A HANDBOOK ON FLORICULTURE And Landscaping

A HANDBOOK ON
FLORICULTURE
And
Landscaping
K. Vasanthakumar
Bulti Merga
Program of Horticulture
School of Plant Sciences
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
Number
CONTENTS Page
Numbers
1 Introduction to the basic concepts of floriculture 1
2 World floriculture sector 6
3 Classification of floricultural and landscape plants 8
4 Propagation of ornamental plants 12
5 Facilities for commercial flower production 18
6 Cut flower production 18
7 Post-harvest handling of cut flowers 21
8 Cultivation of rose 25
9 Chrysanthemum 45
10 Carnation 48
11 Orchids 54
12 Some flowers exported from Ethiopia
[1] Gypsophila [2] Statice [3] Freesia
56
13 Other cut flowers
[1] Gerbera [2] Marigold
64
14 New generation cut flowers 68
15 Dry flower production – A profitable floriculture business 74
16 Bonsai 77
17 Foliage Plants 81
18 Landscaping 83
19 Turf production and uses 104
20 References 110

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONCEPTS FLORICULTURE
Definitions of Terms
▪ Horticulture comes from two Latin words
▪ hortus (garden plant) and cultura (culture)
▪ classically defined as the culture or growing of garden plants
But as a Science:-
Horticulture is the science and art of cultivating, processing and marketing of:
✓ Vegetables (Olericulture),
✓ Fruits (Pomology),
✓ Ornamental plants (Floriculture),
✓ Trees and other woody perennials (Arboriculture), and
✓ Stimulants, Spices, Herbs and Medicinal plants
[1] DEFINITION OF FLORICULTURE [Wikipedia]
Floriculture or flower farming is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of
flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry.
Floriculture crops include bedding plants, house plants, flowering garden plants, pot- plants, cut
cultivated greens, and cut flowers.
[2] DEFINITION OF FLORICULTURE [Larson, 1980]
Floriculture is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of flowering plants,
decorative foliage plants, cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns, plants grown in containers as
well as landscape gardening. In many of the recent literature, Floriculture is referred as
Ornamental Horticulture.
Ornamental plants are:
✓ either plants as such or their plant parts are:
- decorative,
- showy, attractive, and
- used for both aesthetic and functional purposes.
They can be: flowering or non-flowering with decorative nature.
Role of Ornamental Horticulture in Present-Day Life
▪ The role of ornamental plants in the evolution of human civilization
▪ Reaches far beyond food, fiber and medicine
▪ Floriculture enlightens us to communicate with others in peace, love
▪ Provide harmony and balance in our behavior
▪ Ornamental crop culture was earlier considered as an gardener’s activity

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▪ Now, Floriculture has become an innovative business with viable export potential
The global ornamental crop industry includes:-
1. Florist’s trade: - cut flowers, cut foliage, potted plants, bouquets etc.
2. Production and sale of seeds, bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers, rooted cuttings
3. Ornamental plant rental service
4. Plant nursery business and production of tissue culture raised plants
5. Production of flowers for perfumes, essential oils etc.
6. Production of dried flowers and plant parts
7. Landscape and turf grass industry
1. New production centers
(a) Africa e.g. Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Ethiopia etc.
(b) Latin America e.g. Ecuador, Chile, Brazil etc.
(c) Asia e.g. India, China, Thailand etc.
2. Traditional production centers
a. USA b. Japan c. The Netherlands d. Italy e. Colombia
Floriculture in Ethiopia
▪ Ornamental Horticulture started in Ethiopia recently
▪ Now-a-days it is increasing and is one of the top export commodity of the country
Opportunities for expansion of Floriculture in Ethiopia
✓ Suitable climate to produce various flower crops
✓ Ample resources such as land, cheap labour, abundant water etc.
✓ Proximity to Middle East and European markets
✓ Increasing domestic market for flowers
✓ Government policy and investment incentives
Importance of Floriculture in Ethiopia
▪ Earns foreign currency
▪ Product diversification
▪ Job opportunity for the people
▪ Encourages supportive industries
▪ Promote investment
Important flower crops grown and exported from Ethiopia
Roses Poinsettia

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Geranium/Pelargonium Chrysanthemum
Lilies Carnation
Gypsophila Statice
Hypericum Freesia
ETHIOPIA’s FLOWER EXPORTS
Ethiopian flower export earnings
2005 20 million US dollars
• Floriculture plays a major role in Ethiopia’s efforts to beat un-employment
• Floriculture is so blooming that in near future, it could even overtake coffee, the main
horticultural export commodity
• Low air-freight cost from Addis Ababa and proximity to European, West Asian, Middle
East markets are advantages
• Carnation stands 4th
in flowers exported from Ethiopia, next to Rose, Geranium,
Poinsettia
• >1400 ha under Green House cultivation of flowers and ornamentals in Ethiopia
• Cool climatic conditions of Ethiopian high lands (with warm sunny days & cooler
nights) is ideal for growing cut flowers even in out-door conditions
• The quality of flowers produced in Ethiopia, being superior than from Kenya and other
countries can compete to gain supremacy among flower exporters of Africa
Role of Flowers in Human Life
1. As nature’s gift
▪ Their fragrance and beauty brings joy and happiness
2. As a symbol of grace and elegance
▪ Most ladies adorn their hairstyle with flowers.
▪ Gentlemen put flowers in their pocket to be elegant.
▪ To live in a fashionable way
▪ Well-made garden reflects the wealth of the owner
3. As a symbol of beauty, love and peace also to convey feelings
For instance American Floriculture Society has a quote

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“Say it always with flowers”
To say: Thank you! I love you! Congratulations!
4. Flowers are important features or items in all religious and festive occasions
Usually offered by devotees:-
In the Mosques, In the Churches
Given as:-
Birthday presents, Wedding gifts, Funeral occasions
5. Importance in perfume and pharmaceutical industries
Rosa damascena
Jasminum grandiflorum
Polyanthus tuberosa
Table 1: WORLD’S LEADING EXPORTS OF CUT FLOWERS/ POTTED PLANTS
ETHIOPIAN FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY AT A GLANCE
After the command economy regime in Ethiopia, the country entertained and introduced a mixed
economy where private businesses flourished. Following the emergence and expansion of the
private business, the dawn of horticulture farms also came to Ethiopia. Hence, privately owned
horticulture farms started to emerge and most of the farms started producing flowers, vegetables,
and fruits for local and international markets. Among this the floriculture industry, although only
a decade old, has shown significant progress in generating high foreign income and creating
huge employment opportunity.
The Ethiopian Horticulture Development Agency reported that the floriculture sector has
generated 276 million USD last fiscal year (2015). Agency Public Relations Office Head
No Top Ten Cut Flowers Top Ten Potted Plants
1 Rose Ficus
2 Dendranthema (Chrysanthemum) Dracaena
3 Tulip Kalanchoe
4 Lily Dendranthema
5 Carnation Begonia
6 Gerbera Hedera
7 Freesia Azalea
8 Cymbidium Saintpaulia
9 Alstroemeria Hydrangea
10 Gypsophila Spathiphyllum

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Mekonen Hailu said that the foreign currency secured from export of floriculture products has
shown a 10.7 per cent increase compared to the performance of the previous year (2014). He said
49,000 tons of roses and 714.5 million flowers (different types of cut flowers) were exported in
the given period.
He attributed the increase in foreign currency earnings to consistent government support to the
floriculture sector, attractive incentives and increase in export volume. The country is becoming
a preferred investment hub for horticulture to the conducive investment climate and government
incentives, Mekonnen said.
Majority of the 130 companies investing in fields of horticulture/ floriculture in Ethiopia are
owned by foreigners. Europe is the key destination for Ethiopia’s horticulture products, taking 80
percent share of the exports. Most of flowers grown in Ethiopia are exported to Europe.
These are the Netherlands (nearly 90%), Germany, France, Switzerland, also Israel, India and
Russia. But Ethiopia is currently looking for the opportunity to expand the variety of countries-
importers, and has already made attempts to advance floriculture products on markets in Japan,
North America and other African countries too. And though the flower industry is rather new, it
is increasing with a pace up to 500% a year. By 2020 Ethiopia’s flower exports are expected to
enrich the countries’ budget on USD 600 million. A lot of different flower species are
cultivated, but roses, gypsophila, carnations, chrysanthemums, limonium and hypericum are
produced in more amount. Nevertheless, rose is considered to be a flower “queen”, as around
75% of companies grow, export and make a fortune on it.
The optimum height for flower cultivation is from 1500 till 2300 meter above sea level. Luckily,
Ethiopia has a wide range of height of the land, from 126 meters below sea level up to 4620
meter above sea level. A significant part of the territory of Ethiopia lies within this height range.
Besides, the best temperature for flower growing is between 10 and 30 degrees Celsius. As far as
the country also has many large areas with these climatic conditions, there is a huge potential for
creating different companies and organizations, which would produce even more various sorts of
cut flowers. The other advantages for developing the floriculture business on flower farms in
Ethiopia are the fertile soils which are perfect for flower growing. In Ethiopia the cost spent on
producing, transportation and work force are less than in many other African countries and,
moreover, much less than in European countries, and simultaneously the quality of cut flowers is
really high. This is one of the reasons why Ethiopian flower business is more attractive for
foreign investors and, consequently, why floriculture in Ethiopia has attained a peak with such a
fast tempo and high driving force.

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CHAPTER 2: WORLD FLORICULTURE SECTOR
The ornamental plant sector is very diverse and includes the production of floral crops such as
cut flowers and cut foliage, flower bulbs, potted flowering as well as foliage plants and bedding
plants. Global floral production value is estimated at USD 55bn. Tree nursery—the production of
trees, shrubs and other hardy plants—is worth another USD 35bn. But whereas cut flowers, cut
foliage and flower bulbs are traded globally, mainly from south to north, more bulky live plants,
such as potted plants and nursery products, are mainly traded regionally.
Equator countries gathering speed
Rabo bank’s 2016 World Floriculture Map, published in cooperation with Royal Flora Holland,
highlights some key global trends in the very diverse floriculture sector. On the consumption
side of the business, the rise of online floriculture sales is definitely one of these trends.
Although the US floriculture market is showing signs of recovery, the total global floriculture
market is still rather fickle. In Europe, the picture is very varied. The Russian market has been
declining, resulting in decreasing and changing cut flower imports. The Netherlands is still a
major junction in global cut flower trade, but the four cut flower exporters close to the equator—
Colombia, Kenya, Ecuador and Ethiopia—are gathering speed. Colombia is also steaming ahead
and has become a frontrunner in cut-flower sea freight. Looking at the future, predictability will
become more difficult. Therefore, companies in the global floriculture market must be prepared
for the unexpected.
Floriculture trade going online
Potted plants and nursery products are bought through a wider range of retail channels than cut
flowers. However, there is one major trend impacting both categories: the rise of online sales.
The market share of online sales of cut flowers in total cut flower sales ranges from 4% in Russia
to 10% in the UK. Online potted indoor plant sales already account for 7% in Germany, 8% in
Russia, France and the Netherlands and 12% in online retail forerunner the UK.
The rising four Equatorial Countries have surpassed the Netherlands (Dutch)
The Dutch share in global cut flower exports has continued to decline since we first published a
World Flower Map in 2005. Currently, the Dutch share stands at 43% (see Figure 5). As the cut
flower production area measures only 4380 ha (both covered and in the open field), the
Netherlands is still a major junction in international floriculture trade. However, for the first time
the four rising flower stars—Colombia, Kenya, Ecuador and Ethiopia—have passed the share of
the Netherlands in 2015 and now account for 44% in global cut flower exports. Just two years
ago, their share was 33% (in 2005 it was 25%). While roses are the main cut flower traded by
these four countries, Colombia has a relatively diversified product range and is also the largest
exporter of chrysanthemum and the second largest global exporter of carnations in the world.

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Despite low production costs, a favourable climate, large farm size, increasing efficiency and
quality, it is a challenge to grow cut flowers in these countries. There is (hardly) any domestic
demand, producers have to deal with (a lack of) air freight and high transportation costs, volatile
exchange rates, and challenging political and social circumstances.
Figure 1: World's largest cut flower exporting countries, 2005 versus 2015
Sources: UN-Comtrade, Royal FloraHolland, Rabobank, 2016
Colombia is the global leader in cut flower exports over sea freight where possible, exporting
nations try to move away from expensive and relatively unsustainable air freight. Colombia is leading
global sea freight in cut flowers. Part of Colombia’s market share gain in the global chrysanthemum
market is related to the use of container shipping. In East-Africa, the infrastructure is not yet developed
well enough to boost these countries’ cut flower transportation over sea.

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Chapter 3: CLASSIFICATION OF FLORICULTURAL AND LANDSCAPE PLANTS
Introduction
The branch of biology that deals with identifying and naming organisms is Taxonomy. Plants are
classified based on the similarities of their characters. Plant taxonomists compare flowering
patterns, stem and leaf structures, life cycles, genetic similarities, and many other characteristics
in deciding which plants are the most closely related. More than one classification system has
been proposed for floricultural plants. Here we will use two of the most commonly used
classifications.
Classification of flowering plants based on their growth / life cycle
1. Annuals
Flowering plants in this classification lives only in one growing season and completes its life
cycle in that period. The duration of a cycle varies; it may be a few weeks to several months
depending on the species. These flowering plants are useful in landscaping. Some popular annual
flowering plants are: Zinnia (Zinnia elegans), Marigold (Tagetes spp.) etc.
2. Biennials
Plants under this class complete its life cycle in two growing seasons. The first season, it
produces only vegetative growth, during the second season it produce flowers, fruits and ends its
growth cycle in the second season. Examples: Sweet William, Hollyhock
3. Perennials
They are mostly woody species growing for several years through adverse weather conditions
(winter, summer, and fall). They continue vegetative growth for long time, flower and fruit in a
variable manner and live for a number of years. Examples: Magnolia grandiflora, Delonix regia
Classification of Ornamental Plants based on Applications / Uses
Flowering plants may be used in a variety of other ways, both indoors and outdoors. They are
classified according to the following uses:
1. Cut Flower
Cut flowers refer to flowers starting to blossom or flower buds that are cut with stems, branches
and leaves to be used for bouquets or decorations. Cut flowers are grouped into two categories (i)
“fresh cut flowers” (ii) “non-fresh cut flowers” such as preserved flowers. Typical fresh cut
flowers include roses, carnations, orchids, chrysanthemums, lilies, gerbera etc.

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2. Potted plants
These plants are adapted to indoor conditions and for home and small gardens. They are grown
in containers, usually slow growing, and mostly foliage plants, some flowering plants also used
as potted plants. Examples are Sansevieria (Sansevieria spp.), Indian Rubber plant (Ficus
elastica), Philodendron (Philodendron spp.).
3. Bedding plants
These are annual plants raised for planting outdoors in flower beds. It starts from sowing seeds
indoors in the off-season and transplanted later in the growing season. Examples; includes
Petunia (Petunia spp.), Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), Pansy (Viola tricolor).
4. Hanging plants
These are hanging basket plants either annual or perennial, flowering or foliage rose in
decorative containers and hung by elegant ropes from the ceiling in the patio, in the doorway
area, or from decorative plant poles. Examples are Geranium (Pelargonium spp.), and Spider
plant (Chlorophytum comosum).
5. Dried Flower
These are flowers which are used after being dried for different occasions. These flowers are
dried using different preservatives. Ex: Statice, Gypsophila, Straw flower (Helichrysum)
6. Landscape plants
Crops which are grown in the garden for beauty and function
(a) Lawn: It is an area of grass grown as a green carpet.
(b) Ground covers: refers to plants that are low growing and effectively cover the soil in
place of lawn to cover unattractive sites. Ground covers can grow in any areas like shady
areas and are used to fill bare spots.
Eg. Vinca minor, Vinca major, Carex spp., Sedum spp., Echeveria spp., and Dianthus spp.
(c) Climbers
An annual or perennial herb or a shrub with a special structure- to climb over a support
i. Scindapsus aureus (Money plant)
ii. Monstera deliciosa (Swiss cheese plant)
iii. Philodendron scandens
iv. Hedera helix (English Ivy)

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(d) Shrubs
Shrubs are plants with woody stem. , usually well branched from or near the base
They differ from trees in that they do not have a prominent central trunk.
Flowering shrubs
Shrubs that have very attractive flowers
i. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (red heart),
ii. Nerium oleander,
iii. Tecoma stans etc
Foliage shrubs: Those shrubs that produce rich and dense foliage that have no flowers.
Some of the shrubs in this group produce variegated foliage.
i. Dracaena fragrans (Corn plant),
ii. Acalypha wilkesiana
iii. Duranta erecta
Shrubs with Bracts
i. Bougainvillea glabra,
ii. Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia)
(e) Trees: Trees are woody plants usually with well-defined trunks or stems
Functions of trees in the landscape
i. Provide shade,
ii. to ensure privacy,
iii. to avoid monotony,
iv. to reduce glare,
v. to serve as wind breaks,
vi. to reduce high summer temperature
(a) Trees which shed their leaves during summer (Deciduous trees)
i. Jacaranda mimosifolia
ii. Azadirachta indica ( Neem tree)
(b) Trees that do not shed their leaves throughout their life span (Evergreen trees)
i. Spathodea campanulata
ii. Greviellea robusta

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iii. Juniperus procera
iv. Cupressus sempervirens

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Chapter 4: PROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
4.1 Sexual Propagation of ornamental plants
Sexual propagation in many ornamental plants is done by seeds. Seed is a matured ovule that
consists of a dormant embryo, its stored food and protective coverings (seed coat).
Most bedding plants are annual in growth habit and are raised from seeds. Many perennials like
flowering trees are seed propagated., even lawns are initially propagated by seeds- subsequently
for covering large areas lawns are propagated asexually (by slips ).
Seed Storage, Viability and Germination
Temperature and relative humidity are two important factors governing the storage life of seeds.
Most annual flowering plants can be best stored at 15 to 250
C in hermetically sealed containers.
Flower seeds of Gerbera lose viability within a month whereas seeds of aster, cleome, phlox,
salvia, periwinkle, marigold, zinnia retain their viability from 6 months to one year
depending on varieties.
In commercial flower growing, seeds have to be tested before sowing. A simple method is to
count a specific number of seeds such as 50 or 100, keep them between two pieces of filter paper
and place in a petri- plate, filter paper is moistened, when seeds start germinating & completed,
take counts of promptly germinated seeds and calculate percentage germination. If
germination % is below 60 the seed is not authentic., to calculate the amount of seeds to be
sown, divide the number of seedlings expected by the germination percentage (in decimal
form). For example, if 3000 seedlings are needed & germination is 80%, the number to be sown
is 3000/ 0.8 = 3,750 seeds
PRE-TREATMENT OF SEEDS
Seeds of many bedding flowers like marigold, zinnia germinate readily when sown in a warm
greenhouse, whereas certain perennial species require pre-treatments for germination.
(i) Stratification: is the application of moist chilling treatment @ 0 to 10 0
C to seeds.
This treatment can be applied to seeds already sown in flats or to seeds that are mixed
with moist sand, peat moss or vermiculite, duration of treatment will vary with
species. Stratification requires seeds to be moist but not over wet, excessive moisture
may encourage rotting and prevent oxygen supply to seeds. Stratification is useful for
perennial ornamentals such as Aconitum and Gentiana.
(ii) Scarification: is the method of breaking the hard, water-impermeable seed coats to
allow water to penetrate, members of pea family like lupine (Lupinus) and Baptisia
are scarified. Large sized seeds can be hand scarified by filing or sand papering each
seed. More numbers of small seeds can be mechanically scarified by equipment
devices.

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(iii) Chemical soaking: germination can be enhanced by using growth substances
like gibberellins, cytokinins, potassium nitrate etc. Some flower species such as
Primula germination is enhanced by soaking in GA3 200- 300 ppm for 24 hours
(iv) Seed priming: this is a hydration method wherein seeds are treated with specific
quantity of water in special equipment., mostly done by seed companies and
research centres. The amount of water absorbed by seeds is controlled by soaking
seeds in polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution. PEG restricts the water uptake by seeds.
A number of flower species including: Impatiens, Verbena, pansy (Viola) are
benefited by seed priming.
(v) Coating of seeds: seeds are coated with thin layers of fungicide or insecticide or
micronutrients., sometimes a film-coating of seeds with substances to promote
germination are given. Sometimes pelleting of seeds are done by encasing in thin
coatings so that seeds can be sown by mechanical seeders., this method increases
size and weight of each seed (for example tiny seeds of Begonia, Petunia,
Snapdragon etc ).
Containers for seed germination
Seeds can be sown by hand into open flats, plug cells, plastic trays or polythene bags.
Commercial flower growers and nurseries mostly use plug cells for large scale production of
healthy seedlings. Shape of plug cells may be round, square or octagonal. In large sized plug
cells, seedlings can be retained for more time before transplanting. Most plug cells are made
of plastic but some are made of Styrofoam.
Media for seed germination
Media for seed germination should be well drained. The texture should be fine with less clay
content and slightly more sand when small to medium sized are used for sowing. The media
should have low soluble salt levels and should not contain any pathogens. Good porosity of
medium is desired to allow drainage and to prevent growth of pathogens., this is required
for production of healthy seedlings and to prevent diseases like fungal damping-off,
rotting of seedlings and bacterial wilt disease. Many growers use commercial, premixed
germination media, which contain small amount of nutrients for production of healthy
seedlings. When plug cells are used, sterilized sand is frequently added to the medium to
facilitate easy separation of seedlings during transplanting.
Peat like mixes is used by small flowers of flowers and nurseries for sowing flower seeds.
Large nurseries mainly aiming exports are not using soil-based media for germination
because of the problem of sterilization and soil may contain weed seeds, disease causing
organisms, insects, nematodes etc. When soil-based mixes are used, sterilization is done by
steam, chemical sterilization is not recommended as it can leave residues in the medium.

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Use of Silica sand or Sugar
When sowing of small seeds such as petunia, begonia or snapdragon by hand is done it is
beneficial to mix 1 part of seeds with 5 parts of silica sand/ sugar, this mixing will help to
monitor the rate of sowing.
Sowing of Seeds
Two options are available to flower growers either for sowing seeds directly in gardens or
sowing under indoor conditions (i) sowing directly by hand (ii) using automatic seeders.
Easiest and more accurate method of sowing is to sow seeds into plug trays using automatic
seeder. Plug trays may contain 100 to 800 plug cells and good quality seedlings can be
produced by this method.
Steps for sowing seeds
(i) Sowing of seeds for flower production needs utmost care., haphazard methods will
waste expensive seeds and also result in severe crop loss
(ii) Seed beds/ flats/ plug trays should be moderately watered before sowing
(iii) Growing medium should be loosely packed., compact packing of medium will
reduce oxygen supply
(iv) In large nurseries for commercial flower growing, after sowing a practice of covering
with a layer of vermiculite or perlite is done [to maintain moisture around seeds]
(v) Seeds of certain flower species require light for proper germination., in such cases
artificial illumination is given in the germinating chambers
(vi) Flower species which are tropical/ subtropical when sown during winter need
bottom heat in the germinating media
(vii) In extreme heat of tropics, germinating chambers need more humidity to prevent
desiccation of germinating seeds. Covering seed beds/ flats with polyethylene or
providing intermittent misting is advisable to provide more humidity
Propagation of Ferns
Ferns reproduce by spores. A number of fern species are commercially grown as indoor
foliage plants. Initial steps of fern propagation are similar to seed propagation in the sense
that spores are sown on the surface of growing media and kept warm and moist.
But then spore germination of ferns differs as they produce a leaf-like structure “prothallus”.
On maturity, prothallus produces male and female reproductive organs. Then sexual
fertilization occurs and a sporophyte develops. This sporophyte further develops into a large
plant which we know as fern.

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4. 2 Asexual / Vegetative Propagation of Ornamental Plants
Asexual propagation is a method of regeneration from vegetative organs of a mother plant and
from which true-to-type plants can be produced.
A large number of ornamental plant species are propagated by asexual or vegetative means. This
is possible mainly because living cells of plants have a capacity to regenerate into a full plant
under favourable environmental conditions.
Advantages of Asexual Propagation
• Plants regenerated by this method are true-to-type (genetically identical to the parent
plant) i.e., they have genotypic and phenotypic characters similar to the mother plants
• A large population of plants can be produced in a shorter period of time
• It is easier, faster and economical than seed propagation in certain ornamental species
where seed germination is poor or rather slow and there are seed dormancy problems
• It is the only method of propagation of ornamental types like some roses, tuberose, canna,
ornamental Musa, ornamental ginger etc.
Dis-advantages of Asexual Propagation
• Vegetative propagated plants in general are short lived than seed propagated plants
• Vegetative propagated plants are more susceptible to diseases and pests
• They are less hardy to biotic and abiotic stresses compared to plants raised by seeds
• It needs more skill and more expensive than seed propagation
Propagation by Cuttings
Cutting is a method of vegetative propagation in which a part of the selected mother plant is
separated from the mother and is induced to form its own roots.
This is a common form of asexual propagation in many floricultural species
(i) Stem cuttings are popular in poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), chrysanthemums
(Dendrathema X grandiflorum), carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), rose types like
polyanthus roses, miniature roses, climbing roses, hibiscus, hydrangea etc.
(ii) Leaf cuttings are used for propagating floriculture crops like rex begonia, Peperomia,
African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha)
(iii) Root cuttings: rarely in floriculture plants like Oriental poppy (Papaver orientale),
butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberose) etc. propagation is done by harvesting roots,
cutting them into sections and then planted in the rooting medium.
Growth substances used for enhancing rooting of cuttings are IBA (Indole-3-butyric acid), NAA
(Napthalene acetic acid), IAA (Indole acetic acid) etc.

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Propagation of ornamental species by Budding and Grafting
Budding is a method of propagation where the scion is only a small piece of bark containing a
single bud which is inserted onto the portion of a rootstock from where the bark has been
removed. Budding techniques adopted in ornamentals include T (shield), inverted T, patch
budding, ring budding etc. Budding is the successful method employed in commercial roses like
hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras etc. In a variety of ornamentals like superior cultivars of
hibiscus, bougainvillea where cuttings do not give success, budding is found successful.
Grafting is the process of uniting two separate plants or plant parts so that they become one
plant after cell division and union occurs.
Grafting is used in ornamentals when:
(i) To propagate species or cultivars that cannot be propagated by other methods
(ii) To graft scions of a superior plant so as to enhance vigour of a weak plant
(iii) To create a unique plant with improved characters compared with the mother plants
from which it was created
In floriculture, some vigorous types of hybrid tea roses, azaleas (Rhododendron), improved
cultivars of poinsettias, focus are propagated by grafting where other methods are unsuccessful
Layering: is a method of vegetative propagation where adventitious roots are induced to form
on injured plant parts while they are still attached to the parent plant. Layering is easy on low
growing branches that can be buried in the soil or by mounding soil around the base of a plant
which has multi-stems. Examples: jasmine, anthurium, croton, Ficus elastica, Philodendron
Division: is the process of separating individual shoots which cluster in a clump. The clumps are
dug out, cut into sections with a sharp knife and the pieces are used for planting. Cone flowers,
Astilbe, golden rod (Solidago) are examples of ornamentals for propagating by divisions.
GEOPHYTES: -
Geophytes include ornamental species that develop modified plant organs like bulbs, corms,
tubers, rhizomes, pseudo-bulbs etc. These species can reproduce through replication of these
storage organs.
(i) Bulb: It is a modified shoot in some monocots which has a short disc-like stem and at
its apex there is a growing point. The stem is covered by several layers of fleshy
leaves which have stored food. Ex. Lily, Tulips, Tuberose
(ii) Corm: is a modified underground stem of some monocots where fleshy leaves are
absent but non-fleshy or rudimentary leaves are seen. Ex., Gladiolus, Freesia

17
(iii) Tuber: is a modified underground stem which is fleshy and enlarged. Eyes are
present on tubers which contain buds. So when tubers are divided for propagation
should bear at least one or two eyes. Ex. Dahlia, Caladium
(iv) Rhizomes: this is a specialized underground stem which grows horizontally just
below soil surface, this is fleshy and compressed Ex. Iris, Heliconia, Alstroemeria
MICRO-PROPAGATION (IN-VITRO CULTURE) OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Micro-propagation is the development of new plants on an artificial medium under aseptic
conditions from very small piece of plants such as embryos, shoot tips, leaf discs, root tips,
callus, pollen grains or even individual cells.
• Micro-propagation or in-vitro propagation offers potential to produce unlimited number
of genetically identical plants from one mother plant.
• A number of plant species including Alstroemeria, hybrid lilies (Lilium), Gerbera,
Orchids (Orchidaceae) and numerous foliage ornamentals are commercially propagated
by micro-propagation.
• Micro-propagation is very important in production of disease-free stock plants as in the
case of geranium, carnation, chrysanthemum etc.
• For development of new cultivars and in hi-tech experimental works, micro-
propagation has much advantage in floriculture species.
Drawbacks:
• However, in practice micro-propagation is elaborate, rather sophisticated, time
consuming and very expensive
• Occasionally, the plants regenerated by in-vitro propagation are not genetically identical
to the parent plant due to soma- clonal variations.
Micro-propagation of orchids:
• Orchids belonging to family Orchidaceae, is highly evolved among monocotyledons with
>35000 species and >70000 natural/ man made hybrids
• Flowers of orchid genera like Arachnis, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis,
Vanda have high cut flower value, highly priced & popular in international flower trade
• Though orchids can be vegetatively propagated by division of rhizomes and separation
of off-shoots, the methods are found to be very slow
• So, rapid multiplication using in-vitro culture techniques is an important strategy by
nations exporting orchids
• Embryo culture, Shoot tip culture, Leaf culture, Node culture, Inflorescence culture, Root
culture etc. are adopted for regeneration of plants in orchids.

18
CHAPTER 5: FACILITIES FOR COMMERCIAL FLOWER PRODUCTION and
CHAPTER 6: CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION
✓ For commercial flower production, various facilities required are protected structures,
equipment, good markets, personnel, site for production and above all sufficient funds
✓ For hi-tech floriculture projects, sophisticated equipment are needed., greenhouses,
refrigeration, temperature & humidity control equipment, computerized irrigation &
nutrient distribution systems etc are required
✓ Transportation by air freight accounts for 40 % of total production costs., timely
availability of flight with minimum lapse between cutting of flowers and reaching the
destination market under proper packing & environment are most important
✓ Market Evaluation: Before starting a commercial floriculture unit, it is essential to make
an assessment on :
(i) Where are the market for the flowers
(ii) What types of flowers are needed on different occasions
(iii) What are the market prices
• As per the communication facilities prevailing now, it is easy to locate suitable markets.
• Growers can get reliable information on the needs of flowers by various markets and also
the prices of flowers.
• It is wise to consider alternative markets if the original markets are less favourable for
the flowers and also the prices offered.
PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF FLOWERS FOR TRADE
(1) World floriculture trade is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export
purposes
(2) Wide variation in agro climatic conditions of Ethiopia, permit to grow various types of
tropical and subtropical plants and flowers. Though such plants grow successfully
without cover, they fail to meet the export requirements.
(3) High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in
plastic, glass or fiberglass greenhouses or at least under partial cover. Though initial
investment is high in protected cultivation, the products developed will obtain more
attractive prices.
Definition: - Protected cultivation is cultivating plants inside a structure which protects
plants from wind, precipitations, excessive radiations, temperature extremes, insects
and diseases. It is also of vital importance to create an ideal micro-climate around the
plants. Therefore, an ideal protective structure should have facilities for creating most
acceptable growing conditions for a given plant species.

19
DIFFERENT PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES FOR ORNAMENTALS
Greenhouses, lath house, cloth house, hot bed, cold frame, tunnels are protective structures used
for ornamentals.
Cloth house
These are protective structures with straight sides and flat top. The frame consists of iron
posts or wood and the cover consists of mostly light transmitting plastic or rarely cloth. The
covering (plastic or cloth) slightly lowers maximum daily temperature and slightly increases the
relative humidity. However, it markedly lowers light intensity. The decrease in light intensity
lowers the temperature and creates a favourable situation for many ornamental foliage crops.
Lath house
Lath house has straight sides and flat top. The frame is similar to cloth house but the
cover consists of movable iron wire netting or black plastic nets with holes. It is used to protect
ornamental plants which are sensitive to high light intensity. Examples: - foliages plants
(begonia, ferns, hydrangeas, azaleas etc.)
Hot beds
Hot bed is a plant propagating structure used in severe winters. It has 3 parts – heating
materials, frame, and cover (the cover consisting of glass, light-transmitting plastics, or rarely
cloth). Heating system varies depending on availability (electric heating devices, hot water, and
hot air).
Cold frame
These are used to protect plants from frost, heavy rains and wind. In regions
characterized by mild winters, herbaceous crops are started in these structures. Later, as the
weather becomes warm, the covers can be removed.
GREEN HOUSES:
Definition - Greenhouses are framed or inflated structures covered with transparent or
translucent material large enough to grow crops under partial or fully controlled
environmental conditions to get optimum crop productivity. [Greenhouses are the most
commonly used protective structure in floriculture industry].
RELEVANCE OF GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY:
• Since the climatic conditions inside are fully controlled, it ensures off season crop
production.

20
• Greenhouses help to obtain planting materials of high quality, in large numbers and also
helps in extending propagation almost throughout the year irrespective of seasons
• Sensors are installed in hi-tech greenhouses for detecting water need of plants and
irrigation is given as per requirement, so wastage of water can be avoided.
• Greenhouses provide right type of environmental conditions for conservation of rare
ornamental species.
• They are also useful for hardening of tissue cultured plants
GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Solar radiation (visible light) is of wave length 400 – 700 nm.
Short wave radiation enters the greenhouse and long wave radiations are prevented by the
greenhouse cover. Inside the greenhouse, some amount of short wave radiation touches
plants and greenhouse objects, more quantity of short wave radiations are reflected back from
the floor and other reflecting surfaces and turns into long wave length radiations. The
covering material of greenhouse is opaque to long wavelengths and it is trapped which
increases the temperature inside.
Carbon dioxide enrichment: CO2 enrichment accelerates vegetative growth; water use
efficiency and photosynthetic capacity leading to high quality blemish free flower blooms. For
CO2 enrichment, CO2 generators and injectors are used in hi-tech greenhouses.
Table 2: Ideal CO2 Concentration for Important Flowers
Crops Ideal CO2
concentration (ppm)
Toxic CO2
concentration (ppm)
Rose 1000-1500 2500-3000
Carnation 1000-1500 2000-2500
Chrysanthemum 700-900 1500-3000
Gerbera 800-1200 1600-2200

21
CHAPTER 7: POST- HARVEST HANDLING OF CUT FLOWERS
• A ‘flower’ is an intricate organ composed of different morphological units including sepals,
petals, androecium, gynoecium, stem and leaves.
• Cut flowers in general are highly perishable commodities and highly susceptible to huge
post-harvest losses
• Most of the cut flowers complete their life cycle in two distinct phases. The first phase is of
flower bud growth and development of the flower to full opening.
• The second stage is maturation, senescence and wilting.
• Post-harvest handling techniques of flowers are used to enhance cut flower longevity and to
promote growth process in the 1st
stage and retardation of metabolic processes of second
stage.
Mode of Harvesting: Cut flowers should be cut with sharp tools and placed immediately in
water or in a floral preservative solution. The angle of cut must be slanting and smooth to
absorb water freely through cut stems. While cutting, the stem should not be crushed which
may lead to blockage of xylem vessels.

22
POST HARVEST HANDLING CHAIN OF CUT FLOWERS
HARVESTING
↓
CONDITIONING
↓
PRE-COOLING
↓
PULSING
↓
GRADING
↓
BUNCHING
↓
WRAPPING
↓
PACKING
↓
STORAGE
↓
TRANSPORT
↓
SALES

23
1. Conditioning of cut Flowers:
• First step in conditioning or hardening is a simple process where the flowers are kept to stand
loosely in a big container of water so the air circulates around the stems. The main purpose of
this treatment is to restore turgidity of cut flowers after they have suffered from water stress
during handling in the field, greenhouse or while transporting from greenhouse to post-
harvest handling rooms.
• Flowers can be conditioned in the dark rooms so that their stomata will close, reducing the
amount of water loss by transpiration
• Second step in conditioning is to place cut end of flower stems in floral preservative
solutions[particularly when delay occurs in air lifting of flowers]
Widely used floral preservative solutions
CITRIC ACID (150- 400 ppm) + any one of germicide 8- Hydroxy Quinoline
Citrate (200- 400 ppm) / 8- Hydroxy Quinoline Sulphate (200- 400 ppm) / Silver
Nitrate (25 to 30 ppm) / Silver Thio Sulphate (25 to 30 ppm)
2. Pre- Cooling
Flowers have to pre-cool before storage and air lifting. Time between harvest and pre-cooling
should be as short as possible. Forced air cooling is most effective in removing the field heat
from flowers in a short period. Pre-cooling temperature suitable for flower crops vary from 1 to
40
C.
3. Pulsing
At this stage, a nutrient supplement like Sucrose (5- 10 %) is added to preservative solution
which contain the germicide. The absorption of chemical solution containing sugar and
germicides through the lower cut portion of flower stems is known as pulsing. This treatment
should be performed under temperature of 20-250
C at light intensity of 2000 lux.
4. Grading
Grading is also done based on stem length, flower size, colour, quality, and also based on the
standards recommended for each type of cut flower. According to these grades, prices are fixed
in international markets.
Example: Grades in anthurium.
• Extra-large > 18cm spathe size
• Large > 15-18cm spathe size

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• Medium > 12-15cm spathe size
• Small > 9-12cm spathe size
• Mini < 9cm spathe size
5. Bunching
Flowers should be bunched before wrapping/ packing and tying should be firm but not too tight.
If flowers are too tightly crowded in storage, mould growth will be favoured.
6. Wrapping
Just before packing the flowers in boxes/ cartons, flowers are wrapped individually in thin
polythene sleeves. E.g: Anthuriums are wrapped individually in thin polythene covers. Bud roses
are wrapped in butter paper sheets or waxy sheets.
7. Packing
Packing is done to protect flowers from physical damage, water loss and external conditions
during transporting. Packing can take many forms from flower cups, to sleeves, boxes, cartons,
bulk bins, and special containers for flights. It is desirable to design a package which is
specifically suitable to a particular flower under specific storage conditions. An ideal package
should promote low respiration and low transpiration.
8. Cold storage
Cold storage of cut flowers facilities the adjustment of flower supply to distant markets based on
demands. It makes possible to prolong the period of flower sales. Low temperature treatment
during storage of cut flowers reduces the entire metabolism in the tissue, slows down the
respiration, transpiration, ethylene production and activities of fungi and bacteria.
In general, temperate varieties of flowers like, Cymbidium, carnations, chrysanthemums are
stored at 0 – 10
C. Sub-tropical flowers like, gladiolus, freesia, gerbera etc. are stored at 4 – 70
C.
Tropical flowers like Anthurium, Vanda, Heliconia etc are stored at 7 – 100
C.

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CHAPTER 8: CULTIVATION OF ROSE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------
Figure 2: The blossom of rose flower
✓ Genus name: Rosa [ word adopted from Greek, “Rhedon” meaning fragrance
✓ Rose enjoys the status as “Queen of flowers”.
✓ Does best naturally in dry temperate areas, protected cultivation adopted for rose growing
in tropics / Sub-tropics.
✓ England adopted rose as national flower
EVOLUTION OF MODERN ROSES
✓ Roses grown today have descended from natural crossing of several original species
such as:-
✓ Rosa chinensis (China rose), Rosa gallica (French rose), Rosa X odorata(Tea rose),
Rosa moschata (Musk rose), Rosa polyantha (Polyantha rose)

26
✓ A red China rose (Rosa chinensis) was introduced to England in 1790; it was dwarf in
stature & perpetual (continuous) flowering habit [this is considered as “Father of
Modern roses”.
MORPHOLOGY
Rose has got a determinate inflorescence, Corymbose (cluster of flowers) or Solitary form
(Single). Usually it grows with a single flower (Hybrid Tea), but sometimes clusters of
flowers (Polyantha / Miniature).
OLD CULTIVARS
1950’s cv Red Delight was traded by shipping which stood fresh after long transporting
1960’s cv For Ever Yours replaced other cultivars
Other popular old cultivars that ruled market: Double Delight, Iceberg, Olympiad
DISTRIBUTION
• Modern garden roses developed from wild species – cultivated in France, Morocco,
Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, China etc….
• Later, Holland, Belgium, Turkey, Japan, USA, India, Myanmar, Kenya, South Africa,
Malawi, Ethiopia started growing roses on a commercial scale.
COMMERCIAL CLASSES OF ROSES
TEA ROSE [Rosa X odorata]
• They are called tea roses because flowers possess distinct aroma of cured tea leaves, this
bear showy flowers with distinct colors.
HYBRID PERPETUALS
• Very hardy and flower throughout year
• They are immediate forerunners of Hybrid Teas
HYBRID TEA ROSES
• Most popular rose type of modern days
• Large blooms with long stems, ideal for cut flowers, decorations, exhibitions
• Originally developed by crosses between Tea roses and Hybrid Perpetuals
• Large number of excellent varieties (single, bi-colour & multi- colour available)
• Cultivar La France was first Hybrid Tea rose developed in 1867
POLYANTHAS [Rosa X polyantha]

27
• Produce enormous clusters of small flowers and bloom for several months
FLORIBUNDA ROSES
• Developed in 1924 by a cross between Hybrid Tea and Polyantha roses
• Possess beautiful floral characters of Hybrid Teas & perpetual flowering habit of
Polyantha roses
• Since floribundas produce flowers in clusters they are suitable for bedding and mass
colour effects
GRANDIFLORA ROSES
• Obtained by crosses between Hybrid Tea and Floribunda types
• This class of rose produce blooms that are beautifully developed like Hybrid Tea and
also bearing flowers in clusters like that of Floribunda roses
MINIATURE ROSES
• Miniature are popular “Baby Roses” with small flowers and leaves
• Quite hardy, can easily be propagated by cuttings
• Ideal for growing in pots & as edges of lawns in gardens
CLIMBING ROSES
• Climbing roses are of upright growth habit requiring support for their growth
• They bear small to medium flowers in small clusters at the end of side branches
• Growth is restricted, mostly upright and not flexible like ramblers
RAMBLERS
• These are a type of climbing roses bearing large clusters of small flowers
• They have leisurely spreading habit without specific direction of growth
• More flexible than climbers and suitable for covering fences, pergolas and trellis
DAMASK ROSE
• This is Rosa damascena, most important species for extraction of perfume
• Flowers deep pink, bear in clusters and sweet scented
• Flower petals are steam distilled/ solvent extracted to extract essential oils
• Major fragrant components of essential oils are geraniol and citronellol
CABBAGE ROSE [Rosa centifolia]
• Can be propagated by cuttings and also used as a rootstock
• Flower petals wrap up just like cabbage heads
• Flowers fragrant and most common shade is pink

28
EDWARD ROSE [Rosa X bourboniana]
• Vigorous shoots, dark green stems with hooked prickles
• Flowers light rosy pink, borne in clusters
• Flowers scented and cultivated in North India for preparation of Rose Water & Gulkand
(perfumes)
• This is an excellent rootstock for budding most commercial varieties
Types of Roses
There are five types of roses grown for cut flower production
1. Large Flowered Roses:
• This are also known as Hybrid Tea roses
• They are generally grown between 50-120 cm in length and yield 100-150/year/m2
• Generally, large flowered HT roses are difficult to handle.
• They too frequently fail to take up water
• they have a shorter vase-life
• The main producing countries: USA, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Japan, Zimbabwe,
Morocco, France and Italy
2. Medium Flowered Roses
• Even though they can grow to 50-70 cm and have a bigger flower, they are still classified
as short stemmed.
• They yield up to 220 blooms/m2
/year, and have handling advantages.
• Medium roses are particularly popular with growers in Kenya, where they respond well
to the growing conditions.
• Their popularity is also increasing in Holland, Germany, Italy, Israel, Zimbabwe, Japan,
Mexico, and Colombia.
3. Small Flowered Roses
• They produce large number of stems/m2
/year (i.e b/n 250-350 stems/m2
/year)
• They are easy to handle and some of the new varieties have exceptionally good vase-
lives.
• There are now major areas planted to short roses in Israel, Kenya and more recently
Colombia and Zimbabwe
• Main production areas include. Holland, Germany, Israel and Kenya.

29
4. Spray Roses
• Spray roses produce many blooms per stem
• They grow in much the same way as small flowered roses and often yield a large
proportion of singles to sprays.
• In the USA, they are not commonly used as cut flowers.
• The main problems with this type of rose are that their yields are generally low and the
stems are heavy, and therefore, expensive to airfreight.
5. Miniature Roses
• Miniature roses such as the original Garnet and Carol have stem lengths of b/n 20-40 cm.
• They have much smaller flowers than the small roses.
• They can yield up to 500 stems/m2
/year but require more labor in harvesting and packing
than other varieties.
Basics of Rose Production
• To achieve export standards, roses must
o be protected from harmful climates (plastic greenhouse or glasshouse).
o They must also be of a recognized variety.
• The main objective of greenhouse production is to control Powdery mildew and Downy
mildew on the leaves and Phytophtera sp. in the bloom.
• The planting rate is 5.5-8.0 plants/m2 or 55 000-80 000 roses/ hectare
o Normally it is 60 000 plants/ha in the warmer climates and
o 70 000 in glasshouses.
• The number of stems cut/m2/year varies according to the climate, variety and the length of
the cropping season
• Humidity should be high, especially when it is hot, but not above dew point when it cools
down
• Labor requirement:
o Rose production is labor intensive, requiring b/n 10-15 fulltime equivalent/ha/yr.
o About 80% of this labor is required in harvesting, grading and packing
Variety Trends
Selection criteria now include
1. High yielding varieties: some short stemmed roses are now yielding up to 400
stems/m2/year
2. Long vase-life; new varieties can now last up to 16 days in the vase, thus dramatically
increasing the potential market

30
3. Varieties that take up water easily
4. Thornless varieties for ease of handling
5. Color: Reds are still the most popular but pinks, pastels and bicolors that do not fade are
all fast gaining in popularity
6. Scent: unfortunately, fragrance and good vase-life do not yet go together, especially when
the blooms are closed up for some time in a transport box.
7. Resistance to diseases and mechanical damages in harvesting and transport.
Cutting for propagation
A. Cutting
• Make sure you take cuttings from firm but young stems.
• Cuttings are made at any time of the year:
Leaves –
• The cutting can be one, two, or three nodes
• the top leaf is retained
o to delay growth of the upper axillary bud
o to provide food for the developing shoot.
o to provide root-promoting hormones.
Cuts and "wounding" –
• Roses can form roots at any point along the stem, so the exact site of the cut is not
important.
• Many people "wound" the base of the cutting enhance rooting
Rooting hormones –
• Many growers apply a commercial hormone preparation to stimulate the production of strong
roots.
o Auxin (IBA) and/or (NAA).
Spacing
• Planted 1.5 inches in the row and 3 inches between rows.
• The medium should have good water retention and excellent aeration
• Rooting occurs quickly at a media temperature of 700
to 750
F
Moisture –

31
• Essential for successfully
• Rooting cuttings is maintaining adequate moisture, both in the soil and in the form of
humidity in the air.
• Place the cuttings in pots of moist sand or potting soil,
• then cover them with a plastic bag to maintain high humidity around the cuttings.
Light –
• Roses root best in bright light.
• when using the mini-greenhouse method, it's important to avoid overheating by giving
some shade from hot, midday sun.
• Put the cuttings in bright shade to allow rooting without too much heat build-up.
• Decrease in misting frequency should begin when roots are observed, in 11 to 14 days,
• to harden the plants for medium temperature.
B. Budding and grafting
• Budded plants are still the most popular.
• They are larger and can produce quality flowers in a relatively short time.
Common Rootstocks
• Modern roses are not grown on their own roots.
• They budded on to the roots of wild and semi-wild roses or close relatives Rootstock
commonly used by nurserymen are
1) Rosa laxa--- popular. Almost thornless for easy budding Rarely suckers transplant well
2) Rosa canina (Dog rose) ---- Most popular of all. Produces hardy bushes, which
transplant well.
3) Rosa multiflora-----------sometimes used for standards. Suckers freely and is best suited
for light soils
Production Requirements of Roses
-All cut roses require similar climatic conditions, the basic essentials of which are:
Soil
• The aim should target to start with a good soil, productive soil, and keep quality by reducing
compaction, salinity, nematodes, and soil borne diseases.
• Ideally, the soil for roses should be a rich well-aerated loam.
• A sandy soil can be used provided the organic matter level is kept high.

32
Climatic requirement
Temperature
• Growth rate of the rose is very responsive to temperature; growth rate increases with
temperature increase.
• Flower quality is affected in opposite direction, as temperature increase petal number and
flower bud size decrease.
• A temperature between 150
C and 200
C is ideal.
o Below 15o
C, but growth will be slower considerably.
o above 28 o
C, RH must be kept high to slow evapo- transpiration.
• The ideal average temperature for rose production is 22 0
C
• Excess variation of temperature and RH can cause a high incidence of either Powdery
mildew in heat or Downey mildew in the cold and wet conditions
• In highland tropics of 1800-2500m, provided that there is sufficient water, conditions for
the production of roses are good almost all year round.
• Comparatively little needs to be spent in the form of greenhouses but a well-ventilated
plastic-house is essential to keep the rain off the flowers and to keep the RH high.
Light
• Generally, rose growth and quality increase with increasing light about 1200μmolsec-1
m-2
photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
• It must be remembered that increased PAR will be increase greenhouse temperature and
decreased relative humidity.
• High pressure mist and fogging system are essential part of humidity management.
• Daytime humidity of 60 to 80% is optimum for rose production.
• It is also important to have good light for as long as possible throughout the day.
• It is also an advantage if the morning sun is available because this is the coldest part of
the day and it helps to raise the temperature quickly
Water
• Roses require plenty of water and a well-aerated soil or growing medium (substrate).
• It requires a lot of water especially when it is hot.
• As a rule of thumb, the grower needs to be able to supply the plants with a minimum of
mm/day i.e 60 cubic meters/ha/day.
• The water can come from a well, borehole, river, lake or reservoir, But it should be tested
for-pH, salts, and mineral content and for bacterial count.
• The pH for roses should be around 5.8-6.5

33
Land or Production Site Selection
➢ If possible, the chosen site should be close to the market, or within easy reach of an
international airport
➢ If the land is steep, it has to be leveled before it can be developed as a flower farm, though
the costs of leveling can be substantial
The site should be well drained, ideally with a slope of 2-3%
Propagation
• Roses can be grown by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding and grafting
• To produce new hybrids through breeding, seeds known as “hips” are used
• Cuttings are effective for propagation of vigorous cultivars, miniatures, polyanthas,
climbers, ramblers etc. Layering is also possible in these categories.
Commercial Propagation of Roses
• Rose is commercially propagated by T - budding and sometimes by patch
budding
• Important rootstocks used for propagation are Edward rose (Rosa bourboniana) and
Rosa multiflora
• Rosa indica is an important rootstock resistant to powdery mildew
• Buds selected should be plumb but have not bursted or elongated
• In T-budding, bark bearing a bud (scion) of 2.5 cm is taken out from stem of selected
cultivar in the shape of a shield with a budding knife
• Portion of wood remaining attached with bark in scion is removed gently
• A T shaped cut of 2.5 cm length is made in rootstock and bud is inserted in the
incision
• Bud should point upwards and is then tied firmly with a polythene strip keeping bud
uncovered
• Bud union will take place in 3-4 weeks and budded plant will be ready for
transplanting in 6 months
Selection of Site for Growing Roses
• Roses grow better in full sunshine. So, select places getting sunshine for at least half
of the day preferably the first half
• The site selected should be away from buildings and trees
• Well drained loamy soil is the best for growing roses
PRUNING OF ROSES
• Pruning is the judicious removal of plant parts to induce production of quality flowers
and to maintain vigour of plant

34
• It keeps rose bushes in proper size and shape & also allow penetration of light to center
of plant
• Strong, healthy canes are retained., weak branches, dead and diseased ones are removed
• Cuts are made at 45 degree angle, 5 cm above eye (bud)
Rose Flowering – Arranging Production
• Scheduling flowering and flower production- Valentine’s Day, Mother’s day
Christmas, New Year and several ceremonial days
- Pruning, timing of pinching & cultural operations- adjust for flower production
- Flower Development 5.5 – 6 weeks in summer, 7.5 - 8 weeks in winter
GROWING OF ROSES IN POTS
• Roses can be grown in large pots of 35 – 45 cm for Hybrid Teas and smaller pots for
polyanthas and miniatures
• For pot-culture, potting mixture should consist 3 parts garden soil, 1 part well rotten
cow dung, 1 part leaf mould and 1 part wood ash
• Repotting is to be done as and when pot-bounding occurs., potted plants need watering
daily
PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ROSES
• As early as 1950- 60, roses for export purpose were grown under open field conditions
• When the scenario of floriculture industry changed, protected cultivation was adopted
by major growing nations
• Cultivating roses under polyhouses are found to possess better stalk length, brightness
and vase life
• Experiments conducted in India, using rose cultivars, Eterna, Kiss, Vivaldi, Gladiator
etc under naturally ventilated low-cost polyhouses produced superior quality flowers,
more stem length and high vase life
Temperature inside Green House
• Excessive Temperature results in small flower size, fewer petals, poor keeping quality
GH => 160
C at night, 20-28 0
C day Temperature (Optimum)
• Low Temperature reduce flower production., In low temperature certain cvs develop
excessive petals and soft growth because of low photosynthetic activity
• => 270
C and above results in petal dropping

35
Ventilation inside Green House
• Ventilation – essential for air exchange between outside and inside of Green House
• Ventilation can be natural (wind pressure gradient) or forced (mechanical means)
• Ventilation is important during day times mainly for :-
a) controlling high temperature
b) reducing level of relative humidity
c) maintaining normal CO2 level
CO2 Enrichment inside Green House
• Additional supply of CO2 give better results
• Natural CO2 concentration (0.03% or 300 ppm) will be depleted earlier
• Sources of enriching CO2 level inside green house by decomposition of mulches, dry
ice, liquid CO2 enhances more flower production
IRRIGATION & FERTILIZATION INSIDE GREN HOUSE
• The irrigation system should be set below the level of the leaves, ensuring that the leaves stay
dry and there is a little danger of Downey mildew.
• In the hydroponic production system, water is applied through drippers so the evaporation
area is much less.
• In fact, when it is hot, some growers attempt to keep the RH up by spraying a fine mist
overhead.
• So, it is better if the water is applied below the level of the blooms.
• The drip irrigation system normally carries fertilizers.
• Modern system is to apply water only when it is required based on transpiration model and
Soil moisture tension
• In practically all cases, roses are nowadays fed through the drip lines, a process known as
“fertigation”.
• A liquid fertilization schedule is designed based on soil test, especially pH and salinity, and
on occasionally foliar analysis.
• A pH range of 5.5 to 6.3 allows moderate solubility of the micronutrients
• Rose fertilizer solution contain N, P, Mg, Ca, S, and Fe as a regular constituents, and
periodically,
• a micronutrient supplement of B, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Zn will be added.
• Application of Major nutrients (through irrigation water):- 14 g of following mixture in 10
litres water (Urea: 2 parts, Potassium nitrate: 1 part, Potassium phosphate: 1 part).

36
Spraying
• A regular preventative spraying program should be carried out against Powdery and Downy
mildew
• Sulphur Burner; every night.
Disbudding:
• Disbudding is removing the 2nd
and sometimes 3rd
buds that may form alongside the main
bud.
• These take away energy from the main bud (i.e. the seriously compete) and if left on the stem
can make it unsaleable quality.
Harvesting:
• Harvesting is a slow and a painful job
• no one has yet found a way of mechanizing.
• Harvesting can be speeded up by:
1. Choosing varieties that need little or no disbudding
2. Choosing varieties that have as few thorns as possible
3. Reducing the amount of walking involved
4. Transportation for the harvested stems to the packinghouse
• Roses are cut two times per day
• The stage of cutting varies
• with cultivar
• season
• distance of market,
• Generally rose is cut at the tightest stage at which the flower will open in plain water.
• The position of cut on the shoot will vary with
• market needs for stem length
• on the height of the plants,
• the season, and
• the leafiness of the plant.
• As a general rule, the cut will be made to the first 5-leaflet leaf above the point of origin
of the flowering stem.
Yield
• depends on-the type and variety of rose, the temperature and light, and the growing medium
• The two most important factors determining the yield are
o The commercial cut rose varieties will not form flowering stems at all when
temperatures are below 140
C and

37
o if there is insufficient light to go with the temperature, the stems will be too weak in
quality to be saleable..
Hydration Procedure
• This is done to prevent vascular blockage in the flower stems, which is usually caused by
build-up of bacteria.
• The wound that opened up, when the stem is cut or damaged is infected by bacteria in the
water.
• One of the first signs of this blockage is neck drop.
• To stop this happening the water and the buckets must be clean as possible at all times and
contain a biocide.
• Any produce showing a high bacterial count at export destination markets are downgraded.
the objective of hydration is to remove the blockage;
• by cuttings off the worst section which is at the bottom of the stem
• putting into warm water in which the pH has been lowered,
• through the addition of a preservative or a compound such as citric acid or aluminum
sulphate.
The following procedures are nowadays recommended in handling cut flowers at
packinghouse, or at the auction centers:
1. Re-cut flower stems, do not remove the lower leaves or thorns
2. Place in clean containers, in clean warm water (40-430
C), adjusted with preservative
(citric acid) to pH 3.0-3.5. Test with litmus paper of pH meter.
3. Remove from the citric acid after approximately 30-60 minutes or when turgid.
4. Place in preservatives in the cooler (cold rooms)
• Please note the flowers when cold are inactive and will not hydrate easily.
• For about the first 20 minutes of hydration, the water used should be warm enough.
• Once the water has been taken up, then the flower stems as well as the water can be
cooled down again.
Sleeving
• The heads of the roses are only wrapped when the flowers are going to be packaged and
transported over long distances.
• The idea of wrapping is to cushion the buds and prevent them from jamming up against the
end of the package and bruising.
• materials used: corrugated wrapper paper and foam rubber

38
Packaging
• The packaging boxes used for roses often vary in size according to their source and
destination.
• Depending on the market, the packages are either filled with one variety one grade, or mixed
colors one grade.
• The bunches in the boxes should be packed tight.
Airfreight
• The biggest marketing cost to the rose growers is airfreight.
• it is crucial that roses are air freighted as soon as possible after harvesting.
• when air freighted the temperature level must be 2-40
C
Marketing
• skill in marketing is to get the highest possible return
• Getting the best possible price
• Minimizing the selling costs
• Selling the maximum number of flower stems
Color trends under the world market of roses
1. Big flowers are sold before small
2. Consumers want roses with fragrance in all the color ranges
3. Red is still the predominant color regardless of how the flowers are moved. Reds still
account for over 50% of all the sales
4. Yellow and pink are about equal with which together account for about 30% of the
market
5. Whites are about 5%
Quality Parameters
• Generally in export rose production, quality is more important than yield
• Hence, the method of growing for roses should be such that it produces;
1. Long flowers that open easily
2. Large flowers that open easily
3. Good flower color and shape
4. Short internodes
5. Good leaf surface with no damage from insect and disease
6. Maximum yield
The size and color of the flowers also be affected by poor growing practices like
a) Allowing water to get onto the flowers can cause Botrytis in the flower

39
b) Spraying at the wrong time, at too high on air temperature or with the wrong
concentrations, can cause burning with petals
c) Too strong light will cause burning of the petal tips.
d) Too little light will cause weak stems, stretched internode and petioles, drooping necks
and poor vase-life
e) Leaf quality will be damaged by
• deficiency,
• fungal disease problems such as Mildews,
• too little water to the plants,
• Leaf Roller and Red Spider Mites
f) If a bud is cut too early, it will fail to open
The major quality parameters are:
1. Length of stem---the grade lengths for roses are: 30-40 cm, 40-50 cm, 50-60 cm, 60-80cm-
100 cm, and 100-120 cm
2. Strength/thickness of stem--------the thicker the better
3. Size, shape and fullness of bud
4. Color of flower
5. Quality of leaf substance size and color
6. Freedom from powdery and downy mildew
7. Freshness
The most common mistake and/or fault found in the rose markets is
• damage to the heads,
• bruising of the buds, and
• breaking of the necks.
POST – HARVEST HANDLING
• The maturity of flowers at harvesting does affect the vase life of the flower
• Early harvesting (stem does not transmit enough water) – so not good
• As a rule of thumb: red roses harvested when the outer (first two petals just begin to
unfold, white rose are harvested at slightly open stage than others)
• Pre-cooling: For extended storage before air lifting place the flowers in cool rooms in
airtight containers and held at 2 - 40
C up to 2 weeks
• Grading is done mainly on the basis of stem length and flower size
After grading, place stems of roses immersed in preservative solutions: FLORALIFE: 2-3%
sugar + 200 ppm citric acid + bactericide [8-hydroxy quinoline citrate 200 ppm OR 8-hydroxy
quinoline sulphate 200 ppm]

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Physiological Disorders
1. Bullheads:
• Characterized by shorter petals that give the rose a flattened appearance.
• Common in some cultivars grown at cool temperatures
• it is also seen in flowers distorted by thrips
• by excess stem vigor as in the case of renewal shoot
• Some cultivars that have a tendency to produce bullheads.
2. Blind shoots
• Rose shoots initiate flowers at an early stage of development but blind shoots abort most
flower buds soon thereafter.
• Blind shoots increase in periods of low lights
• Increased carbon dioxide & light levels help to minimize numbers of blinds
3. Leaf Drop
• Is not uncommon in the rose.
• causes are
o shading from foliage,
o about inconsistent irrigation & nutritional practices,
o plant age
o a reaction to a pesticide application.
o heavy infestation of mites & powdery mildew
4. Leaf Distortion
• Spray applications to very young leaves can damage the leaf & prevent normal growth,
producing distortions.
• Water stress, usually caused by high light intensity & low humidity, causes a tissue burn.
5. Volatiles
• Rose is sensitive to chemicals from
o mercury metal and
o mercuric compounds fungicide,
o ethylene gas,
o ammonia,
o sulfurdioxide,
o Phenoxy-type herbicides.

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Pests and Diseases
1. Diseases
Powdery mildew (Saphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae)
• The most common disease of roses in greenhouse.
• It attacks leaves, stems, and flower.
• Spores are wind borne from fruiting bodies to new leaves and can germinate in 3 hr.
• Following penetration of the tissue, the fungus develops along outside of the tissue and
fruiting bodies are developed to complete the life cycle.
• Development of the disease is related with temperatures and humidity.
o spore germination, infection and spore production favoured by
▪ Low night temperatures (60o
F)
▪ high humidity (90 to 99%) favor,.
o favor spore maturation and release.
▪ High temperatures and low humidity (35 to 70%)
• In hot dry periods, the incidence of Powdery mildew can be wide spread especially when
there is a significant difference b/n the day and night temperature.
• It appears as a powdery white mark on the leaves
• It does not kill the leaf but marks it and reduces the quality when the flower is sold
• Control of the RH is the best way to slow down the spread, also by using sulphur burners
every night as a preventative measure
• Failing that, the only way to get rid of it is to spray daily with different range of fungicides.
Downey mildew (Peronospora aparsa)
• Downey mildew is every tropical rose grower’s dread
• It is found when the weather is cold and damp and there is limited air circulation around
plants.
• The disease enhanced by cool temperatures and high relative humidity, rainy period when
relative humidity exceeds 85% is favorable.
• After spore germination, the fungus grows within the leaf and depending on the humidity,
spores may be seen on the underside of the leaf.
• The leaf shows black spots and starts to turn yellow, and after a while it drops off causing a
major loss of crop
• These is little care for it except by ensuring that the leaves are kept dry by improving the air
circulation
• It is not such a problem in heat greenhouses b/s of the air circulation caused by the heating.
Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea)

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• Botrytis or gray mold is a common disease of flowers.
• Under cool and humid condition, it is a serious problem of roses in transit.
• Spores need up to 12 hrs continuous freestanding water on plant surface to germinate.
• protect the heads from water (damp moisture) that causes Botrytis in the bloom.
• This rots the bloom and causes it to shatter either when it is being handled or transited.
• All irrigation should be a low level
• One or two varieties have been found to be more tolerant to Botrytis.
• Proper heating and ventilation are important control measures
Integrated Pest Management: -
• is the prevention and control of powdery and Downey
Components
• Hygiene/sanitation
• supervision,
• use of resistant / tolerant varieties,
• biological control (parasites and predators),
• Mechanical and chemical control.
Pests (insects and mites)
A. Red Spider Mite
• Found throughout the world Particularly prevalent in hot dry conditions in which they
can build up very rapidly
• In the earlier stages, the leaves underneath start to discolor while on the top silvery like
pin pricks are to be seen;
• The red Spider Mite is only the red color when coming out of hibernation or going into
hibernation
• The wide use of fungicides to control Powdery mildew appears to encourage spider mites
• Sulphur burners, control on both Powdery mildew and spider mite
• So, Red Spider Mites must be eliminated on the nursery if the flowers are intended for
export
B. Trips
• This small insect pest buries itself into new tissue in the growing points
• The insect complete the life cycle in the plant and the soil.
• difficult to control b/s of quick lifecycle and resistance to almost all pesticides used

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C. Whitefly
• It is not a very common problem in roses
• attack the very young leaves and weaken plants
• It is a small white furry insect easily recognized once known
• Both the Tobacco Whitefly and Greenhouse Whitefly,
• once established are very difficult to control
• Therefore, immediate action once seen is required
D. Leaf roller
• Easy to find but by that time the leaf is damaged
• more common in temperate countries than it is in tropical areas
• Controlled by general insecticides which are widely available in the temperate countries
E. Aphids
• A common problem everywhere increasing all the time and going on to different species
of rose.
• feed on stems, leaves and flowers.
• easily be detected from the cast skins and black sooty fungus that grows on the
honeydew.
• Whilst in the beginning, they are relatively easy to control.
• But, later, they will be getting harder due to the buildup of resistance to the aphidicide
range of products by some of the varieties.
Table 3: The flower color and the world flower meaning for communication among people
Red Love, Beauty, Courage and Respect, Romantic Love,
Congratulations, I Love You, Job Well Done,
Sincere Love, Respect, Courage & Passion
Red (Dark) Unconscious beauty
Red (Single) "I Love You"
Deep Burgundy Unconscious Beauty
White Purity, Innocence, Silence, Secrecy, Reverence,
Humility, Youthfulness, I am worthy of you,
Heavenly
White (Bridal) Happy love

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Pink Appreciation, "Thank you", Grace, Perfect
Happiness, Admiration, Gentleness, Please Believe
Me
Dark Pink Appreciation, Gratitude, Thank You
Light Pink Admiration, Sympathy, Gentleness, Grace, Gladness,
Joy, Sweetness
Yellow Joy, Gladness, Friendship, Delight, Promise of a new
beginning, Welcome Back, Remember Me, and
Jealousy, "I care"
Yellow with Red Tip Friendship, Falling in Love
Orange Desire, Enthusiasm
Red and White Given together, these signify unity
Red and Yellow Jovial and Happy Feelings
Peach Appreciation, Closing of the deal, Let's get together,
Sincerity, Gratitude
Pale Peach Modesty
Coral Desire
Lavender Love at first sight, Enhancement
Orange Enthusiasm, Desire, Fascination
Black * Death, Farewell
Blue * The unattainable or impossible
Single in any color Simplicity, Gratitude
Red Rosebud Symbolic of purity and loveliness
White Rosebud Symbolic of girlhood
Thornless Rose "Love at first sight"

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CHAPTER 9: CHRYSANTHEMUM
Chrysanthemum (chrysos=golden; anthos= flower) is a popular cut flower crop of
commercial importance known as “Queen of the East”. It ranks next to rose among cut flower
crops of the world.
Importance
Chrysanthemum is the number one dollar earning flower in the United States and
cultivars suitable for growing throughout the year have been evolved there. The members of
National Chrysanthemum society runs into thousands in several countries.
Large number of cultivars which exhibit wide variation in respect of growth habit, size,
colour and shape of blooms makes chrysanthemum suitable for varied purpose. Its erect and tall
growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and as cut- flowers. The dwarf
and compact growing ones are suitable for front row planting or pot culture. The decorative and
fluffy bloomed small flowered cultivars are ideal for garland making and hair decoration. The
extra large- bloomed cultivars are prized for their exhibition value. Certain species like
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum are cultivated as sources of
pyrethrum, a natural insecticide.
Classification
The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to the family Asteraceae. The natural Chrysanthemum
societies in each country classify the cultivars on the basis of flower characters, i.e. the two kinds
of florets (ray and disc florets), the physical shape of florets and the direction of growth and
arrangement of florets.
Chrysanthemum blooms are divided into 13 different bloom forms by the US National
Chrysanthemum Society, Inc., which is in keeping with the international classification system.
Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many individual flowers (florets), the disk florets are
in the center of the bloom, and the ray florets are on the perimeter. The ray florets are
considered imperfect flowers, as they only possess the female productive organs, while the disk
florets are considered perfect flowers, as they possess both male and female reproductive organs
and are capable of producing seed.

46
Common Name: FLORIST’S CHRYSANTHEMUM [Dendranthema X grandiflorum,
Asteraceae]
Modern Florist’s Chrysanthemum Dendranthema X grandiflorum
(former name, Chrysanthemum X morifolium) have originated from Dendranthema
indicum and Dendranthema japonicum
Table 4: The scientific and common names of flower
COMMON NAME FORMER SCIENTIFIC
NAME
NEW SCIENTIFIC NAME
FLORIST’S
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Chrysanthemum X morifolium Dendranthema X grandiflorum
ANNUAL
CHRYSANTHEMUM
Chrysanthemum coronarium Dendranthema coronarium
PYRETHRUM Chrysanthemum
cinerariifolium
Tanacetum cinerariifolium
TANSY CHRYSANTHEMUM Chrysanthemum
macrophyllum
Tanacetum macrophyllum
ORNAMENTAL USES
Figure 3: Florist’s Chrysanthemum Figure 4: Pyrethrum
Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. The flower heads occur
in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or buttons. This genus
contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In
addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The
most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum × morifolium (syn. C. × grandiflorum) was now named
as Dendranthema × grandiflorum
Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups (A) garden hardy and (B) exhibition.
Garden hardy mums are perennials, capable of wintering in most northern latitudes. Exhibition

47
varieties are mostly annuals, not as hardy as garden mums. Garden hardies are defined by their
ability to produce an abundance of small blooms with little mechanical assistance, such as
staking, they withstand wind and rain to some extent. Exhibition varieties require staking, cannot
withstand wind or rain and prefer a relatively dry, cool environment.
The exhibition varieties can be trained to create many artistical forms, such as thousand-bloom,
standard (trees), fans, hanging baskets, topiary, bonsai, cascades etc.
POTTED CHRYSANTHEMUM PRODUCTION
• Potted mums are mostly produced in greenhouses. Maintaining night temperature
between 15 to 170
C and day temperatures between 25 to 270
C is good for producing
export quality potted mums.
• Potting mixture (medium) must be porous and well drained
• Potting medium must be free from disease causing organisms and insects
• Pinching of growing apex has to be done at early stage to make a compact potted plant
with more lateral flowers
INSECTICIDAL USES
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum [or Tanacetum] cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a
natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called
pyrethrins are extracted with organic solvents in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a
suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects.
In sub-lethal doses they have an insect repellent effect. They are harmful to fish, but are far less
toxic to mammals (including man) and birds than many synthetic insecticides. They are not
persistent, being bio-degradable, and also decompose easily on exposure to light. Synthetic
Pyrethroids such as Allethrin, Lamda-Cyhalothrin, Transfluthrin are artificially manufactured
and have a mode of action similar to natural pyrethrum.
WORLD’S TOP CHRYSANTHEMUM PRODUCERS: - 1. NETHERLANDS 2. COLOMBIA
3. MEXICO 4. ITALY 5. SPAIN 6. SOUTH AFRICA
EXPORTS OF CHRYSANTHAMUM FROM ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is a producer and exporter of chrysanthemum. The important destinations of Ethiopia
include Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, Arab countries etc. The zero-tariff
(no import duty) adopted by the Norwegian government has promoted the imports of cut
flowers like chrysanthemum, rose and carnations from Ethiopia.

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CHAPTER 10: CARNATION
INTRODUCTION
1. Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world, occupies 5th
position among cut flowers traded on a global scale.
2. Carnation owes its cut- flower value because of attractive, wide spectrum colours, frilled
shape of petals and good vase life.
3. Carnation has an excellent keeping quality, wide range of flower forms remarkable ability to
rehydrate after air freight/ shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and
chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.
IMPORTANCE
1. Carnations are sold in western countries all the year round; they are in particular demand
for the Valentine’s Day, Easter, Mother’s Day and Christmas.
2. Standard carnations are in great demand., spray types and miniatures are gaining
popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at
comparatively low price
3. Standard carnations bearing white and pink colours are in the greatest demand followed
by red, yellow and bi-colour types
4. Some cultivars of carnation are used for extraction of essential oil (oil due to rich in fine
aromatic compounds like eugenol, benzyl benzoate, methyl salicylate etc) and are
used for making high grade perfumes
5. Generic name Dianthus – from Greek, meaning “flower of Gods”
6. Species name caryophyllus- because flowers on opening bear smell of clove oil
ORIGIN AND HISTORY
• Carnation is indigenous to the Mediterranean area
• The common name carnation is originated from the Greek word “cornotion” as flowers
were used to decorate the crowns of Greek athletes
• Montague Allwood, a pioneer British carnation breeder opined that the present day
perpetual – flowering carnation is a cross between Dianthus caryophyllus
(CARNATION) and Dianthus chinensis (CHINESE PINKS)
• The cultivar William Sim produced in 1939 by William Sim of USA is the greatest
contribution to the present-day carnation industry. From this red flowering variety
mutants were developed to white, pink, orange and several variegated forms

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DISTRIBUTION
• Natural climate for carnation occurs near 300
N or S latitudes away from equator
• Altitude can modify latitude as in case of Bogota, Colombia, mountain areas of Mexico
and Central America and parts of Kenya in Africa
• Bogota is only 40
N of equator but located at altitude 2800 metres above sea level
• The climate for carnation production is quite ideal in Bogota
• Carnations are cultivated on a large scale in protected structures of Holland, France,
Italy, Israel and Germany
CLASSIFICATION OF CARNATION
1. PERPETUAL CARNATIONS
These are hybrids involving many Dianthus species. They are not hardy but flower all the
year round. Flowers are borne on long stems and have a great ability to withstand long
distance transportation that make it the best suited for cut flowers
• Perpetual carnations are further divided into two major classes, Standard and Spray.
• The standard types produce larger blooms on longer flower stalks whereas spray types
(miniatures) produce many flowers of smaller size and are better adapted to warm
climate
2 CHABAUD OR MARGUERITE CARNATIONS
• These are annuals with single or double flowers reproducing true form seed.
• Blooms are large with fringed petals, which do not last very long after harvesting as
compared to perpetual flowering types., they are comparatively easier for cultivation
than perpetual types
SPECIES OF DIANTHUS
• Dianthus is a genus of about 300 species out of which Dianthus caryophyllus
(CARNATION), Dianthus barbatus (SWEET WILLIAM) and Dianthus chinensis
(CHINA PINKS/ GARDEN PINKS) are most commonly cultivated ones.
GENETICS
• Carnation is grouped into three categories viz., single (5 petals commonly), semi doubles
(30-60 petals) and super doubles (100-300 petals).
• Singleness is a monogenic character and is recessive to doubleness, while
heterozygotes yield semi- double flowers

50
BREEDING
• Different methods used for carnation improvement are introduction, selection,
hybridization and mutation breeding. Breeding for disease resistance is of prime
importance in carnation as there is no satisfactory chemical control when the diseases are
in epidemic form.
• Alternaria leaf blight, bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt, rust and powdery mildew are
major diseases
GROWTH AND FLOWERING
• When a carnation shoot develops six pairs of leaves it changes from vegetative to
reproductive condition.
• Temperature is the major factor influencing growth and flowering in carnation.
• Carnation is a cool temperature crop and night temperature is critical for quality flower
production in carnation optimum being 13 - 16°C
GROWTH REGULATORS
• Growth regulators play an important role in flowering of carnation. By spraying
Chlormequat at 1000 ppm gave early flowering and increased flower production
• Applying two sprays of GA3 (100 ppm), one at first pinch and second when 8-10 cm of
length of axillary shoots, produced early flowering and long stems.
PROPAGATION
• Seed propagation is used for raising Marguerite carnations that breed tree from seeds.
Perpetual carnations are propagated commonly through stem cuttings from vigorous,
healthy and disease-free mother plants.
• Mother plants are maintained in a certified nucleus block under protected
conditions. Fungicidal spray (Dithane M-45 (0.25%) + Bavistin (0.1%) at fortnight
intervals should be given to this nucleus stock
• For standard cultivars, terminal cuttings (5 cm long) and for spray types (8-10 cm long)
with four to five pairs of leaves are used for propagation.
• Sand, vermiculite, perlite, damp sphagnum moss and super soil are various media used
for rooting of carnation cuttings. A fungicidal treatment for 30 minutes should be given
for un-rooted cuttings to avoid fungal diseases during rooting
• Rooting of cuttings occurs in 3-4 weeks and rooted cuttings are then transferred to
hardening chambers before transplanting in main field. In Europe and America,
commercial growers adopt micro-propagation to obtain large number of disease free
plants.

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SPACING
• Considering spacing, standard carnations are planted at 15x15 cm and spray types at
20x20 cm
• Flower size and quality will be better at a density of 32 plants/m2
• STAKING Galvanised metal wire or nylon rope of 4-5 layers fixed on frames are used
for staking. First layer has to be placed at 12 cm above soil medium and remaining layers
of wires are placed at distance of 15 cm from one another.
PINCHING
• It is done by removing the apex of upright growing shoot after 30-35 days of planting
leaving only 6 pairs of basal leaves.
• If too many leaf pairs remain on stem, flower quality may be reduced. Pinching induces
rapid development of side shoots, one from each pair of leaves.
• These shoots develop fast and will grow into flowering stems
MANURING AND FERTILIZATION
General recommendation of standard carnation is FYM 5 - 10 kg, N 30 g, P 20 g and K
10g (all per metre square)
• Foliar sprays of KNO3 at 0.1% , Zn (800ppm), Mn (30 ppm), Boron (1 ppm) at 10
days interval is beneficial in carnation for optimum growth and flowering of carnation
IRRIGATION
During first 3 weeks after planting overhead misting followed by drip fertigation.
Afterwards, drip irrigation @ 3 cubic meter water/1000 m2
area on alternate days is better for
plant growth during summer months
DISBUDDING
• In standard carnations, lateral buds below sixth node from terminal flower bud are
removed to encourage production of best quality terminal flowers. The best time for
disbudding is when terminal flower bud is about 15 mm diameter.
• Spray type carnations need a different kind of disbudding. In this terminal bud is
removed from main axis to encourage lateral flower buds.

52
HARVESTING
• Standard carnations are harvested when petals just show colour outside the calyx, i.e.,
called as the paint brush stage
• Spray types are harvested when two flowers are open and all other buds have started
showing colour
GRADING
• Extra Class: - include flowers of best quality, i.e., properly developed flowers with
strong stems and conforming to a given cultivar. Only 3 % flowers with slight faults are
allowed in this class., following are characters of Extra Class flowers
• STANDARD FLOWERS: Flower Diameter: 6 - 8 cm, Stem Length: 50 – 60 cm
• SPRAY FLOWERS: Flower Diameter: 3 - 5 cm, Stem Length: 25 – 30 cm
TREATMENT WITH FLORAL PRESERVATIVES
• Silver Thiosulphate 0.5 milli MOLAR + Sucrose- 100 g/ litre + Citric Acid - 300 ppm [
Treatment for 12 hours ]
• Carnation is very sensitive to ethylene gas. The anti-ethylene compound 1-MCP (1-
methyl cyclo propene) is mixed with floral preservatives to prevent injury of
ethylene
STORAGE
• Pre-cooling of flowers quickly after harvesting reduces water loss
• Flowers harvested at tight bud stage can be stored longer than those at opened bud stage
• Longest post storage vase-life was obtained by maintaining storage temperature at 100
C
and humidity 98 %
TRADING OF CARNATIONS
• United States and many American nations celebrate functions, particularly
independence day with carnations
• US is a major importer of carnation
• Holland is the largest exporter
• 2ND
largest exporter is Colombia
• From Colombia, >50 commercial cultivars, >200,000 tonnes flowers fetching $500
million traded annually. Colombian exports, mainly to US (85%), and to Britain,
Germany, Russia, Japan
ETHIOPIA’s FLOWER EXPORTS

53
• Floriculture plays a major role in Ethiopia’s efforts to beat un-employment
• Floriculture is so blooming that in near future, it could even overtake coffee, the main
horticultural export commodity
• Low air-freight cost from Addis Ababa and proximity to European, West Asian, Middle
East markets are advantages
• Carnation stands 4th
in flowers exported from Ethiopia, next to Rose, Geranium,
Poinsettia
• Out of 600 million US $ earned in 2012 by flower exports, 40 million US $ is the share of
carnations
• >1400 ha under Green Houses in Ethiopia, 1/6th
is under carnation
• Cool climatic conditions of Ethiopian high lands (with warm sunny days and cooler
nights) is ideal for growing cut flowers (including carnation) even in out-door
conditions
Quality of carnation flowers produced in Ethiopia, being superior than from Kenya can compete
to gain supremacy among carnation exporters of Africa

54
CHAPTER 11: ORCHIDS
Orchids are the royalty among flower crops. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size,
shape and colour of flowers. They are valued as cut flowers and potted plants. They are famous
for their long vase life and bewitching beauty. No other plant has probably acquired the status of
orchids.
Orchids with their rich diversity of colours and forms coupled with long lasting characteristics
occupy a prime position in cut flower industry. The orchid cut flower industry is growing at an
annual rate of 15-20 per cent. The world orchid trade is estimated to be around nearly US $ 65
billion.
Types of Orchids: Orchids can be divided to two groups depending on the “plant structure”.
These are monopodial and sympodial.
(i) Monopodial orchids grow from a single vegetative apex. They do not have rhizome or
pseudo-bulbs. They are mostly climbers. Single stem is the main character of monopodials.
Roots are adventitious, thick, round and photosynthetic, clinging to the supports, absorbing
moisture from air. Important monopodial orchids include Arachnis, Vanda, Renanthera,
Phalaenopsis, Aerides etc.
(ii) Sympodial orchids are characterized by the presence of rhizomes or modified bulbs
(pseudo-bulbs). They grow from a number of vegetative apices. Roots arise from the base of
rhizomes / pseudo-bulbs. Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Cattelya, and Oncidium are common
examples. The distinguishing feature of sympodial orchids is their limited growth.
In all orchids there is a layer of spongy tissue known as “velamen” around the true roots. This
tissue absorbs water and minerals and also preserves water.
According to their growth habit orchids can be divided into terrestrial, epiphytic,
saprophytic, lithophytic etc.
Terrestrial orchids grow in soil and are called ground orchids. Common ground orchids
are Spathoghottis, Peristeria elata, Jewel orchids etc.
Epiphytic orchids grow on other plants and are abundant in the humid tropical rain
forests up to elevations of 3,000 m. Most common epiphytic orchids are Vanda, Vanilla,
Dendrobium, Cymbidium etc. All epiphytes have clinging roots for support, and hygroscopic
velamen roots.
Saprophytic orchids live on dead and decaying organic matter and are usually found on
moist forest floor. They have no green leaves but only fleshy underground rhizome. Ex: Neottia,
Galeola
Lithophytic orchids are very rare and grow in most shaded rocks and crevices of stony
walls. Diplomeris, Geodorum etc. are some examples.

55
Orchids of Commercial importance
There are around 25000 species of orchids belonging to 700 genera and more than one
lakh hybrids. Around 1000 hybrids are being added every year. Many orchids are of
horticultural importance and some of them are as follows: (i) Aerides : Foxtail orchids
(ii) Arachnis : Spider orchids (iii) Rhyncostylis: Their inflorescence resembles that of Aerides
and hence they are also called Fox tail orchids. (iv) Oncidium : Dancing girl orchid
(v) Phalaenopsis : Moth orchids (vi) Epidendrum : Holy cross orchid (vii) Spathoglottis :
Ground orchid (viii) Peristeria : Dove orchid
Cymbidiums are the leaders among all orchids in the global cut flower trade presently ranking
eighth in top 10 cut flowers. It fetches highest price per flower on international markets.
Cattelyas are widely traded for their showy large blooms, Phalaenopsis has very long vase life
and Oncidiums are used as cut flower sprays. All these are highly valued as cut flowers and as
potted plants. Among the tropical orchids, Dendrobiums are the most favored and account for
85% of the total trade in tropical orchids cut flowers. Vandas, Mokaras, Arandas, Arachnis etc,
are also popular cut flower sprays which are traded worldwide.
In USA, orchids have raised to number 2 positions in the sales of flowering potted
plants.

A HANDBOOK ON FLORICULTURE And Landscaping

A HANDBOOK ON FLORICULTURE And Landscaping

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