The document discusses several models of communication that were developed over time: 1) The earliest model was the "Continuous Loop Model" which depicted communication as a machine with feedback loops. It had flaws in assuming communication is always continuous. 2) Shannon and Weaver's 1949 model was more practical, studying phone conversations over 2 years. It depicted information sources, transmitters, receivers, noise sources, and feedback. 3) Berlo's late 1970s/early 1980s model tried to be all-inclusive but was never tested, so it is considered a "theory" rather than a true model. It depicted the roles of senders and receivers.

1. Models of Communication Dr. Eduardo Bustos Farías

2. Models of Communication Linear Models

3. Models of Communication Linear Models

4. Models of Communication Linear Models

5. Models of Communication Linear Models

6. Models of Communication Linear Models

7. Models of Communication Linear Models Interactive

8. Models of Communication Linear Models Interactive Transaction Models of Communication http://www.sfc.keio.ac.jp/~masanao/Mosaic_data/com_model.html

9. Models of communication Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) The study of communication can be organised into three categories: The sender The message The listener

10. Aristotle’s model Sender Receiver Message

11. Mass communications Sender Message

12. Communications research 1920-40 Level A The technical problem How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitted? Level B The semantic problem How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning? Level C The effectiveness problem How effectively does the received meaning affect behaviour in the desired way?

13. Mathematical Theory of Communication Claude Shannon (1948) Telecommunications engineer at Bell labs How much information is in a message?

14. Main People Claude Shannon – Developed the initial theory of communication. With Warren Weaver developed the Shannon-Weaver model of Communication Theory W. Scramm – Added concept of field of experience to Shannon-Weaver model David Berlo – Developed SMCR ( Sender Message Channel Receiver) model, stressing relationship between source and receiver Howard Lasswell – Introduced content analysis

15. Information Theory Model (Shannon) Source Destination encode decode channel

16. The Objective Model Speaker A Speaker B Purpose is understanding Step 1 Step 2

17. Shannon & Weaver Model of Communication Information Sources Transmitter Receiver Destination Signal Received Noise Source Message Message

18. Shannon’s model Information Not the same as meaning Function of the number of message choices Entropy is the amount of uncertainty in a message Channel Medium over which the message is sent Maximum capacity Noise Unwanted distortion Information source Destination Transmitter Receiver Message Message Signal Received signal Noise Noise source

19. MODEL #1: CONTINUOUS LOOP MODEL This is the EARLIEST model of communication that has been presented and accepted by others who study the field. It is also the SIMPLEST model (though it might not look like it at first). It includes all of the basic parts/players in the communication process. There are still a few problems, though!

20. Continuous Loop Model

21. Continuous Loop Model CONTENT

22. Continuous Loop Model M MESSAGE CONTENT

23. Continuous Loop Model M Channels MESSAGE CONTENT

24. Continuous Loop Model S M Channels SENDER MESSAGE CONTENT

25. Continuous Loop Model S M Info Source Channels SENDER MESSAGE CONTENT

26. Continuous Loop Model S M R Info Source Channels SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER CONTENT

27. Continuous Loop Model S M R Info Source Channels Break = diff. Message received = confusion SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER CONTENT

28. Continuous Loop Model S M R F Info Source Channels Break = diff. Message received = confusion SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER FEEDBACK CONTENT

29. Continuous Loop Model S M R F Info Source Channels Break = diff. Message received = confusion SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER FEEDBACK Break = diff info sent to Sender = improper reactions CONTENT

30. CONTINUOUS LOOP This model is based upon the concept that language is a system or a machine. In this machine, communication acts as the “gears” for the machine to work properly. Any breakdowns hurt efficiency!

31. CONTINUOUS LOOP While this is the EARLIEST model of communication, it is not known who the developer or the creator of the model was. The only thing we know for sure is that it was most-likely developed in the 1920s or 1930s.

32. CONTINUOUS LOOP One of the flaws of the model is that it assumes “continuous” communication. There are times when we choose to stop communicating. In other words, this is good on paper, but it does not fit all situations.

33. Models of Communication “ Model” = “theory” Mathematical theory of communication Claude Shannon “ linear” model of communication Also known as “information theory” Concepts Information, Message, Information source, Signal, Channel, Transmitter, Noise source, Received signal, Receiver, Destination

34. Main Points – Shannon Weaver Model A linear view of communication: messages are encoded by a source and sent through a channel. Messages are then decoded by a receiver, who then sends the source feedback. Messages may be disrupted by noise. Schramm adds the factor of fields of experience of the sender and receiver, life experiences which can enhance communication when they overlap.

35. Mathematical theory of communication - 1 Information Not to be confused with meaning log 2 of of the number of possible messages This is called entropy Information source Message: transmitted by information source Signal: physical form of message

36. Mathematical theory of communication - 2 Channel: physical medium for signal E.g., air in spoken communication Transmitter Noise source Unintended (by information source) changes to the signal Receiver Received signal: signal + noise Destination: recipient of message

37. Entropy Example Let’s say you want to send one of eight possible messages All messages with same possible frequency E.g., A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are the possible messages How many bits do you need to transmit a single message? Use the entropy calculation

38. An Aspect of Shannon’s Model Information sources Where is the information source when using a CD-ROM? Giving the computer human qualities can ease identification of source “ Crafting the interactive portion of a multimedia production so that it appears that the user is communicating more with a human than with an inanimate computer may be quite complex and costly in terms of development time and effort. However, the benefits in terms of user acceptance, satisfaction, and enjoyment may justify the expense” (p. 259)

39. MODEL #2: SHANNON & WEAVER This model was created in 1949. It is not certain if this pair of researchers had seen the “Continuous Loop” model, but they were probably at least familiar with it. This model was designed to be practical!

40. MODEL #2: SHANNON & WEAVER Just as the “Loop” model was more “academic,” the Shannon & Weaver Model is more “down-to-earth.” The basis for this model was a study of telephone conversations over a very lengthy 2-year time.

41. MODEL #2: SHANNON & WEAVER The team studied only what they deemed to be “important” or “significant” calls of some length. Quick calls to a neighbor or a store were not considered for the study. The focus was on the “mechanics” of the messages.

42. Shannon and Weaver Model T Transmitter = Phone

43. Shannon and Weaver Model T R Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone

44. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone Sender = Info Source

45. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone

46. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R N Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone NOISE

47. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R N Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone NOISE Static or Connection

48. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R N Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone NOISE Static or Connection Mental or Electronic

49. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R N ? Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone NOISE Static or Connection Mental or Electronic

50. Shannon and Weaver Model S T R R N ? Sender = Info Source Transmitter = Phone Receiver = Phone Altered Message = Confusion NOISE Static or Connection Mental or Electronic

51. Berlo’s Model of Communication - 1 Communication as a process Continuous, dynamic phenomenon Arises as the interaction between communicating parties Channel Physical conductor of message (e.g., air) Form of energy carrying message (e.g., sound waves) Mechanism for encoding/decoding (e.g., vocal chords, ears)

52. Berlo’s Model of Communication - 2 Fidelity effectiveness in achieving senders purpose Sender and receiver issues Factors in fidelity Communication skills Attitudes Knowledge level Position within a sociocultural system

53. Relevant Questions What sorts of materials should be presented spoken form? What in writing? What sorts of sounds (music, sound effects, etc.) are most effective in various situations? What types of images (still, drawings, animations, video) are most efficient and effective for different purposes? Chapter 7 of text has some relevant guidelines

54. Other Guidelines Simultaneous use of multiple channels often enhance effectiveness “ Words alone cannot convey a message with anywhere near the efficiency of words and images together” “ The receiver will be more likely to decode a message accurately if he can see it and hear it at the same time. We know, too, that the receiver cannot retain as much oral information as he can visual, other things being equal” (Berlo, 1960, p. 68)

55. Views of Communication Transmission view Sending, giving, imparting information Clear aspects of mechanistic view; computer and information processing Directed towards achieving goals, purpose Ritual view Communication to transmit the “social reality as perceived by that society” Symbols as representations both for and of reality Not directed towards achieving goals? Part of learning to communicate?

56. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” This is the MOST RECENT model of communication study. An exact date is not given for the study, but it is believed to have been completed in the late 1970s or the early 1980s. This one is not designed to be “academic” or “practical.” It is designed to be “ALL-INCLUSIVE”

57. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” Even with all of the good things that this “model” illustrates and tries to describe, there is still one little issue to remember…

58. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” IT’S NOT REALLY EVEN A TRUE MODEL IN THE FIRST PLACE!

59. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” It is NOT a model because it was never actually tested. Berlo designed what he thought would be the ideal system to describe communication, but never had a chance to put it to the test in real life.

60. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” Since it was never “field-tested,” the “model” that Berlo developed has to take on a new title…

61. MODEL #3: BERLO’S “MODEL” IT HAS TO BE CALLED A “THEORY”

62. Berlo’s Listening Theory

63. Berlo’s Listening Theory CONTENT

64. Berlo’s Listening Theory CONTENT CODE

65. Berlo’s Listening Theory CONTENT CODE Sender: Emotions Knowledge Background Biases Ability

66. Berlo’s Listening Theory CONTENT CODE Sender: Emotions Knowledge Background Biases Ability Receiver: Emotions Knowledge Background Biases Ability

67. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Sender Message Receiver Channel 1

68. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Sender Message Receiver Channel noise 2

69. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Perceptions capsule Sender Message Receiver Channel noise encode decode 3

70. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Perceptions capsule Sender Message Receiver Channel noise Soft data Hard data encode decode 4

71. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Perceptions capsule Sender Message Receiver Channel noise Soft data Hard data Senses: Sight Hearing Touch Smell Taste encode decode 5

72. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Perceptions capsule Sender Message Receiver Channel noise Soft data Hard data Senses: Sight Hearing Touch Smell Taste encode decode Feedback 6

73. (SMCR) Sender Message Channel Receiver Perceptions capsule Sender Message Receiver Channel noise Soft data Hard data Senses: Sight Hearing Touch Smell Taste encode decode Feedback Uncertainty Uncertainty 7

75. Schramm’s Model of Communication - 1 Source & destination Include both encoding and decoding And an interpretation “ Sign” is output of decoding And input to interpretation Responses to sign are the meaning of the sign Interpreted on basis of context & experience Response choice initiates a new message Need overlap in “field of experience” “ common ground” A shared language can be the shared field of experience

76. Schramm’s Model of Communication - 2 Feedback Message originator acts as recipient of messages resulting directly from first message Sources of feedback From recipient(s) Head nods, frowns, thumbs up, thumbs down Self-monitoring Through sender’s own senses: ears (speech) & eyes (writing) E.g., were the senders words pronounced correctly, was there a speech error?

77. Schramm’s model (1954) Field of experience Field of experience Signal Source Decoder Destination Message Message Feedback Feedback Encoder Interpreter Decoder Decoder Interpreter Encoder

78. Application to Multimedia Development Overlap of fields of experience What do the signs used in the multimedia presentation mean to the user? Text, images, and symbols used Should overlap with fields of experience in the potential users of the Multimedia presentation E.g., icons for forward  & backward  Icons assume shared experience

79. Watzlawick-Beavin-Jackson Communication Model 1 3 5 7 9 11 2 4 6 8 10 Person A Person B Messages

80. Communication (Baker S. J.) Psychic tensions A B A AB B No reciprocal identification Partial reciprocal identification Complete reciprocal identification Field of language S+ S-

81. References Aristotle (c. 350 BC) Rhetoric Chomsky, Noam (1956). Three models for the description of language. IRE Transactions on Information Theory (2), 113–124. Schramm, W. (1954) Procedures and effects of mass communication in Henry, N. B. (1954) Mass, media and education: The fifty-third yearbook of the national society for the study of education, Part II . University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Shannon, C. & Weaver, W. (1949) The mathematical theory of communication . University of Illinois Press: Urbana.