Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy
Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP) is a rare neurodegenerative disorder categorized as a form of
parkinsonism. It was first described in 1964 by three Canadian neurologists, PSP is sometimes
referred to as the Steele–Richardson–Olszewski Syndrome, or Nuchal Dystonia Dementia
Syndrome. Progressive damage to multiple brain cells associated with deterioration of the myelin
sheath that speeds up nerve impulse conduction, as well as destruction of the entire nerve, result in
severe and irreversible problems controlling balance, eye movement, breathing, and voluntary
muscle movement. The actor Dudley Moore has been diagnosed with PSP and presently works to
improve awareness and treatment of this enigmatic disease. Although PSP is frequently
misdiagnosed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some corollaries may be made with Parkinson's disease and other degenerative neurological
disorders, but the significant implications of PSP remain unknown. What I find most curious about
PSP is the rapid and extensive nature of the paralysis, coupled with a marginally affected intellect. I
can only imagine how torturous it must be to experience such limited ability for movement and
expression, yet maintain a high thinking capacity. Hope remains in present medical research and the
capabilities of modern technology to generate a treatment for those suffering from
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

What Does The Brain Carry Out Its Functions
The Oxford Dictionary defines the brain as an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of
vertebrates. This part of the body has three important features. These features help the brain carries
out its functions. The three important features are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brainstem.
The cerebrum is the large part of the brain and it helps the body performs functions that involve
body movements, emotional reactions, and the senses. The cerebrum is divided into four sections.
Each of these sections allows the cerebrum to do some of its functions. The first section of the
cerebrum is the frontal lobe and its function is to regulate emotions, speech patterns, and body
motions. The second part of the cerebrum is the parietal lobe and this part is responsible for auditory
and tactile interpretation. The third area of the cerebrum is the occipital lobe and it is responsible for
visual interpretation. The fourth region of the cerebrum is the temporal lobe and it aids the body in
remembering information and comprehending the definition of terms. ... Show more content on
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The cerebellum's function is to manage muscular activity. The cerebellum contains many cells and it
can be separated into three sections. Each of the cerebellum's regions executes different parts of the
cerebellum's functions. The first region is the vestibulocerebellum and it helps the body maintains
its balance and controls its visual movement. The second area of the cerebellum is the
spinocerebellum and it manages the activity of the limb and body. The third section of the
cerebellum is neocerebellum and it coordinates body movement and assesses information from the
cerebral cortex and dentate

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Essay
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) or "crib death" is an abrupt and inexplicable death of an
apparently healthy infant. Most of the cases involve infants from ages 1–12 months, and the event
occurs during the night. Various theories have been postulated from research results but without
consistency of the etiology. Since the death is sudden, prior diagnostic criteria or patterns are not
available for correlation, although some near–miss infants have been followed. A number of
possibilities have been documented in current literature, to include beta–endorphin changes,
abnormal temperature regulation, pineal abnormalities, carotid body irregularities, lead poisoning,
elevated fetal hemoglobin, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Corresponding upper motor neuron innervation for the aforementioned motor component are also
involved. The second and third parts encompass the mechanoreceptor system, which responds to
stretch and irritants to regulate the rate and volume of respiration, and the chemoreceptor system.
In the motor part of the anatomical structure, Quattrochi et. al., 1985, studied the effects of
brainstem immaturity; specifically, spine density in specific brainstem regions. Significant
differences in spine density were seen between the n. ambiguous, n. solitaries, and reticular/non–
reticular formation areas within the SIDS brainstem. This suggests that this asynchronous structural
development could exert significant effects on integrative neuronal activity and result in a functional
imbalance between brainstem regions concerned with the automatic control of respiration. Evidence
further suggests that inherent stress placed upon an immature sleep–respiratory system during post–
natal development, due to upper respiratory infections, periods of apnea, or intrinsic maturation of
sleep states, could precipitate a sudden respiratory crisis during sleep in a vulnerable infant unable
to modulate a successful adaptation to such stresses.
Another focus of research is the changes of the carotid bodies of SID victims. Cole et. al., 1979,
from the University of Connecticut, using light and electron microscopy, observed the changes of
carotid

Brainstem Strokes: A Case Study
Brainstem strokes may result in sensory and motor symptoms as well as cranial nerve dysfunction
depending on the localization of the lesion (Querol–Pascual, 2010). The 52–year–old woman
presented by Bhatnagar (2013) experienced a medullary stroke; therefore, damage to the cranial
nerves in the medulla may occur (glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), spinal accessory (XI), and
hypoglossal (XII)) (Williams, Perry & Watkins, 2013). However, the symptoms exhibited by the
woman indicate that cranial nerves IX, X and XII were damaged. Previous studies have supported
Bhatnagar's claim that the symptoms exhibited by the woman are related to a medullary stroke
(Benito–León & Alvarez–Cermeño, 2003; Gupta & Banerjee, 2014; Kim & Han, 2009; Mikushi,
Kagaya,

The Cerebrum
How the Brain Works
The brain is a very complex organ. It has many different parts which each perform dissimilar tasks.
Decisions,senses,emotions and the ability to think are all functions of the brain.The brain has many
other different roles and along with the rest of the nervous system controls and interacts with all
other body systems. This makes the brain essential for the survival of the rest of the body. Unlike
many other organs it cannot be replaced (transplanted).
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and its purposes vary from language to calculation and
the sense. The cerebrum(not shown in diagram) is the largest structure in the brain and takes up
approximately two thirds of the overall mass of the brain. The cerebrum can ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The cerebellum which in english means little brain is situated above the brainstem at the back of the
brain. The cerebellum is two masses of folded tissue which are each about the size of a peach. It
plays a vital role in muscle and limb activation and coordination which helps achieve a desired
action or movement. It also helps in controlling fear responses, happiness responses, precision,
coordination and correct timing. In the center of the brain is a very important and powerful structure
the size and shape of an almond, the Amygdala. Although the Amygdala is very small it has
essential purposes such as emotional reactions and basic survival needs. It also causes nervous
reactions such as sweaty palms. Located at the top of the brainstem is the Thalamus, it processes,
and sorts information received from other parts of the brain and sends them through the spinal cord.
It relays signals back and forth through the brainstem between the cerebrum and the other parts of
the nervous system. The brainstem is the lowest part of the human brain, it is also the most basic. It
controls simple functions like the heart pulse, digestion, breathing and

Anatomy Of The Brain Essay
The brain is part of the nervous system. This controls all of our body functions and interprets
information. Or brain is the computer of our body, it tells us what we smell, taste, hear, feel, see,
think, and do.
The anatomy of the brain mostly consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and the brainstem. The
cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It has four parts the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital
lobe, and the temporal lobe. The cerebellum is located behind the top of the brainstem. The
brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
The frontal lobe is responsible for thinking, making judgements, decision making, planning, and
emotions. The Parietal lobe is mostly responsible for our body orientation. ... Show more content on
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Each hemisphere is dominant for different traits. The right hemisphere is responsible for the creative
thinking in your brain. (Creativity, imagination, music, etc.). Also responsible for our insight and
left hand coordination skills. The left hemisphere is responsible for the logical style of thinking in
your brain. (Math, science, writing, etc). It also controls our reasoning, our language, and our right
hand coordination. The Corpus Callosum is what holds the two hemispheres together and helps
them communicate. The corpus Callosum is mostly white because it is made up of parts of nerve
cells that transmit signals between the parts, also known as white matter.
There are many different diseases and injuries that can happen to your brain. Some as common as a
concussion to sever things like strokes or brain damage. A concussion is a type of TBI caused by a
bump, blow, or jolt to the head. Being hit or bumped in the head can cause the brain to collide
against the skull or twist within the skull, then causing chemical changes in the brain. Concussions
vary in how long they last depending on how many the subject has had, or depending on how much
force was applied when the collision

Essay Comparing The Cartesian Model And Specificity Theory...
Many theories have been suggested for clinical presentation of pain such as Cartesian module of
pain in the 17th century and the 19th century specificity theory of pain. The 20th century central
summation, sensory interaction, gate control, and biopsychosocial theories show deferent concepts
from the simpler cause and effect approaches that essential in the Cartesian model and specificity
theory. Traditionally within physiotherapy and medicine the medical/disease model has been
suggested. Medical/Disease model acts on the basis that all pain has a dominant tissue or structural
source. This model is founded on the Cartesian model and specificity theory of pain where pain is
considered as sign of tissue injury and damage (Waddell, 2004)
Currently, it has bee classified the pain based on the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms
responsible for its generation and/or maintenance. The mechanisms based classification for pain is
essential for physiotherapists to better understand of clinical presentation of pain and can improve
the clinical outcomes by directing treatment into the dominant neurophysiological mechanisms
underlying the pain (Smart et al, 2008). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In case of tissue injury, pain occurs immediately results of local release of chemicals that act on the
nerve terminal. Dorsal horn cells (substantia gelatinosa) are mainly short inhibitory interneurons and
regulate transmission at the first synapse of the nociceptive pathway, between the primary afferent
fibers and the spinothalamic tract transmission neurons. Inhibitory interneurons are activated by
descending inhibitory neurons or by non–nociceptive afferent input. This gatekeeper function
support the gate control theory (Raina et al,

Selective Attention Paper
Cherry, a British physiologist, has suggested the cocktail party effect for the first time about 60
years ago. It means that a person can attend to one speaker while ignoring others at the same time,
and that is happened just by selective attention[2]. In many studies, it has been showed that during
auditory selective attention, amplitude of some of the components of ERPs increase which causes
new waves such as Nd and N2 with longer latency. These findings represent the role of higher
processing in selecting the auditory stream. Hilyard in 1973 introduced an EEG–based auditory
selective attention protocol to investigate the brain`s electrophysiological activity during the
auditory attention. It has been demonstrated that N1 amplitude of the ... Show more content on
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FFR was used in a study to investigate the effects of selective attention on humans` primary
auditory cortex area and thalamus. Increased response was observed at the fundamental frequency in
comparison to that of the ignored vowel[5]. Few researchers study the effect of selective attention
on the brainstems responses. In 1993 Ario and .et al has investigated the effects of selective
attention on the click–ABR. He showed that selective attention modulates the response at the
brainstem level less than that of the cortical level[6]. For the first time, in 2008 it has been stated
that auditory selective attention causes activity in the inferior colliculus, which is in the brainstem.
Auditory selective attention intensely activates neural activity in human`s auditory cortex. On the
contrary, the role of the attention in subcortical auditory processing was not that much interesting. In
this study, fMRI was used to investigate the activity of the inferior colliculus (IC) during the
auditory selective attention procedure. Inferior colliculus lies in the auditory pathway with various
internal and external

Split Brain
Running Head: SPLIT BRAIN LATERALIZATION
Difference of Lateralization Between Split Brain
And Intact Brain Patients
Psychology 102 Section 6X Student
Abstract
Split brain patients lateralize functions in their brains to either side of the brains while intact brain
patients utilize both sides of their brains. A group of 20 subjects were tested, 10 split brain and 10
intact brain patients. We gave these subjects three exams, a vocabulary test, a logical reasoning task
and a face recognition task. We found that split brain patients have a lower correlation between
these exams compared to those of an intact brain. If we were to replicate this exam we will receive
roughly the same numbers, but if done so more patients to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
3C. The correlational method will help me analyze the data and decipher the correlation to identify a
possible relationship between the split brain condition and laterality.
Data were collected from a group of split–brain patients and a group from the general population to
test the hypothesis using the correlational method. Each group completed three tasks shown
previously to be lateralized: (1) a vocabulary test, (2) a logical reasoning

Central Nervous System Research Paper
The Central Nervous System, or CNS, is a beautifully complex system that controls the functions of
our brain and body. Billions of neurons form networks within the brain and spinal cord that
transport signals throughout the body and the mind. Neurons are composed of cell bodies that
extend into structures called dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive signals that are then transmitted
into the cell body as an impulse, and that impulse is sent outward to the axon. These neuron
networks can react and restructure to accommodate new learning that the brain experiences– this is
called plasticity, and it's how our body is able to adapt and grow. The brain is composed of three
parts: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain, where the brainstem connects to the spinal
cord. Nerves branch off from the brainstem in a similar fashion to that of the spinal cord, and these
nerves carry sensory and motive information back and forth. The spinal cord, which extends from
the brainstem all the way down the spine, is the main pathway for sending these signals. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cerebrum itself contains a multitude of parts: the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, the
thalamus, and the pituitary and pineal gland. The cerebral cortex is composed of folded gray matter
tissue, and it is the furthermost outer layer of the cerebrum. In the cerebral cortex is where the brain
can access memory, think, feel, and

Essay On Cochlear Implants
A cochlear implant consists of an internal and external component. The internal component is
surgically inserted under the skin behind the ear, and a narrow wire is threaded into the inner ear.
Unlike hearing aids, cochlear implants convert sound waves to electrical impulses and transmit them
to the inner ear, providing people with the ability to hear sounds and potentially better understand
speech without reading lips. Speech and language ability varies among individuals, with many
cochlear implant recipients developing age appropriate linguistic ability. Ability to produce accurate
speech, ability to understand speech and writing and reading ability have all been studied. In May
1998, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) had been
demonstrated in the long–term benefits of cochlear implants that children were not limited to speech
recognition. However, it would do that as well as went into far more detail into other ways they
have dramatically improved their language ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is vulnerable to injury, as it is found close to the area on the face where a surgeon puts the
cochlear implant. If an injury occurs, the patient may experience either temporary or permanent
weakening, or complete paralysis on the part of the face where the implant lies. Individuals with
abnormal formations of inner ear structures are at a higher risk of meningitis, which is an infection
of the brain's surface lining, states the FDA. Meningitis is considered a rare but severe complication.
Cerebrospinal fluid leakage occurs when the surgery causes a hole to form in the inner ear or a
region in the brain's covering, says the FDA. The fluid surrounding the brain oozes out of the hole.
It is also possible for the fluid in the inner ear to secrete through the hole made by the surgeon to
insert the cochlear

Cochlear Auditory Essay
Introduction Medical professionals all over the world have paved the road for further research and
technological advances in the hearing impaired spectrum. Implantations, such as the cochlear
implant (CI), have given patients with profound sensorineural hearing loss newfound hope for
habilitation and rehabilitation services. However, "there exists a small subset of deaf individuals
who will not benefit from the CI due to (1) a small or absent cochlea, (2) a small or absent auditory
nerve, or (3) injury or scarring of the inner ear or auditory nerve secondary to meningitis, trauma, or
tumor" as stated by Kaplan et al. (2015). A treatment option for those who did not meet the
candidacy qualifications for a cochlear implant needed to be implemented. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The internal receiver and non–magnetic plug are then placed under the skin away from the incision.
Sennaroglu and Ziyal (2012) state that "care must be taken so that the incision does not directly
cross the area where the receiver/stimulator is to be placed. Failure to do this may cause device
extrusion." After the surgeon removes the temporal bone and the schwannoma, he identifies the
landmarks of the lateral recess, specifically the foramen of Luschka (senna). The foramen of
Luschka can be found by locating the IX cranial nerve. "In the surgical setting, where there is
almost always distortion of the brain stem from the tumor, the foramen of Luschka is located
superior to the ninth nerve" (senna). After identifying the landmarks of the lateral recess, dissection
is stopped, and the posterior fossa is occluded with gelfoam. At this point, the surgeon secures the
receiver in the outer table of the skull. Dissection then continues in the posterior fossa. Next, the
ground electrode is placed under the temporalis muscle, and the electrode array's side mesh is
trimmed to fit inside the lateral recess. Finally, the electrodes are carefully inserted into the cochlear
nucleus (Wilkinson). Placement of the electrode array is determined by using electrophysiological

Astrocytomomy And Adjugative Surgery: A Case Study
Surgery is the treatment of choice for wellcircumscribed lesions (Figure 1D) and the factor strongly
associated with outcome is the extent of surgical removal.6,7 Gross total resection leads to more
than 90% long–term survival.7 Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytomas are resectable and adjuvant
therapy is not indicated. Those arising from the brainstem are often not completely resectable and
require adjuvant chemotherapy (carboplatin and vincristine) and consideration of radiotherapy at
progression. A clinical trial of BRAF and MAPK pathway inhibitors (AZD6244) is underway.8 A
recent study has reported long–term follow up (mean of 18.4 years) for 101 children with benign
posterior fossa astrocytomas.6 Complete resection was achieved in half the

Central Auditory Processing Disorder
Except for outwardly appearances, speech may be the one of the most defining elements of a
person's identity, "psychologists generally consider language a prime manifestation of underlying
cognitive processes" (Solso, MacLin, & MacLin, 2008, p. 468). Just by listening over the phone, I
can tell whether a family member is feeling positive, in ill health, or worried about events in their
lives. Should vocal language be the only measure of underlying cognitive processes?
As a small child, it was frustrating to not be able to make the adults in my life understand me. Many
years later after development of the brainstem auditory evoked response test (BAER), a doctor who
it seemed was always on the cutting edge of his science and working with neurologists at the old
Lovelace Medical Center, tested my hearing using the BAER . For me, the results of this test were
life changing because for the first time in 28 years my not being able to understand much of the
conversation around me and consequently, my ability to communicate had a name–a diagnosis–
central auditory processing disorder–I heard at two different speeds and both were at a slower rate
than that of the general population.
The BAER measures latency in milliseconds or in layman terms, the BAER measures the length of
time it takes for sound to travel from the ear to the brain stem (Ness, 2009). An important benefit of
the BAER is that it can be easily used for diagnosis of auditory processes in infants and young

Primary Functions Of The Brain
The brain is an astonishing organ used in an everyday life, but do you know what each function of
the brain does? The myth about humans using only 10 percent of our brain has been around for
decades, but what the people don't know is that there is "no scientific evidence to suggest" that
theory (Chudler). We all know that the brain isn't just a simple organ. Billions and trillions of
connections or also known as synapses create those neurons that our brain consists of. The weight of
each and every brain weighs about "3 pounds" (Lewis). It consists of "two percent body weight"
(Lewis), and is larger in relation to body size than any other brain. Our brains are the "same
structure as mammal brains", and are both the "command center for the ... Show more content on
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It controls the behavior such as hunger, thirst, sleep and sexual response. It also "regulates body
temperature, blood pressure, emotions, and secretion of hormones" (Hines).
What lies beneath the cerebrum is called the cerebellum, which has an important function in motor
control. It has a role with coordination and balance. "The left brain involves speech and language as
the right brain involves visual and auditory" (Lewis). Everyone uses both halves of the brain at the
same time. "Both right and left brain are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that
delivers messages from one side to another" (Hines). "Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of
the body. Such as the left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in about 92% of
people." (Hines).
Did you ever wonder where we get the intelligence, creativity, emotion and memory? Well it is all
governed by the brain. Our brain receives information through our five senses, and they are sight,
smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Another thing is that our brain controls everything. It controls
thoughts, memory, and speech, movement in the arms and legs, and the working functions of many

Abstract:.Aggression Is Regulated By Neural Circuitry...
Abstract: Aggression is regulated by neural circuitry consisting of several regions of the brain.
Aggression has been linked to multiple brain structures that are responsible for emotional and
behavioral control. Regions of the brain that are clearly related to aggression include the brainstem,
prefrontal cortex (PFC), limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC),
amygdala, and the hippocampus (Lundwall et al., 2017). It has also been found that brain volume
and especially the volume of the brainstem is correlated to aggression (Lundwall et al., 2015).
Through neuroimaging, it has been determined that there is an inverse relationship between the
brain stem volume and aggression in children affected by autism ... Show more content on
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Aggression is regulated by neural circuitry encompassing several regions of the PFC, the limbic
system, the amygdala, the hippocampus, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and the anterior cingulate
cortex (ACC) (Visser et al., 2013). Visser et al., 2013 have found that in these particular regions of
the brain that are responsible for mediating aggression, there is structural asymmetry, which has
been linked to a wide variety of psychiatric disorders predominantly characterized by aggression.
According to (Lundwall et. al., 2016), reactive aggression is associated with reduced brain stem
volume in adolescents with ASD, and with prefrontal cortex (PFC) asymmetry in all adolescents
with and without ASD. It is likely according to (Lundwall et. al. 2016) that the anxiety that
individuals with ASD experience results from or relates to an increased perception of threat and
inability to inhibit the threat, both cognitive impairments of which may be related to brain stem and
PFC circuits. Aggressive behaviors are common in typically developing individuals but especially in
individuals with ASD. Aggressive behaviors are products of human evolution but impairment in the
ability to regulate or mediate aggression is nocuous to the individual and those whom the individual
encounters. The study of aggression and the correlations it has to brain structure and brain volume is
imperative in order to understand aggressive behavior and to treat individuals suffering psychiatric
or

Post Concussion Syndrome
The cognitive challenges that can occur with Post–Concussion Syndrome include troubles with
attention, concentration, memory, reasoning, planning, understanding, speaking, and language. As a
result of damage to the upper brain stem and frontal lobes, the abilities to act upon and register
messages from the brain and the outside world are impaired (Stoler & Hill, 2013, p. 206). These
attention and concentration problems could impact alertness to react upon information, the capacity
of sustained attention, and the ability to focus on one thing. Memory problems, associated with
damage to the complicated memory system in the brain, could include issues registering
information, perceiving input from the environment, storing information, especially ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Curcumin has been proven to help recover from neurodegenerative diseases, even aiding in their
prevention, and inhibiting inflammatory molecules in the brain (Petraglia, et al., 2011, p.4). Foods
high in curcumin include Indian curries, yellow rice flavored with turmeric, and mustard (Curinga
1). Caffeine, although showing mixed results in some studies, shows reductions in neurological
deficits (Petraglia, et al., 2011, p.8). One of the best high caffeine options is green tea at a
recommended three cups per day (Maroon, et al., 2011, p.6). As seen in some research on green tea,
the result of its high consumption in Asian countries leads to the "Asian paradox," or the significant
prevention of neurological problems in Asia (ibid). Vitamin E in nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, and
cereals has been tested to show improved cognitive performance, improved spatial memory, and less
neuropathology (Petraglia, et al., 2011, p.9). Vitamin E intake is improved in conjunction with
Vitamin C (ibid). Foods high in Vitamin C include citrus fruits, tomato juice, and potatoes ("Office
of Dietary Supplements – Vitamin C," 2016, p.2). Finally, Omega 3 has been consistently shown to
help in recovery from PCS and inflammation (Maroon, 2011, p.1). They are the most effective
natural anti–inflammatory food and has been tested to be neurotherapeutic for PCS (Maroon et al.,
2010,

A Study On Diabetes Mellitus
An Electrophysiological Study on Brainstem in Type–2 DM Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is a
generalized, chronic metabolic disorder manifesting itself, in its fully developed form, by
hyperglycemia, glycosuria, increased protein breakdown, ketosis and acidosis. If the disease is
prolonged, it is usually complicated by degenerative disease of the blood vessels, the retina, the
kidneys and the nervous system1. T2DM is the predominant form of diabetes worldwide,
accounting for 90% cases globally. Globally, the number of people with diabetes is expected to rise
from the current estimate of 285 million in 2010 to 438 million in 2030, both figures substantially
higher than even recent estimates.T2DM has become one of ... Show more content on
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Nonenzymatic glycisilation is the process by which glucose attaches to proteins without the action
of any enzymes. The initial products that form over hours to days is a Schiff base or an Amadori
product, during which the process is reversible4. Intracellular hyperglycemia activates the enzyme
aldose reductase. This increases the formation of sorbitol in cells, which in turn reduces cellular Na,
K ATPase. In addition, intracellular glucose can be converted to so – called Amadori products, and
these in turn can form advanced glycosylation end products (AGEs), which cross– link matrix
proteins. This damages blood vessels. The AGEs also interfere with leukocyte responses to
infection5. A minor hemoglobin derivative called HbA1C is produced by glycation, the covalent
binding of glucose to hemoglobin6. Glycosilated hemoglobin testing provides an index of average
blood glucose levels over the prior two to three months. It has been established that improved
glycemic control is associated with preventing or delaying the progression of micro vascular
complications in diabetes7.long– term blood glucose regulation can be followed by measurement of
glycosilated hemoglobin8. Glycated hemoglobin provides an accurate and objective measure of
glycemic control over a period of weeks to months. The rate of formation of HbA1C is directly
proportional to the ambient blood glucose concentration; a rise of 1% in HbA1c corresponds to an
approximate

Essay On Regulating Breathing Within The Brainstem
In recent years, substantial progress has been made toward understanding the mechanisms
regulating breathing within the brainstem. Improved tools for vector design combined with
molecular biology enable selective gene expression regulation to monitor and/or control over time
cellular activity of targeted respiratory groups. These features are particularly important for studying
respiratory centers in the brainstem since most nuclei are composed of heterogeneous populations of
neurons, dynamically interacting with each other to generate and synchronize the respiratory drive.
Indeed, several neuronal subtypes have been identified in the preBötzinger complex, the core of the
neural circuit generating respiratory rhythm, which can be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Using adeno–associated virus 2 for channelrhodopsin expression in specific preBötzinger neuronal
subtypes in transgenic mice, it was demonstrated that pre–inspiratory preBötzinger neurons
expressing developing brain homeobox 1 are primarily rhythmogenic. On the other hand, inspiratory
preBötzinger neurons expressing developing brain homeobox 1 and somatostatin are playing a role
in patterning the activity of rhythmogenic preBötzinger neurons and ultimately the respiratory motor
output (Cui et al., 2016). Overexpression of enhanced green fluorescent protein driven by adeno–
associated virus 2 with the somatostatin promoter in preBötzinger neurons revealed that these
neurons project to several areas involved in the control of breathing, including contralateral
preBötzinger, Bötzinger complex, ventral respiratory group, retrotrapezoid nucleus, parahypoglossal
nucleus/nucleus of the solitary tract, parabrachial/Kölliker–Fuse nuclei and periqueductal gray (Tan
et al., 2010). These projections support the modulatory role of somatostatin–expressing
preBötzinger neurons on respiratory activity. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that inhibitory
glycinergic preBötzinger neurons exert significant contribution

Locked In Syndrome
Introduction: Locked–in syndrome (LIS) presents in a patient as someone who is conscious but
cannot move or communicate verbally. This is caused by the complete paralysis of almost all
voluntary muscles in the body except for the eyes. Total locked–in syndrome is similar to locked–in
syndrome except the eyes are paralyzed in addition to all other voluntary muscles. Although locked–
in syndrome is associated with quadriplegia and aphasia, some individuals who are afflicted are able
to communicate through a systematic movement of their eyes which are often unaffected by the
paralysis. With current advancements in medical technology as well as the patient's ability to
communicate oftentimes there is no loss of cognitive function in individuals who have this
syndrome.
Causes: Locked–in syndrome ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Tests that may be performed to rule out other conditions include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
which can show potential damage to the pons as well as magnetic resonance angiography, which can
show whether or not there are blood clots in the arteries of the brainstem. In addition, these tests can
be used to determine if there is damage in other parts of the brain as well. Other tests that can be
used to diagnose this disease are: electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures the electrical
activity of the brain revealing the brain activity and sleep–wake cycles of patients and evoked
potentials, tests that measure the EEG signal in response to stimulation usually pain, auditory or
visual this gives physicians a look at the responses of the brainstem as well as the responses of the
brain. Additionally, electromyography, a test which records electrical activity in the voluntary
muscles and nerve conduction, a test which determines the ability of nerves to relay impulses to the
muscles are both tests which are used in the process of diagnosing this

Neural Prosthetics And Its Effects
The full function of our bodies is taken for granted by so many people in this day and age, and
arguably in every age. Only people still in the innocence of youth are often, the only ones who are
truly able to access the full intended function. As we get older we begin to lose a plethora of our
abilities; through old age, an injury, or whatever the case may be, we all slowly deteriorate. With
modern science we are now able to regain some of what we had lost or have never hard, through
neural prosthetics. In this essay, I will be dissecting and explaining what exactly neural prosthetics
are while delving into its past, its current present applications while making comparisons to other
similar technologies, and its future and potential ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only very recently have we been able to believe that it could be possible, let alone make any real
advancement in this field, long before type of research became a real academic field. The first
neural prosthesis developed was in 1957. That very first prosthesis was the cochlear implant; which
is now widely used today with hundreds of thousands of people currently fitted with it. This
development was the first of its kind and has since lead the way for other creations such as the
internal pacemaker in 1958, the first motor prosthesis in 1961, the first auditory brainstem implant
in 1977, and the peripheral nerve bridge implanted into the spinal cord of a rat in 1981.All of these
are only a few of the incredible advances made in quite a close amount of time. All of these
advancements are relatively new compared to the field of medicine, which has been practiced for
centuries. These breakthroughs lead to much more effort going into neural prosthetics, propelling
even more progress in this field to bleed out and help other disciplines such as brain computer
interface and vice versa. This has lead some patients that are paraplegics, being able to walk once
again with the aid, and in 1988 an implant in the lumbar anterior root was developed to help
promote standing in them. All this has accumulated in FDA approving many more applications for
aids now not only

Spasmodic Dysphonia Essay
How can our daily lives be if we only whispered? What about having a breathy or strained voice?
For many, these questions do not come across when communicating. Yet, several do not realize the
different types of voice problems that individuals have. Day by day numerous people are being
diagnosed with Spasmodic Dysphonia. The majority do not understand what it is or how it can be
treated. Researchers have begun conducting studies to identify brainstem functions with patients
with Spasmodic Dysphonia, determine the risks, and develop the best recovery treatment for this
disorder.
In 1989, an organization was founded in order to provide advanced research and decrease the
thousands of cases that go misdiagnosed, but also help those who are undiagnosed. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
have research the main priorities that healthcare professionals should take into consideration when
working with spasmodic dysphonia patients. It is highly encouraged for clinicians and researchers to
group as a team in order to better find results on how to treat and prevent spasmodic dysphonia.
Throughout numerous of studies it has been shown that spasmodic dysphonia is characterized as a
neurological disorder that belongs to the group of dystonia. Therefore, a current study tried to
oversee if there's a comparison between spasmodic dysphonia and focal dystonia. Dystonia can
affect the individuals whole or partial part of the body such as limbs, cervical, cranial upper muscle
(Ludlow, Adler, Berke, etc., 2008, 499). The majority of the times muscle spasms occur involuntary
in the larynx causing the voice to break or sound tight, breathy, or whispery. Spasmodic dysphonia
has a combination of abnormal sensory feedback and abnormal interpretation of the sensations from
the larynx to the brain causing irregular movement towards the laryngeal area. In order to begin to
evaluate the patient for a voice disorder the otolaryngologists must do a screen questionnaire, follow
by a speech examination and last conduct a nasolarynscopy (Ludlow, Adler, Berke, etc., 2008, 495).
In order for an ENT to differentiate hyperadduction SD vs hyperabduction SD a voice test must be
conducted such as having the patient repeat sentences, words, or phonemes. Once the ENT has
determined what type of SD and the severity of the disorder. Then the patient will be referred to a
specialist for treatment and after be send to a speech language pathologist for speech

Metabolic Surgery
Obesity is a state of abnormal fat deposit produced by an imbalance of energy intake and its
expenditure that affect health. Obesity and its comorbidities is an emerging health risk with only a
handful of successful treatment procedures that have been developed by surgeons observing several
outcomes within the clinic (Arble et al, 2015). Metabolic surgery also termed as bariatric surgery is
the most commonly used and successful treatment for weight loss and type–2 diabetes till date.
Bariatric surgery basically includes manipulations of the hindgut and foregut. Sleeve gastrectomy
(SG) is a type of foregut surgery whereas, biliopancreatic diversion, and ileal transposition (IT) are
types of hindgut surgeries (Rubino et al, 2010). Another type of surgery known as Roux–en Y
gastric bypass (RYGB) is considered to be reference for metabolic surgeries as it involves changes
to both foregut and hindgut. In sleeve gastrectomy, the resection ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
 Gut–brain axis– a major component of appetite regulation:
The broken down food contains nutrients that activates the G–protein coupled receptors of
enteroendocrine cells (Sam et al, 2012). On activation, it releases a number of gut hormones which
passes the nutrient availability signal to the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC). This ARC is
known to mediate intake of food and energy expenditure. (Peruzzo et al, 2000; Schaeffer et al, 2014;
Sainsbury et al, 2010). Several circulating peptides: insulin and leptin are responsible for adiposity
and energy deposits. ARC has two neural populations that act antagonist to each other. The medial
part contains orexigenic neurons that regulate neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti–related protein
(AgRP). The lateral part acts as an anorexigenic neurons expressing alpha–melanocyte–stimulating
hormone (a–MSH) formed from pro–opiomelanocortin (POMC) and cocaine–amphetamine
regulated transcript (CART) (Hahn et al, 1998; Elias et al,

Hypothalamus
The presence of peripheral signals influences the hypothalamus through actions from afferent
neurones and brainstem. The chemoreceptors also play important roles in controlling appetite. These
receptors mediate vagal afferent and pass on the signal s to the nucleus of tractus solitaries (NTS)
present in the brainstem. Gut hormones also work through this vagal pathway and brainstem
(Schwartz et al, 2000). Hence, the orexigenic and anorexigenic neurons in the hypothalamus are
mediated by neural and hormonal signals. These neurons will extend to various others in the extra–
hypothalamic and intra–hypothalamic regions, such as the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus
(PVN), and lateral hypothalamus (LH) where some of the significant efferent pathways ... Show
Glucagon–like–peptide–1 (GLP–1):
A pre–proglucagon derived hormone secreted from L–cells of the distal gut in response to glucose
ingestion. This hormone is known to decrease food intake in humans and rodents (Turton et al,
1996). GLP–1 binds to its receptor that is present in the gut and pancreas and is found throughout
the central nervous system. The anorectic effect of GLP–1 is mediated through central and
peripheral mechanisms by a population of neurones located in the brainstem that conveys the signal
to the hypothalamus. These areas are significant in the maintenance of energy homeostasis (Navarro
et al, 1996).
b. Cholecystokinin (CCK):
The gut peptide, cholecystokinin is released by I cells present in the upper small intestines which
function to decrease food intake. There are two forms of CCK receptors: CCK1 and CCK2 receptors
and are present throughout the body fulfilling major functions (Dufresne et al, 2006). It interacts
with vagal sensory fibres through CCK1 receptors transferring signals to the brainstem to control
the intake of food. The anorectic effects of CCK can be reduced through selective damage to these
fibres or subdiaphragmatic vagotomy (Heijboer et al, 2006). In case of administration of CCK1
receptor antagonist before meal, large quantities of meals than normal are consumed. This proves
that endogenous CCK is necessary to suppress intake of meals (West et al,

Brainstem Implant Review
During the therapy session, the clinician worked with a five–year old girl. The client received an
auditory brainstem implant (ABI) at age three. Since receiving the implant, the client's speech and
language have improved, and she has shown successful progress. The clinician targeted the client's
auditory comprehension and expressive language. Throughout the session, the clinician incorporated
various activities to target the therapy goals. First, the clinician took the client to the sensory gym.
The client enjoyed swinging for a couple minutes before beginning the therapy session. Once the
client calmed down, the clinician and client sat on the cushions for the first therapy activity. The
clinician positioned herself behind the client to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the client read the book, the clinician emphasized the target words and phrases. When the client
did not produce a word correctly, the clinician provided visual cues. For example, the clinician
gestured a hook near the nose for nasal sounds (e.g., /m/, /n/). Once the client consistently and
accurately produced the target word, the clinician tuned to the next page of the book.
After reading the book, the clinician introduced a new activity to the client. The client appeared
excited and willing to participate in the new activity. This activity targeted minimal pairs that
contained voiced/voiceless cognates (e.g, rice, rise, time, dime). The client expressed difficulty
differentiating the /s/ and /z/ sound at the final and initial position. Therefore, the clinician utilized
visual cues to remind the client to "turn her voice on." During the production of each word, the
clinician instructed the client touch her throat to feel the vibration of the vocal folds. This helped
that client distinguish the difference between the two phonemes.
Overall, the therapy session was successful for both the client and clinician. The clinician
maintained the clients attention throughout the session, while effectively targeting the therapy

An Evaluation Of An Auditory Brainstem Response
An auditory brainstem response is an electrical potential generated from the changes in neural
activity when an acoustic stimulus is presented into the ear. Stimuli in the form of clicks, tonebursts
or chirps are transmitted through a transducer and measured using surface electrodes positioned on
the scalp. The elicited waveform response consists of 7 waves that occur within a period of 10ms
after the presented stimuli. Each waveform peak is labeled from I–VII where each wave
corresponds to a neural generator within the auditory pathway. Just like other auditory evoked
potentials such as the middle–latency response, the response depends relatively on the pathological
factors, non–pathological factors, acquisition parameters, stimulus parameters as well as the noise
and interference. Consequently, this has meant that a great deal of research has been conducted into
investigating these potential effects on the ABR, especially as it is commonly used in clinical
practice such as for evaluating retrocochlear pathology, detecting permanent childhood hearing loss
in newborn hearing screens and intraoperative monitoring during surgery. These findings usually
influence the test conditions used in protocols and guidance for clinical practice. Whilst previous
literature focus their experiments in order to find a significant difference in the ABR waveform,
very few studies explore what these parameters and factors have on the quality aspect of the
recording. This study will primarily

Evaluation Of The Paediatric Neurosurgical Patient
Key Points
1. Approach to the paediatric neurosurgical patient is different because of age–related changes in
neurophysiology and cranial development.
2. The signs and symptoms of raised intracranial pressure in paediatric neurosurgical cases are age
specific.
3. Blood loss due to surgery or tumor bleed into the cavity constitutes a major fraction of total blood
volume in the paediatric population.
4. Capnography is the most feasible and safer method to monitor venous air embolism in children.
Introduction
The majority of tumors (60–70%) in pediatric age group occur in the posterior fossa. The reason
behind propensity to occur in the posterior fossa has not been elucidated till date. Lesion in the
posterior fossa may be neoplastic, developmental and vascular processes requiring surgical
intervention. By far, the most common posterior fossa tumors of childhood are medulloblastomas,
ependymomas and astrocytomas. Medulloblastomas are the most common malignant brain tumor in
children comprising 20% to 25% of all pediatric brain tumors. The median age at diagnosis is
approximately 6 to 9 years. Most of tumors occur in midline and frequently found associated with
hydrocephalus. Success with surgical intervention has become possible because of improved
understanding of physiology, advances in imaging and microsurgical techniques, excellent
anaesthetic techniques available, advances in perioperative care of the patient. These in turn have
improved the survival and quality of

Morhine Research Paper
effect the same structures, however; they way those structures are effected but different opiates can
vary. Morphine, and opiates in general, affect four parts of the brain, which are the brainstem, the
cerebral cortex, the cerebellum, and the middle brain. The way that morphine acts on these parts of
the brain and its various effects leads to abnormal behavior within these areas (Gahlinger, 2004).
The first region that is affected by morphine is the brainstem, which is responsible for many of the
automatic actions our bodies do such as breathing, sleeping, and regulation. Since morphine directly
affects this area of the brain, the drug can easily disrupt these automatic functions of our bodies that
would ultimately result in a coma or death. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The third area of the brain that is affected by the use of morphine is the cerebellum. The cerebellum
is located beneath the cerebrum on the dorsal side of the head behind the pons and brainstem. This
structure is responsible for ones vision, balance, and coordination so with the use of morphine some
side effects that can be observed are poor vision, stumbling, or random motion (Gahlinger, 2004).
The cerebellum also plays a major role in addiction with its control over sensing reward and
pleasure. Morphine is highly addictive and causes craving so when the body is under the influence
of morphine the cerebellum recognizes it as a high so in its absence ones body naturally craves
more. The last area of the brain that is affected by morphine is the midbrain. This structure is located
in the middle of the brain below the cerebral cortex and contains many structures within it such as
the limbic system, the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus. The structures combined
are responsible for functions such as emotions, pain, temperature regulation, hormones, memory,
and reward (García–Pérez,, López–Bellido, Rodríguez, Laorden, Núñez, & Milanés,

Brainstem Essay
It is a far–field response that reflects stimulus–locked, synchronous neural firing from nuclei along
the brainstem.(45) The conventional click generated ABR is a robust response, producing five
vertex recorded positive peaks (Waves I–V) usually within 6 to 7 milliseconds after very brief
duration (0.1 milliseconds), moderately high intensity click stimulation, at rates of roughly 8 to
24/sec. These waves are the result of abrupt activation of auditory neurons from the cochlea to the
inferior colliculus. About 2,000 to 4,000 repetitions are averaged from each ear within a 10 to 15
milliseconds recording window representing one trial, and generally two superimposed trials are
necessary from each ear. Only Wave V is seen after less intense ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(47) Generally click ABR is used for threshold estimation and assessment of neural intergrity. The
appearance of Wave V generally follows by about 10 to 20 dB the threshold to hear the respective
click. (47) The click evoked brainstem auditory evoked potential (BAEP)/brainstem auditory
evoked response (BAER)/auditory brainstem response (ABR) has well–established utility in
neurology, neurologic surgery, and otology since its introduction to clinical medicine in the 1970s.
(51) Routine click ABR interpretation consists of Waves I, III, and V absolute and interpeak interval
(IPI) determinations, and comparison with normative data. In neurologic practice, the cornerstone of
click ABR interpretation has been the IPIs representing central or brainstem conduction times, often
obviating confounding middle ear conductive delay or hearing problems which usually cause a
delayed Wave I. It's elicited by click stimuli delivered to each ear separately, thus it's sensitive to
brainstem lesions from tumors, trauma, hemorrhage, ischemia, demyelination, or metabolic insult.
(46) Waveform amplitudes perhaps more dependant on neuronal generators, are more variable
between individuals, susceptible to background noise and less reliable than latency conductions,
although absence of waves after Wave I or II has

The Human Brain : The Nervous System Of The Human Body
There are eleven systems in the human body which one of them is known as the nervous system.
Like most systems in the human body, the nervous system is composed of organs such as the brain,
spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. The nervous system has been known to be the bodys primary
communication and control system.
The brain which is principally the main organ of the nervous system, is the center of all mental
activity. These activities include thought, learning, and memory. It is also the most complex and
delicate organ within the body. Within the brain are four major regions which are the brainstem,
cerebellum, diencephalon, and cerebrum.
In an article about Human Brain: Facts, Functions and Anatomy it quotes that "The largest part of
the human brain is the cerebrum, which is divided into two hemispheres. Underneath lies the
brainstem, and behind that sits the cerebellum. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral
cortex, which consists of four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the
occipital lobe." It's been known that the cerebrum is the most developed part of the human brain.
The cerebrum, also known as the telencephalon, has several functions such as thinking, reasoning,
planning/organization, motor function, understanding language, and so on. The cerebrum obtains
this information and later sends it to a particular part of the cerebrum. This means that the cerebrum
interprets the information and decides what is the next

The Body 's Central Nervous System Essay
Research:
The Brain The brain is known as a spongy organ made up of nerve and supportive tissues. It is
located on top of the head and protected by the skull. Beneath, the brain is linked/connected to the
spinal cord whereby they're considered to be the major control network for the body's functions and
abilities to do work. Both the brain and spinal cord comprises the body's Central Nervous System
(CNS) and empowers conscious communication with the body and also helps perform vital
operations such as breathing, releasing hormones, and maintaining blood pressure. The Central
Nervous System (CNS) works along with the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). According to the
Canadian Cancer Society, "PNS is made up of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord to relay
messages from the brain to different parts of the body." In summary, both CNS and PNS enable a
person to talk, walk, and do lots of creative/physical activities. The brain collects and interprets
nerve signals from the entire body and also responds based on information being collected from the
person itself. There are so many complexity in which many parts of the brain controls how we
feel/emotional needs, our speech, movement, body temperature, self–awareness, and many more. In
depth, the brain is divided into several sections/groups. Sections include the Cerebrum, Cerebellum,
brainstem, and the diencephalon.
The cerebrum is considered to be the largest part of the brain. Split in two parts called the left and

A Congenital Malformation Commonly Affecting Children Born...
As a congenital malformation commonly affecting children born with Spina Bifida, the Arnold–
Chiari malformation, or Chiari Malformation Type II, involves the irregular extension of both the
cerebellar tonsils and the brain stem tissue into the opening to the spinal canal – the foramen
magnum (NINDS, 2013). Typically, the brain stem and the cerebellum sit above the opening to the
spinal canal, where the brain stem houses most of the cranial nerves that supply the body. Providing
the control centres for vital bodily functions such as breathing, regulation of the body's internal
environment through maintenance of heart rate and blood pressure, as well as providing sensory and
motor control to a significant portion of the body (Joynt, 2014), the Arnold–Chiari malformation
causes substantial problems for patients. Likewise, the congestion of these structures in the spinal
canal limits the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the brain to the spinal cord (Medway,
2006), causing other medical issues that become regularly associated with Spina Bifida as a result,
such as hydrocephalus (Columbia Neurosurgery, n.d.). Issues associated with the Arnold–Chiari
malformation can only be relieved, rather than treated, through surgical processes that aim to
eliminate or reduce these symptoms (WebMD, 2014).
The Arnold–Chiari malformation refers to the second type of malformations associated with the
Chiari group, where the irregular formation of the brainstem and cerebellum sees them

Brain Anatomy: The Central Nervous System
Brain Anatomy
The central nervous system consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is divided
into four main structures: the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum. The brainstem is
at the base of the brain, and it extends from the upper spinal cord to the rear of the cerebrum;
posterior to the brainstem is the cerebellum.
The cerebrum is largest structure in the brain, and it is responsible for motor functions, perception,
communication, and memory. It is divided into two hemispheres, and those hemispheres are divided
into lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. The frontal lobe is
located in the anterior cranial fossa (frontal cranial depression, in simpler terms). The central

Auditory Dysfunction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) comprises a continuum of neurodevelopmental disorders clinically
characterized by social difficulties, impaired communication skills and repetitive behavioral
patterns. Despite the prevalence of ASD, the neurobiology of this disorder is poorly understood.
However, abnormalities in neuronal morphology, cell number and connectivity have been described
throughout the autistic brain. Further, there is ample evidence that auditory dysfunction is a
common feature of ASD.(1) The majority of individuals with ASD demonstrate some degree of
auditory dysfunction. The level and expression of this dysfunction ranges from deafness and
increased thresholds to hyperacusis and difficulty listening with background noise and impairments
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the real–world listening situations, auditory information is processed by two ears, often in the
presence of background noise.(4) Binaural interaction is reflected in electrophysiological activity of
neurons activated by binaural stimulation central to the cochlear nucleus. Binaural interaction is
known to occur at three levels of the brainstem: superior olivary complex (SOC), lateral lemniscus
and inferior colliculus (IC).(5) Binaural interaction component (BIC) manifests binaural interaction
and is valid and proven response which reflects ongoing binaural processing. A BIC in ABR is
defined as the difference between the binaurally evoked ABR waveform and a predicted binaural
waveform created by algebraically summing the left and right monaurally evoked ABRs at
amplitude of waves IV–V.(6, 7) There is a significant correlation between the amplitude of the BIC
and the ability to lateralize a sound image as a function of interaural time differences (ITDs) and
interaural level differences (ILDs). In addition to the dependence of BIC amplitude on stimulus
lateralization, BIC presence is also an indicator of binaural stimulus fusion. Together, this suggests
that the BIC reflects the spatial processing of sound in the horizontal plane in the

Brain Death Informative Speech Outline
I. Many people believe that being dead means that your heart and lungs have stopped beating, but
many machines can keep those going. Once, the brain decides to stop there is no machine that can
keep that going so, you become brain dead which results in death.
II. Being brain death is typically done by some sort of devastating nerve injury. That can include but
aren't limited to traumatic brain injury, stroke or if the heart stops and the brain goes without oxygen
and other nutrients it needs for a long period of time. In brain death there is no hope of recovery and
as a result brain dead, means death of the patient.
III. Doctors go through test after test to finally conclude someone to be brain dead. They take
everything in consideration ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second one is the patient must have no brainstem response. Your brainstems work with an
automatic response, the brainstem reflexes test, test whether or not the brainstem is intact. The test
consists of five different tests in one. The first one is the papillary reflex which means the patient
has a light shined in there eyes and that will be to look if the pupil constricts or not. In a patient that
is brain dead the pupils will not respond. The next test is the corneal reflex which is done by
touching the patients eyes with a cotton swab or putting a drop of water in the patients eye to see if
they blink, if they do not they are considered brain dead. The oculocephalic reflexes is the next test
done which means they move the patients head from side to side to see if the patients eyes remain
fixated if the patients eyes do not fixate they are considered brain dead. The gag reflex is tested to
make a patient gag if they do not gage they are brain dead. And the last test is the cold calorie test
which ice water is placed in a patient's ear if the patients eyes do not move then they are brain dead.
C. The third and final test that is done is the apnea test; this test is done by taking the patient off of
the ventilator and monitored to see if they give any attempt at breathing. This test the level of carbon
dioxide in the body if it is above a certain level and there are no attempts at breathing that means
that the brainstem is not functioning, which results in being brain

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SID)
Two thousand infant deaths in the year 2010 were ruled inexplicable, thus were said to be caused by
"Sudden Infant Death Syndrome", or SIDS (Nichd.nih.gov). SIDS is the "unexplained death, usually
during sleep, of a seemingly healthy baby of less than a year old" (Mayoclinic.org). The death of a
child in a family is horrible, but then adding the fact that there is no known cause creates a purely
nightmarish situation. Throughout the years doctors researched what causes the infant death, putting
forth explanations such as smothering, illness, and brain and lung defects. All of these explanations
were proven to not be sole causes, however, as they only affected a certain percentage of SIDS
victims. In "A Perspective on SIDS Pathogenesis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Dr. Kemp of St. Louis's Children's Hospital, 20–52% of victims, were found with their
noses and mouths pressed against the bedding in the crib (Kemp 263). Another theory for
inexplicable infant death is that of respiratory infection. A respiratory infection impairs the function
of the lungs and heart of a fully functional and healthy adult. When placing an infant into that
situation, when their body is still in the midst of rapid change, the risk presented would be
incredibly higher. The last major theory examined is that the infants that fall victim to SIDS have
congenital defects in the brainstem. The brainstem controls breathing and heart rate functions in the
body, so it would make sense that instability in this area would cause negative side effects, such as
lung failure. Mr. Goldwater reviews this possibility in his article, stating that autopsies done to
infants post–mortem indicate "possible, chronic low–grade hypoxemia, attributed to sleep–related
hypoventilation." In layman's terms, the infants received less than normal oxygen in the blood
because their breaths were too few or too

Pediatric Hearing Testing
Hearing Tests, Pediatric
WHAT IS A HEARING TEST?
A hearing test is a test to check for hearing loss in one or both ears. A hearing screening is a quick
and simple hearing test to see whether more in–depth tests are needed. If your child passes the
screening, this means he or she does not have hearing loss. If the results of the screening show that
there could be a problem, your child may need to see a hearing specialist (pediatric audiologist) for
more detailed testing and evaluation.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF HEARING TESTS?
There are several types of hearing tests. Hearing is measured in decibels (dB). Infants and babies
often screened with:
Otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) testing. This test uses an earphone to measure OAEs, which ... Show
Many hearing tests are done in a room with special equipment. Some tests, such as speech testing,
are done in a noisy environment to see if your child can block out background noise.
For additional testing, your child may need to see a pediatric audiologist. The audiologist will:
Ask questions about your child's symptoms and medical history.
Check inside your child's ears with a lighted instrument (otoscope).
WHAT CAN AFFECT THE RESULTS OF THE TEST?
The results of a hearing test can be affected by:
A cold or an ear infection.
Earwax buildup.
Recent injury (trauma).
Recent noise exposure, such as listening to loud music with headphones.
Medical symptoms such as headache, memory problems, or fatigue.
Physical abnormalities (defects) in the ear.
Trouble cooperating or understanding the test instructions.
Noise in the testing environment.
Misreported test answers.
Faulty equipment.
Level of training of the test giver.
WHAT ARE SOME QUESTIONS TO ASK MY CHILD'S HEALTH CARE PROVIDER?

How will my child's testing be done?
What are the risks of the

Essay on Brainstem Injuries and the Neuropsychologist
Brainstem Injuries and the Neuropsychologist The Neuropsychologist plays an essential function in
assessment and rehabilitation after an injury to the head.
Neuropsychologists essentially bear responsibility for testing and tracking the patients thinking
ability. Below are key functions provided by clinical neuropsychologists: – Carrying out detailed
assessments of cognition, emotion, behavior, and social competence;
– Devising and implementing training programs;
– Liaising with educational agencies/ employers to advise on the resumption of educational/
vocational life;
– Advising on the management cognitive deficits/ disabilities;
– Advising and providing long term care;
– Providing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
– Provide a profile of strengths and weaknesses to guide rehabilitation, educational, vocational, or
other services.
– Document changes in functioning since prior examinations, including effects of treatment.
– Clarify what compensatory strategies would help.
– Result in referrals to other specialists, such as educational therapists, cognitive rehabilitation
professionals, neurologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, special education
teachers, or vocational counselors (www.neuropsychologycentral.com, 2005). Neuropsychologists
evaluate and monitor the course of recovery or the efficiency of rehabilitation. And the big question
Is the person getting better? A Neuropsychological evaluation may be essential to verify whether a
person really has a brainstem injury. The effects of stress, medications, and or depression can be
easily confused with mild brain injury. Some research indicates that neuropsychologists have
noticed an absence of depression in patients with severe traumatic brain injury, yet cortisol is
reduced below normal levels in those patients
(Reiter, 2005). Is the persons brain really injured or is there another reason for the assumed
behavior? Is the brain injury still apparent?
What are the causes of the brain injury? These are the types of diagnostic questions a
neuropsychologist can answer
(www.neuropsychologycentral.com,

A Brief Note On The Deaf Culture And Hearing People
When a child or an adult who is deaf, there are many options one can take to fix their hearing if they
want to. They have the options of hearing aid, cochlear implants, an auditory brainstem implant, an
auditory midbrain implant, or use ASL. The cochlear implant is a very controversial topic between
the Deaf culture and hearing people. Deciding whether or not to receive the implant and be involved
in the Deaf culture is a very hard decision for someone to make because of the benefits but also the
complications that could happen after the surgery. My original opinion about the implant was
neutral because if I got asked what I would do if my child was born deaf, I would not know what to
do because I did not have enough information about the cochlear implant. However now, I feel that I
have learned more about the implant and think that an implant and still be exposed to Deaf culture is
the best way to go. So my original opinions I felt wishy washy about the topic. I understood both
sides of the argument, but I did not know what I would do. Getting the implant provides many
opportunities for the person, but then their deaf identity is not really in their life anymore because
the person needs to focus on speaking to learn English. So I did not know what I would do if I was
put in that situation. Throughout this class, I have gained more knowledge about the two sides and it
has helped me get a better understanding of what I would do if I had a child born profoundly deaf or
I

Progressive Supranuclear Palsy

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