3. Researchers try to develop models to predict
linguistic behavior.
The aim is to capture all aspects of language
use.
The goal is to have a model that describes
how language is processed in our brains, but
the relationship between functional models
that describe how language functions in
communication, and structures in the brain.
4. The creator of the model was William Levelt,
he used the term “blue print” that is the
structure of the system as it really works in
the brain, but when and how is it located, is
still unclear. Levelt’s “Speaking” model
(1989,1999)
5. Aims at describing the process of language
production from the development of
communicative intentions to the articulation
of the sounds.
It means that your intentions are shown by
the sound you are giving into a conversation.
6. The first component is the “conceptualizer”,
this is the level of our thinking.
The second component is the “formulator”,
isolated words and meanings, are turned into
sentences.
The third component “the articulator”,
sentences translated into sounds.
7. This means that first we select words, or
lexical items, which is divided in lemma and
lexeme, of the basis of the meanings we want
to express. Then sentence formation, which
leads to the spoken expression.
8. All information about a
concept we have.
Example:
A horse has for legs.
It can jump and pull
carts
Also how it smells and
how it sounds
9. Headwords you
have;
Run
Running
Runs
Ran
10. It deals with your body language, the way you
are saying something, and the sound you are
giving
11. Psycholinguistically, code-switching and
keeping languages apart are different aspects
of the same phenomenon. In the literature of
number of proposals have been made on hoe
bilingual speakers keep their languages apart.
On the basis of research on bilingual aphasia,
paradis (1981) has proposed the sub-set
hypothesis, which, it is claimed, can account
for most of the data found. According to
Paradis , words from given a language form a
sub-set of the total inventory.
12. A major advantage of the sub-set hypotesis
is that the set of lexical elements from which
a selection has to be made is reduced
dramatically as a result of the fact that a
particular language or sub-set has been
chosen.
According to de sub-set hypothesis bilingual
speakers have stores for lemmas, lexemes,
syntactic rules, morpho-lphonological rules
and elements, and articulatory elements that
are not fundamentally different from those of
monolingual speakers.
13. returning to the model, we will now discuss
how language choice is implemented. In
speaking, the step which is probably most
crucial is the marching of chunks from the
pre-verbal message with the meaning part of
lemmas, because here the transition from
conceptualization to language-specific
coding takes place.
14. the syntactic information refers to the
syntactic category of a lemma and its
grammatical functions. When a lemma is
activated, its particular syntactic
environmental is defined as well: for
example, the verb sell will involve a subject,
an object and a prepositional phrase. In the
preceding sections we gave a short
description of the production model that
represents the state of the art at the moment.
However, many aspects of bilingual
processing are still unclear.
15.
16. Compared to research on language
comprehension, there is as yet not that much
experimental research on language
production. The reason for this is that the
kind of careful manipulations of the stimuli
that may be made in comprehension studies
cannot be done in a similar way in language
production.
17. In studies of comprehension, a word, a
sentence or text can be presented and we can
examine the way in which proccessing
reflects it’s structure and meaning.
18. Recent studies have used a set of
experimental tasks to constrain the words
that speakers produce in order to investigate
the planning of utterances in real time.
19. In a picture-naming task, participants are
shown are shown a picture of a drawing and
asked to speak the name of the picture aloud
as quickly and as accurately as possible. By
measuring the time to begin to speak the
picture’s name in L1 or L2 it is possible to
infer the bilingual’s relativeprofiency in the
two languages.
20. Typically, even proficient bilinguals are faster
to name pictures in L1 than L2. However, the
time difference alone does not reveal the
source of language difference. One possibility
is simply that bilingual speakers are slower to
access the phonology of L2 than L1 and
therefore they are slower on any production
task in L2.
21. The main empirical approach to language
production in monolinguals has been to
examine the patterns and timecourse of
interference effects in a variant of the
picture-naming task know as picture-word
interference.
22. A picture is pressented to be named, but
nowa word distractor is also pressented and
the participant is instructed to ignore the
word and name the picture.
23. By varying the time at wich the word is
pressented relative to the picture and the
relationof the word to the picture’s name, it is
possible to infer the nature of the processes
that must have been operating at different
moments in time prior to speaking.
24. Some recent studies have shown that
concepts that can be named in two alternative
ways(close synonyms) compete with each
other during speech planning, to the point
where the phonology of both alternatives
appears to be active.
25. A set of recent experiments has examined
thes issue in bilingual speakers using the
picture-word interferance task. The result is
that they find evidence of cross-language
semantics inteferance. This suggest that
lemmas are active in both languages are
active during speaking.
26. We might tentatively conclude that language
selection occurs at the level of lemma, but
work in this area is too new to reach such
firm conclusions.
27. I LLUSTRATIVE RESEARCH ON
SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUSITION
The topic of selectivity of lexical access mentioned
above in the discussion of language production
research is a key issue in understanding how
knowledge of the bilingual’s two language is
organized and accessed.
28. One aproach to this problem was to ask bilinguals
to make lexical decisions about letter strings that
might be words in one or both of their languages.
29. In lexical decision task, letter strings are presented
and the participant must decide whether they are
real words or not.
The participant must take the decision as quickly as
possible and indicate his or her respones by pressing
Yes or No button.
30. Gerard and Scarborough (1989) used
the lexical decision to test the
selectivity of lexical access by having
English- Spanish bilinguals judge
whether letter strings were real words
in their L2.
The condition of interest consisted of
the interlingual homographs or false
friends- words that exist in both of the
bilingual´s languages, but that have
different meanings in the two
languages.
31. For example in Spanish the word red means net,
whereas in English the same letter string refers
to a colour.
32. If lexical access is selective then it should be possible for a
bilingual to retrieve only the language- appropiate reading
of the homograph.
Gerard and Scarborough (1989) found support for the
selective hypothesis because bilinguals were able to accept
and interlingual homograph as a real word as quickly as a
control word that was exclusively a word in one language
only.
33. D EVELOPING LEXICAL
PROFICIENCY IN A SECOND
LANGUAGE .
The main focus in psycholinguistics research on the
development of L2 expertise has instead been on the
avaliability of the L1 translation equivalent during L2
processing.
Potter (1984) Feldman (1984) used the comparision between
picture naming and single word translation as means of
determining whether bilinguals were able to acess concepts
directly for L2 or whether access proceeded through the L1
first.
34. F ORGETTING AND
RELEARNING
Level of acqusition of linguistic knowledge is crucial in
production and perception. Through non- use of a language,
the level of activation of knowledge in language decreases,
even to the point that knowledge is considered lost.
An important point for foreign language teaching is how such
knowledge can be reactivated again.
35. M ANY PEOPLE ASSUME THAT WORDS CAN
BE LOST COMPLETELY, BUT IT IS TRUE ?
Bot and Stoessel(2000) made use of the Saving method for
establishing low levels of activation of items in memory.
This method is based on the assumption that words, once
learned, are never really lost.
Also motivation is important, as it leads to learners actively
seeking opportunities to use the foreing language in
different settings.
