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1. Motivationand Theoriesof Motivation
Aamir Ali
B.ED (1.5 Year)
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur.

2. Motivation
Motivation is the characteristic that helps you achieve your goal. It is the drive that
pushes you to work hard .It is the energythat gives you the strength to get up and keep
going - even when things are not going your way.
OR
Motivationis a needor desire that energizesbehaviorand directsit toward a goal. It is what either
starts or stops behavior. It is the internal and external forces that drive our thoughts, moods, and
behaviors.
ExtrinsicMotivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is
separate from or external to the person.
Example:Goingto work for money.
Intrinsic Motivation
Type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner.
Example:Creating a web site for fun.
DifferentTheoriesonMotivation
1. Humanistic TheoriesofMotivation
2. Instinct TheoriesofMotivation
3. Incentive TheoriesofMotivation
4. Drive ReductionTheoriesof Motivation
5. Arousal Theoriesof Motivation
6. Expectancy Theoriesof Motivation

3. Humanistic Theories of Motivation
Founder: Abraham Maslow (1954, 1971)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1954, 1971), one of the founders of humanistic psychology, proposed that
all human beings have a hierarchy of needs, ranging from the most basic to the highest-order
needs. According to Maslow, humans first need to satisfy their most basic needs before
attempting to satisfy more sophisticated needs.
The different needs can be divided in two main categories:
1. Deficiencyneeds
2. Growth Needs
As humans satisfy their most basic physiological needs (e.g., food, water, sleep,
shelter), they can move to satisfy other psychological needs (e.g., love and
belongingness, self-esteem, knowing and understanding).Ultimately, humans might
achieve the highest and most elusive of Maslow’s needs:self-actualization, the
development of one’s full potential as a human being.
In Maslow’s view, people who are unable to satisfy the most basic needs are at risk
of suffering serious psychological consequences. Students who never completely
address their needs for food or safety at home, for example, are impaired in their
cognitive growth (Graham & Long, 1986), and those who are threatened with violence
at school may never feel safe again and have difficulty focusing on their studies.
Research suggests that even when the financial situation of a student improves in the
future, the negative effects of not having basic needs fulfilled at an early age may
prevent him/her from moving up and addressing higher growth needs.
Steps involve in Maslow’s Theories
1. Survival
The most basic physiological needs, including food, water, and warmth
2. Safety
The need to be protected from physical or emotional threat, such as
protection from war, crime, and domestic violence
3. Belonging
The need to receive affection and attention from others, such as family,
teachers, peers, and community members
4. Self-Esteem
The need to feel good about ourselves

4. 5. Intellectual Achievement/ Knowledge
The need to know and understand ourselves and the world around us
6. Aesthetic Appreciation
The need to appreciate order and beauty
7. Self-Actualization
The need to realize one’s full potential as a human being
Limitations and criticism
Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense but little evidence supports its strict hierarchy.
Research has challenged the order imposed by Maslow’s pyramid. As an example, in
some cultures, social needs are regarded higher than any others.
Little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time.
Instinct Theories of Motivation
There are different theories of motivation that are viewed in various approaches. The
differences in these theories usually lie on how they emphasize biological and/or
environmental forces in their attempt to explain the process of motivation. While there
are theories that combine several aspects of science, the Instinct Theory of Motivation
is one (and perhaps the only one) that gives a complete emphasis on the biological
approach to motivation.
“Instinct” is a term that was used to refer to any repeated behaviour. In simple words,
instinct is the behavior shown by an organism in response to a certain stimuli.
Examples
 The tendency of a dog to shake his body when it gets wet.
 Birds migrating south before winter.
 Mother’s reflex to take care of her child regardless of her upbringing in
different societies.
William McDougall
William McDougall was one of the firsts to write about instinct theory of motivation.
According to him, instinct must be
 Unlearned

5.  Uniform in expression
 Universal in species
And composed of
 Perception
 Behavior
 Emotion
Based on the three elements, he outlined 18 different instincts such as maternal
instinct, comfort, sex, hunger, laughter and curiosity.
For instance, you usually pay attention to odors in the kitchen when you are hungry.
This is your hunger instinct. This motivates you to check the refrigerator for food.
Problems with Instinct Theory
One of the problems with this theory of motivation is that many identified instincts are
not universal. For instance, there are mothers who do not exhibit the supposed
instinctual behaviour to take good care of their children. Another issue is that humans
may exhibit different levels of motivation because of instinct, such as jealousy and
aggression.
Incentive Theories of Motivation
A theory that focuses on motivation and behaviour, the Incentive Theory of Motivation
involves the concepts of conditioning, homeostasis and positive reinforcement. The theory is
one of the motivation theories that are promoted by behaviourists.
Because there are diverse forces that underlie and influence motivation, from
physiological, emotional, to social or cognitive forces, a number of alternative theories
to explain motivation have evolved. One of these is the Incentive Theory of Motivation.
Incentive theory, unlike other theories like Drive Reduction theory, Arousal Theory and Instinct
Theory of Motivation, suggest that our actions are influenced by outside incentives. It is
different as the individual does not desire to reduce the stimulus, but instead becomes
attracted to it. If we look back to the theory of Operant Conditioning, individuals learn behavior
either to gain reinforcement or avoid punishment. Incentive theory is quite similar to this, as it
suggests that rewards are what drive our actions. There are commonly two types of
incentives, positive and negative.
Positive Incentives
Positive incentives refer to rewards or reinforcement provided for the actions. For
instance, a teacher praises her student for completing his homework. This makes him
want to continue completing his work in the future. She could also reward him
with better marks, recognition in the class or a treat for a job well done. These are
other forms of positive incentives.

6. Negative incentives
Negative incentives are exactly opposite and only offered when positive incentives do not
work. For instance, the same teacher could criticize her student for not completing his
homework. This negative incentive could be failing him, making him stand outside the class,
etc.
Application
Incentive Theory of Motivation is applied in various fields and industries, one of the
largest ones being business management. In management, monetary and non-
monetary incentives are provided to employees to motivate them in their work. Non-
monetary incentives include praise, promotion opportunities, recognition, job
enrichment and job security.
Drive ReductionTheories of Motivation
The drive reduction theory presented by Clark L. Hull has arguably been the most
influential drive theory of motivation.
A theory of motivation developed by Clark L. Hull, the Drive-Reduction Theory focuses
on how motivation originates from biological needs or drives. In this theory, Hull
proposed a person’s behaviour is an external display of his desire to satisfy his
physical deficiencies.
A theory originally posited in the mid-20th century; attributed all behavioral motivation
to the pleasure of meeting a biological need. Drive-reduction theory fell out of favor
because it failed to explain situations where people choose a tension-producing over
a tension-reducing action — in extreme sports, for example.
Example: Hunger is an unpleasant sensation which reminds us to eat food, an activity
central to our survival.
Drive-ReductionTheory andLearning
According to Hull, drive reduction is a major aspect of learning. Drives are thought to
underlie all behaviour in that behaviours are only conditioned, or learned, if the
reinforcement satisfies a drive. Individuals faced with more than one need at the same
time experience multiple drives, and research has shown that multiple drives can lead
to more rapid learning than a single drive.
Application
Today, the drive-reduction theory is largely ignored in the field of psychology, despite the
glory it has enjoyed from 1940s to 1950s. While drive-reduction theory is not much put into
practical application nowadays, it is usefulfor students to learn about the theory, its concepts
and its influence to modern psychology. In this way, the students would be able to know how
other theorists built on the drive-reduction theory and why some theorists proposed
concepts opposing Hull’s Theory.

7. Criticisms
There are several issues that leave the validity of drive-reduction theory open for
debate. For one, drive-reduction theory has trouble explaining why humans and other
animals voluntarily increase tension by exploring their environments, even when they
are not hungry or thirsty. There are also complications to drive-reduction theory
caused by so-called "pleasure-seeking" behaviours, which seem to be contradictory
to the theory's precepts. Why would an individual actively seek out more stimulation if
it is already in a state of relaxation and fulfilment? Proponents of drive-reduction theory
would argue that one is never in a state of complete fulfilment, and thus, there are
always drives that need to be satisfied.
Arousal Theories of Motivation
The arousal is one of the important aspects needed for attention and information
process. One such factor that is considered as most important is emotions that acts a
motivating aspect for bringing our certain behaviours like do or die response, sexual
activity etc. This level also acts as a base in characterizing every individual as an
extrovert or an introvert.
The psychological factor that arouses a person has a relationship with task performance,
it is also proved that even a little raise or drop in the arousal can have a negative or
positive effect in the task performance. Some can seek out his own motivation stimulator
like going out for a hiking or partying in club etc. that can pep them up.
When the optimal level is high the efficiency is also at raise and to maintain the optimal
level they indulge in various activities. When the arousal levels drop below the
individual’s optimal level, the person seeks out stimulation to elevate them. For example,
if the levels are to drop low the person might seek stimulation by going out to a nightclub
with friends.
Influence on Performance
The performance that is always influenced even with a small change in the level of
arousal is called linked to Yerkes Dodson Law of Arousal theory. This law suggests
that the performance that is improved during the increased arousal. This improved
performance can be seen only up to certain level and the efficiency consequently
diminishes.
For example the optimal level of stress and anxiety helps to act as a motivation to
concentrate and increase efficiency, but once the anxiety level rises and the optimal
level decreases the concentration and efficiency too starts falling down making it
difficult to show perfection.
 During Low Arousal Level: When the arousal levels drop below the individual’s
optimal level, the person seeks out stimulation to elevate them. For example, if
the levels are to drop low the person might seek stimulation by going out to a
nightclub with friends.

8.  During High Arousal Level: When the optimal level is high the efficiency is also
at raise and to maintain the optimal level they indulge in various activities. The
activities can be anything that relaxes and calms that individual’s mind and
brain. For example, listening to calming music or doing meditation that can bring
peace and solace.
Conclusion
To reach the goal every single person tries to use their optimal energy or the ideal arousal
level. One of the basic reasons to why the behaviour and the attitude define the difference
from person to person is also because of arousal level that determines ones personality,
lifestyle. The energy and the arousal that is important to finish and achieve the goal with
quality can also cause lower performance variation and mistakes.
It can be said that the arousal level should neither be too high nor too low that can lead to
stress, depression or neurotic behaviour. And as explained in the above the complexity of
the human mind that is explained is just one among the main points to be considered.
Expectancy Theories of Motivation
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation is best described as a process theory. Expectancy
Theory provides an explanation of why individuals choose one behavioural option over
others. The idea with this theory is that people are motivated to do something because they
think their actions will lead to their desired outcome (Redmond, 2009). "Expectancy theory
proposes that work motivation is dependent upon the perceived association between
performance and outcomes and individuals modify their behaviour based on their calculation
of anticipated outcomes". In other words, it can help explain why a person performs at a
particular level. This has a practical and positive potential of improving motivation because it
can, and has, helped leaders create motivational programs in the workplace. This theory
provides the idea that an individual's motivation comes from believing they willget what they
desire in the form of a reward. "Although the theory is not "all inclusive" of individual
motivation factors, it provides leaders with a foundation on which to build a better
understanding of ways to motivate subordinates". Expectancy theory is classifiedas aprocess
theory of motivation because it emphasizes individual perceptions of the environment and
subsequent interactions arising as a consequence of personal expectations.
The theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if they
believe that
 There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance.
 Favourable performance will result in a desirable reward.
 The reward will satisfy an important need.
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation was suggested by Victor H. Vroom. Vroom's Expectancy
Theory addresses motivation and management. The theory suggests that an individual's
perceived view of an outcome will determine the level of motivation. It assumes that choices
being made maximize pleasure and minimize pain. This is also seen in the Law of Effect, "one
of the principles of reinforcement theory, which states that people engage in behaviours that
have pleasant outcomes and avoid behaviours that have unpleasant outcomes". Vroom

9. suggests that prior belief of the relationship between people's work and their goalas a simple
correlation is incorrect. Individual factors including skills, knowledge, experience, personality,
and abilities can all have an impact on an employee's performance.
Vroom theorized that the source of motivation in Expectancy Theory is a "multiplicative
function of valence, instrumentality and expectancy". He suggested that "people consciously
chose a particular course of action, based upon perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs as a
consequence of their desires to enhance pleasure and avoid pain".
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is based on these three components
1. Expectancy
Expectancy can be described as the belief that higher or increased effort will
yield better performance. This can be explained by the thinking of "If I work
harder, I will make something better".
Conditions that enhance expectancy include having the correct resources
available, having the required skill set for the job at hand, and having
the necessary support to get the job done correctly.
2. Instrumentality
Instrumentality can be described as the thought that if an individual performs
well, then a valued outcome will come to that individual. Some things that help
instrumentality are having a clear understanding of the relationship between
performance and the outcomes, having trust and respect for people who make
the decisions on who gets what reward, and seeing transparency in the process
of who gets what reward.
3. Valence
Valence means "value" and refers to beliefs about outcome desirability. There
are individual differences in the level of value associated with any specific
outcome. For instance, a bonus may not increase motivation for an employee
who is motivated by formal recognition or by increased status such as
promotion. Valence can be thought of as the pressure or importance that a
person puts on an expected outcome.