Environment-Traditional & futuristic methods; Solid waste management, Water purification, Wastewater treatment & Recycling, Hazardous waste treatment; Flood control (Dams, Canals, River interlinking), Multi-purpose water projects, Atmospheric pollution; Global warming phenomena and Pollution Mitigation measures, Stationarity and non-stationarity; Environmental Metrics & Monitoring

1. Environmental conservation is basically the practice of us
humans to save the environment from collapsing, such as loss of
species, ecosystems due to pollution and human activities. This
helps both trees and animals, since some of us are dependent on
them to survive.
Importance Of Environmental Conservation-
Importance To Agriculture
Agriculture depends on the environment and we depend on
agriculture. This is obvious in countries where the economies
depend on agriculture but applies to all. A country’s wealth might
come from something else but its population needs to eat.
Conserving the environment and preventing soil erosion,
desertification, and flooding is essential. Unsustainable farming
techniques not only impact natural ecosystems but also ultimately
make farming itself impossible.
Importance to fishing
While much of our food comes from agriculture, the oceans are
also an essential source. Communities worldwide depend upon
seafood. Marine conservation is vital to protect human food
supplies as well as marine animals. Looking after the seas doesn’t
just mean saving big, glamorous animals from extinction, important
as this is. At the moment there are serious conservation issues
affecting the oceans, including over fishing and pollution.
Importance to climate
Human activities impact the climate, and this affects all life.
Droughts, floods, and extremes of heat and cold, are caused
by global warming, which is almost certainly linked
to greenhouse gas emissions. Some countries are already
experiencing disastrous effects, while others it is just, for the
moment, inconvenient. There are other, more local, climate
changes also caused by not treating the environment with respect.
For example rainfall is affected by deforestation. Conservation of
natural environments should be done not just for their own sake,
but also for that of the world as a whole.
Water purification
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable
chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases
from water. The goal is to produce water fit for specific purposes.
Most water is purified and disinfected for human consumption
(drinking water), but water purification may also be carried out for a
variety of other purposes, including medical, pharmacological,
chemical, and industrial applications. The methods used include
physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation,
and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand
filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such
as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of electromagnetic
radiation such as ultraviolet light. Water purification may reduce
the concentration of particulate matter
including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses,
and fungi as well as reduce the concentration of a range of
dissolved and particulate matter.
What are the methods of water purification?
The methods used include physical processes such as filtration,
sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as
slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes
such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
Channels- Flood control channels are large and empty basins
which let water flow in and out (except during flooding) or dry
channels that run below the street levels of some larger cities, so
that if and when a flood occurs, the water will run into these
channels, and eventually drain into a river or other body of water.
Flood channels are sometimes built on the former courses of
waterways as a way to reduce flooding.
Flood control channels are not to be confused with watercourses
which are simply confined between levees. These structures may
be made entirely of concrete, with concrete sides and an exposed
bottom, with riprap sides and an exposed bottom, or completely
unlined. They often contain grade control sills or weirs to prevent
erosion and maintain a level streambed.
By definition, flood control channels range from the size of a street
gutter to a few hundred or even a few thousand feet wide in some
rare cases. Flood control channels are found in most heavily
developed areas in the world.
River interlinking- River Linking is a project of linking two or
more rivers by creating a network of manually created reservoirs
and canals, and providing land areas that otherwise does not have
river water access and reducing the flow of water to sea using this
means.
Why interlinking of rivers is important?
The purpose of interlinking the rivers is to join the Indian rivers
through reservoirs and canals. This will solve the problems of flood
and will provide water throughout the year. Farmers will also get
benefit as they will not be dependent on monsoon for water etc
Multi-purpose water projects- Multipurpose river valley
project are basically designed for the development of irrigation for
agriculture and electricity through the construction of dams.
Initially, dams were built only for storing rain water to prevent
flooding but now it became multipurpose.
Baspa Hydro-Electric Project
It is the first Independent Power Producer (IPP) project after the
Government of India liberalized the power policy by inviting private
sector participation in setting up a hydropower project on “BOO”
basis. It is located in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. It is the
largest private hydroelectric project and has been built by Jaypee
group. It is located on Baspa River, a tributary of the Satluj.
Bhakra-Nangal
Project (Himachal Pradesh) Largest multipurpose project in India
and the highest straight gravity dam in the world (225.5 m high) on
the river Sutlej.
Chamera Hydro-Electric Project
The 540 MW Chamera hydro-electric project on the Ravi river in
Himachal Pradesh was implemented with Canadian credit offer of
about Rs 335 crore.
Farakka Barrage
The basic aim of the Farakka Barrage is to preserve and maintain
Calcutta port and to improve the navigability of the Hooghly river. It
consists of a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka, another
barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirthi, a 39-km long feeder
canal taking off from the right bank of the Ganga at Farakka and
tailing into the Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage, and a road-
cum-rail bridge have already been completed.
Atmospheric pollution- Atmospheric pollution is the
release of a harmful chemical or material into the atmosphere.
The consequences can be devastating - carbon dioxide, for
example, is one of the major causes of climate change, while
nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide combine to form harmful acid
rain.
Global warming phenomena- Global warming, the phenomenon
of increasing average air temperatures near the surface of Earth
over the past one to two centuries. Climate scientists have since
the mid-20th century gathered detailed observations of various
weather phenomena (such as temperatures, precipitation, and
storms) and of related influences on climate (such as ocean
currents and the atmosphere’s chemical composition). These data
indicate that Earth’s climate has changed over almost every
conceivable timescale since the beginning of geologic time and
that the influence of human activities since at least the beginning
of the Industrial Revolution has been deeply woven into the very
fabric of climate change.
Pollution Mitigation Measures- Mitigation measures are means
to prevent, reduce or control adverse environmental effects of a
project, and include restitution for any damage to the environment
caused by those effects through replacement, restoration,
compensation or any other means.
What is the main purpose of mitigation?
Mitigation is the effort to reduce loss of life and property by
lessening the impact of disasters. In order for mitigation to be
effective we need to take action now—before the next disaster—to
reduce human and financial consequences later (analyzing risk,
reducing risk, and insuring against risk).
Stationarity- In such a time series the statistical measures such
as the mean,standard deviation,auto correlation are somewhat
similar over time.It has no trend. A stationary (time) series is one
whose statistical properties such as the mean, variance and
autocorrelation are all constant over time.
Non Stationary time series:-
 In such a time series the statistical measures such as
the mean,standard deviation,auto correlation show a decreasing or
increasing trend over time.
 It has a trend.
Data points are often non-stationary or have means, variances and
covariances that change over time. Non-stationary behaviors can
be trends, cycles, random walks or combinations of the three. Non-
stationary data, as a rule, are unpredictable and cannot be
modeled or forecasted.
Environmental metrics are designed to assess the
environmental impact of technology or activity. The impact is
primarily related to using natural resources (renewable or non-
renewable) and generating waste.
Monitoring programs
Soil contamination monitoring. Soil erosion monitoring. Soil
salinity monitoring. Chemical. Biological. Radiological.
Microbiological. And Populations.
Wastewater Treatment & Recycling
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants
from wastewater or sewage and convert it into an effluent that can
be returned to the water cycle with minimum impact on the
environment, or directly reused. The latter is called water
reclamation because treated wastewater can be used for other
purposes.
Wastewater Treatment process
• Preliminary Treatment (screening )
• Primary Treatment (primary settling)
• Secondary Treatment (e.g. activated sludge)
• Advanced Treatment (e.g. P removal)
• Final Treatment or Tertiary treatment (disinfection)
• Solids Processing (sludge treatment)
Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a
quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while
oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and
floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be
discharged or subjected to secondary treatment.
Secondary treatment
Biological treatment process that removes dissolved organic
material from wastewater. The partially treated wastewater from
the settling tank flows by gravity into an aeration tank. -mixing of
water to solids containing that use oxygen to consume the
remaining organic matter in the wastewater as their food supply
(use of air bubble for mixing and oxygen supply) -liquid mixture
(i.e., solids with micro-organisms and water) is sent to the final
clarifier. -in clarifier, solids settle out to the bottom where some of
the material is sent to the solids handling process and some is
recycled back to replenish the population of micro-organisms in the
aeration tank to treat incoming wastewater.
Tertiary treatment
Tertiary treatment is the final cleaning process that improves
wastewater quality before it is reused, recycled or discharged to
the environment. The treatment removes remaining inorganic
compounds, and substances, such as the nitrogen and
phosphorus. it is send out for wastewater reuse activities or for
discharging in river/streams. mostly chlorination and/or ultra violet
irradiation is used for disinfection purposes.
What is Solid Waste Management?
Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the
process of collecting and treating solid wastes. It also offers
solutions for recycling items that do not belong to garbage or trash.
As long as people have been living in settlements and residential
areas, garbage or solid waste has been an issue. Waste
management is all about how solid waste can be changed and
used as a valuable resource. Solid waste management should be
embraced by each and every household including the business
owners across the world. Industrialization has brought a lot of good
things and bad things as well. One of the negative effects of
industrialization is the creation of solid waste.
Various Sources of Solid Waste
Residential
Residences and homes where people live are some of the major
sources of solid waste. Garbage from these places include food
wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard, metals, yard
wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky household items like
electronics, tires, batteries, old mattresses and used oil. Most
homes have garbage bins where they can throw away their solid
wastes in and later the bin is emptied by a garbage collecting firm
or person for treatment.
Industrial
Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors of solid
waste. They include light and heavy manufacturing industries,
construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants, power and
chemical plants. These industries produce solid waste in form of
housekeeping wastes, food wastes, packaging wastes, ashes,
construction and demolition materials, special wastes, medical
wastes as well as other hazardous wastes.
Commercial
Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid
waste today. Commercial buildings and facilities in this case refer
to hotels, markets, restaurants, go downs, stores and office
buildings. Some of the solid wastes generated from these places
include plastics, food wastes, metals, paper, glass, wood,
cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.
Treatment Plants and Sites
Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste.
They include refineries, power plants, processing plants, mineral
extraction plants and chemicals plants. Among the wastes
produced by these plants include, industrial process wastes,
unwanted specification products, plastics, metal parts just to
mention but a few.
Agriculture
Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also
sources of solid wastes. Among the wastes they produce include
agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and other
hazardous materials.
Methods of Solid Waste Management
Sanitary Landfill
This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today.
Garbage is basically spread out in thin layers, compressed and
covered with soil or plastic foam. Modern landfills are designed in
such a way that the bottom of the landfill is covered with an
impervious liner which is usually made of several layers of thick
plastic and sand. This liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated because of leaching or percolation. When the landfill
is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay, top soil and gravel to
prevent seepage of water.
Recovery and Recycling
Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful
but discarded items for next use. Traditionally, these items are
processed and cleaned before they are recycled. The process
aims at reducing energy loss, consumption of new material
and reduction of landfills.
Composting
Due to lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard
waste is allowed to decompose in a medium designed for the
purpose. Only biodegradable waste materials are used in
composting. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is
formed from the compost and can be used for agricultural
purposes.
Paralysis
This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes
are chemically decomposed by heat without presence of oxygen.
This usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures of up to
430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gasses,
solid residue and small quantities of liquid.
Hazardous waste treatment- Hazardous
wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or
potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Hazardous
wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges in the
US, Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Subtitle C.
Characteristics
The four hazardous waste characteristics
are ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity.
Recycling
Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new
products.
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Examples may include lead-acid batteries or electronic
circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types of ashes go
through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants
and convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be
used as pavement filling. Such treatments reduce the level of
threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash. While also
recycling the safe product. There is a recycling center facility
in Oxnard, CA. The city does not charge for any hazardous
materials being disposed of, but there is a limit to how much you
can bring per month. Other than hazardous waste, the city also
allows you to dispose of electronic waste, light-bulbs, and
batteries.
Hazardous Waste Examples
The most common examples of hazardous waste found within
the home include paints, batteries, solvents, cleaning agents and
pesticides.
Flood control methods are used to reduce or prevent the
detrimental effects of flood waters. Flood relief methods are used
to reduce the effects of flood waters or high water levels.
Causes Of Flooding
• Monsoon rain
• Urbanization increases surface run-off
• Dam collapse
• Tsunami caused by underwater earthquake
• Snow melt
• Global warming
• Deforestation
Reservoirs (dams)
• Reservoirs are one of the most direct methods of flood
control through storing surface runoff; thus,
attenuating flood waves and storing flood water to be
redistributed without exceed in downstream flood
conditions.
 For flood control, it is ideal to maintain the reservoir
at the lowest level possible for storage. On the other
hand, keeping the reservoir at a high level provides the
ability to maintain low flows and hydropower
production in droughts.