost accounting issues during proposal
preparation, negotiations, etc.
77
78. Cost Accounting Standards (CAS)
(2 of 2)
Currently, there are 19 standards.
Cost Accounting Standards Board (CASB) administers
CAS: five members, includes representatives from
government, industry, and academia.
CAS/CASB was originally established in August 1970
under the legislative branch.
Ceased operations September 30, 1980 due to lack of
funds.
Re-established in November 1988 under the executive
branch within Office of Federal Procurement Policy
(OFPP) which is under Office of Management and
Budget (OMB).
78
79. Exemptions From CAS (1 of 2)
Eleven exemptions, with the most common (7)
below:
Sealed bid contracts.
Negotiated contracts/subcontracts less than $650,000.
Contracts & subcontracts with small businesses.
FFP & FFP with EPA contracts/subcontracts for the
acquisition of commercial items.
FFP contracts & subcontracts awarded on the basis of
adequate price competition without the submission of
cost/price data.
79
80. Exemptions From CAS (2 of 2)
Contracts/subcontracts in which the price is set
by law or regulation.
Contract/subcontract executed and
performed outside the U.S., its territories, and
its possessions.
80
81. CAS Coverage
Two types of CAS can be applicable, depending on the
dollar value of previous awards and current acquisitions.
Full coverage: comply with all CAS in effect on the contract
award date and with any new standards.
Modified coverage: requires contractor to comply with four
standards
CAS 401, Consistency in estimating, accumulating, & reporting
costs.
CAS 402, Consistency in allocating costs incurred for the same
purpose.
CAS 405, Accounting for unallowable costs.
CAS 406, Cost accounting period.
81
82. CAS - Disclosure Statement
Firms that have contracts/subcontracts subject to
full CAS coverage should have submitted a
CASB Disclosure Statement, providing
information on how they charge specific types of
costs.
Contractor discloses/documents company accounting
practices to the government.
The ACO and cognizant DCAA auditor are
responsible for reviewing the contractor’s
Disclosure Statement for adequacy, and for
82
compliance with FAR Part 31 and CAS.
83. GAAP vs. CAS
GAAP and CAS are not the same.
GAAP generally refers to financial, not cost,
accounting guidance.
CAS is an attempt to extend GAAP-like guidance
to government cost accounting.
CAS Objectives:
Common cost treatment, same terminology, and the
avoidance of cost manipulation (gaming).
Facilitate proposal preparation and negotiations.
83
84. CAS: FAR References
FAR Part 30
CAS Administration
Policies and Procedures for applying
CAS to negotiated contracts &
subcontracts
FAR Appendix B
Contains the actual CAS
84
85. FAR 31.2 Cost Principles for
Commercial Organizations
Applies to all contractors.
Defines direct and indirect costs.
Addresses specific kinds of costs as to
whether allowable, unallowable, or
allowable with restrictions.
Examples of unallowable costs: interest
expense, bad debts, entertainment costs,
donations, attorney fees for claims.
85
86. FAR Part 31: Examples of
Unallowable Costs
31.205-3 -- Bad Debts
31.205-8 -- Contributions or Donations
31.205-14 -- Entertainment Costs
31.205-20 -- Interest and Other
Financial Costs
31.205-51 -- Costs of Alcoholic
Beverages 86
87. FAR Part 31 Cost Principles for
“Other” Organizations
Refer to FAR 31 for separate, unique
coverage of the cost principles for
contracts with:
Educational institutions (FAR 31.3)
State & local governments, &
federally recognized Indian tribal
governments (FAR 31.6)
Nonprofit organizations (FAR 31.7)
87
88. Contract Terms & Cost Principles
Specific costs may be addressed in RFP or
contract. (e.g. Although transportation
costs are generally allowable, the contract
may restrict them to a certain mode.)
On cost allowability, contract terms can
only be more restrictive than other factors.
(e.g. Contract terms cannot make interest
expense allowable on the contract.)
88
90. Management/Cost Accounting
System
Contractors’ have to manage their organizations,
products/services, and contracts
There needs to be a system in place to determine
whether the service, product, or contract
Is on schedule for completion
Is at its budgeted cost
And if not
Why not?
What is being done to correct the situation?
All major companies have such a system!
90
91. Adequate Estimating System
ACO estimating system approval means that the system
has the controls to consistently produce adequate and
reliable estimates.
established policies, procedures, and practices to persons
responsible for preparing and supporting estimates
A disapproved system is a red flag indicating that the
firm's estimating system does not consistently provide
adequate proposals.
Normally, proposals from a firm with a disapproved system
should be subjected to closer scrutiny, particularly closer scrutiny
by audit professionals.
91
92. Adequate Accounting System
Primary goal of an acceptable accounting system:
Ensure that costs are appropriately, equitably, and consistently allocated
to all final cost objectives (i.e., individual contracts, jobs, or products).
Pre-award accounting system survey performed by DCAA.
System should answer affirmative to specific questions:
IAW GAAP? (IAW CAS?)
Identify & segregate direct from indirect costs, allocating these costs
equitably to specific contracts on a consistent basis?
Timekeeping & labor distribution systems appropriately identify direct
and indirect labor charges to intermediate & final cost objectives?
Accumulates costs integrated with, and reconcilable to, the general
ledger?
Determine cost of work performed at interim points (at least monthly)
because of routine posting to books of account?
If required by the contract, identify costs by CLIN/SLIN or by unit?
Specifically: Are there accounting “controls” in place?
92
Editor's Notes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 Second-last bullet: Cost realism analysis is really a little different than the typical cost analysis. In cost realism, you're largely looking for understated costs.
8
9
10 We define "allocable" on a later chart.
11 Last bullet: Here, we're really talking about consistency in a particular contractor's practices. For example, if a contractor's past practice is to charge all travel indirect in overhead, you shouldn't see it as a direct charge in your proposal.
12 First bullet: For example, the contractor may have a group of indirect costs that tend to benefit contracts based on the amount of direct labor expended on each contract. The contractor applies these costs to each contract by applying an overhead rate (a percentage) to the direct labor dollars for the contract. Last bullet: Here, we're essentially talking about consistency in a particular contractor's practices.
13 Example: A contractor uses inexpensive rivets in making the items they produce. The cost of tracking how many rivets are used in making various equipment could be more than the rivets themselves. So the contractor includes the cost of rivets as an indirect cost (perhaps as a percentage applied to high-dollar material cost). On this slide, again we're talking about consistency in one particular contractor's practices.
14
15
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18 On PARAMETRIC methods, if a contractor proposes an elaborate formula, you're welcome to come see the Pricing Core. We'd be glad to work with you on it. The first 3 methods can be used to estimate individual cost elements, or even a total price level. The last method applies only to estimating cost elements.
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35 Last bullet: For example, is the offeror proposing a "Cadillac" technical solution at a "used Volkswagen" cost?
36 Heading: In cost realism analysis, to a great extent you are looking out for costs that have been UNDERSTATED by an offeror. On a cost-reimbursement contract, an offeror will eventually end up getting paid their actual costs. So you want to be careful they're not making their cost proposal too attractive/low. 2nd sub-bullet: You can't really compare individual cost elements of one offeror to another, because they have different cost structures and probably different technical solutions. 3rd sub-bullet: Regarding adjusting fee, on a competitive cost plus fixed fee contract, you would not adjust proposed fee dollars in your cost realism analysis. On a CPIF contract you would.
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40 - Last sub-bullet: When FAR refers to "cost or pricing data", it means "CERTIFIED cost or pricing data".
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46 First Bullet: The HCA may authorize the contracting officer to obtain certified cost or pricing data for actions below $500K, in certain situations. Last Bullet: For modifications, the requirement doesn't apply when unrelated and separately priced changes, for which cost or pricing data would not otherwise be required, are grouped together for administrative convenience. Last Bullet: Absolute value means...if a mod involves a $500,000 increase and a $200,000 decrease, the net value is $300,000 but the absolute value is $700,000. And you need to be careful here because a contractor may give you a spreadsheet with, for example a material cost decrease but a labor cost increase....In such a case they have buried the increase and decrease together so it's your job to separate these and figure the absolute value of increases plus decreases.
52 Heading: You may really need to refer to FAR 15.403-1(c)(1) to decide if you have Adequate Price Competition. Last Bullet: We'll get more into Cost Realism later in the presentation, under Cost Analysis. With this bullet, we're really talking about info that would be specified in the solicitation.
53 Heading: Non-certified cost information is one type of "information other than cost or pricing data"
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55 Heading: You may have to refer to FAR definition in 2.101, to decide if you have a Commercial Item. Note: The FY99 appropriations bill mandates that the FAR will be reviewed and revised to clarify the procedures used for determing price reasonableness of commercial items.
56 Heading: If there is price or cost info you find you need, after proposals come in, you may request and obtain the info at that time.....even though you didn't specify it in the solicitation. It all depends on your procurement situation. Last bullet: Standard clauses are on next chart
57 Sub-Bullet 2: Use of the standard clauses themselves is not mandatory. You may use your own language.
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72 Examples for the last sub-bullets: - Cost for material components for your contract are allocable to your contract as a direct cost, incurred "specifically for your contract". Cost for general office supplies are not allocable as a direct cost (but are allocable through G&A). - Costs for contractor's computer center may be allocable based on the number of hours your contract will require use of that center. ("benefits received" concept)
73 As far as WHEN contractors incur costs, it is not really WHEN they spend the cash or pay the bill or sign the subcontract or pay their laborers. It is WHEN the effort is performed, or the asset is being used, etc.