Arguments Against Mimi Virus

Arguments Against Mimi Virus
Since viruses were first discovered in 1892, there has been an ongoing debate of whether or not a
virus can be classified as living organisms. A virus is composed of two simple components: a
genome and a protein coat to protect this genome, and they are known to infect living host cells to
replicate. From this definition, it does not define either the possibility of whether or not that a virus
is alive. It gives the structure and function of the virus, but not the general rules that are needed to be
met when an organism is considered alive. Some scientists believe that the discovery of the
mimivirus prompts that all viruses are alive. Others claim that the mimivirus is an anomaly and does
not relate to the general aspects of viruses. Viruses ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Differentiation is when different cells can occur and viruses are unable to make any other kind of
cell. They are only able to inject their genes into a host cell to make more copies of itself and
nothing else. Viruses are unable to make adaptations to make different types of cells due to the
limited amount of genes that they posses. Communication is the signaling within and between cells
to adapt to their environment. Viruses are unable to adapt to the environment. Finally, evolution is
the genetic change over time which is present in the findings of the mimivirus. The giant virus is
closely related to microbes and these viruses along with viruses today can change their genetic
material over time to infect other types of cells. This evolution in viruses is able to create more
diverse diseases, but only if they have a host cell to replicate and to evolve for them.
Overall, viruses are not alive since they rely on other living cells to survive. Most characteristics of
living organisms cannot be applied to viruses. With the discovery of the mimivirus, it could be
possible that viruses at one point were considered living until they evolved into the viruses they are
today. However, discoveries about viruses might yet not be fully discovered or understood and they
might evolve again in the
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Ncldv Virus Research Paper
In the last two–decade, numbers of giant dsDNA, icosahedral viruses have been discovered and
assigned to the NCLDV clade. The major capsid proteins of these viruses consist of two consecutive
jelly–roll domains, assembled into trimers, with six fold symmetry. The capsomers are assembled
into arrays that have either p6 as in Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus 1 or p3 symmetry as in
Mimivirus (Xiao & Rossmann 2011).
Mimivirus has a capsid (icosahedral) diameter of 400 nm with protein filaments of 100 nm from the
surface of the capsid, comprising the total length of the virus up to 600 nm. While most of the other
discovered large viruses size varies between 400 nm and 800 nm (Xiao et al., 2009). Mimivirus
shares similar morphological characteristics with all members of the NCLDV group of viruses. The
central core of the virion appears as a dark region under the electron microscope. An internal lipid
layer surrounding the central core seen in all other NCLDV viruses this features present in
Mimivirus (Xiao et al., 2009). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, the virions of P. sibericum like pandoraviruses morphologically but are still being the
largest (1.5 μm in length), with a 60 nm thickness of the enveloped hexagonal structure that missing
in pandoraviruses. Pandoravirus and P. sibericum both have the apical pore. Wile, the virion of M.
sibericum is a spheric shape covered with 2 to 4 layers of fibers. Faustovirus virions have an
icosahedral capsid without fibers. As for virions of all previous giant viruses, the internal lipid
membrane surrounding the core and fuses with the vacuole membrane is to release the dsDNA

Rabies Virus Analysis
The rabies virus attacks nervous tissue and appears to duplicate almost exclusively in neuronal cells.
As soon as delivered through the pores and skin or mucous membrane, the virus starts replicating in
the striated muscles on the wound part. The virus can reflect in muscle cells for hours or weeks, or it
could migrate immediately to the nervous system through unmyelinated sensory nerve endings on
the inoculation website online.
Migration to the nervous system is through the nearest sensory or motor neuron in the ganglion at
the base of the spinal cord or to the spinal twine itself. Once there, the virus continues to replicate.
(it can then be transported back to the wound part or as much as the brain through central nervous
system.)

Virus and Bacteria
Virus and Bacteria
Virus – A virus is a capsule of protein that contains genetic material. A virus cannot reproduce on its
own; it must infect a living cell to grow.
Bacteria – Bacteria are one–celled organisms that live on their own. They can multiply and
reproduce by subdivision
Bacteria and viruses cause many of the diseases we are familiar with and may sound synonymous;
they are greatly different from each other.
[pic] o They differ greatly in size. The biggest viruses are only as large as the tiniest bacteria.
Viruses are microscopic; they range in size from about 20 to 400 nanometers in diameter (1
nanometer = 10–9 meters). By contrast, the smallest bacteria are about 400 nanometres in size. o
Another difference is their ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ways in which a bacteria can get access to an animal body are: Cuts Contaminated food or
water Close contact with an infected person Contact with the faces of an infected person Breathing
in the exhaled droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes Indirectly, by touching
contaminated surfaces – such as taps, toilet handles, toys and nappies.
Viruses are spread from one person to another by: Coughs Sneezes Vomits Bites from infected
animals or insects Exposure to infected bodily fluids
Curing a bacterial infection
The body reacts to pathogenic bacteria by increasing local blood flow (inflammation) and sending in
cells from the immune system to attack and destroy the

The Potato Virus Essay
Introduction
Potato virus X (PVX) is a plant RNA virus. Its infection cycle includes invasion of the host plant,
RNA replication, translation of viral proteins, cell–to–cell movement and release of new virions.
Upon infection, PVX releases its plus–strand RNA genome from the virion and produces a viral
replicase using host translation machinery. The replicase synthesizes minus–strand RNA.
Subsequently new plus–strand genomic RNA (gRNA) and subgenomic RNAs (sgRNAs) are
produced. Movement and coat proteins are translated from the sgRNAs for encapsidation and
movement through plasmodesmata. In this mini–review, all aspects of the virus infection cycle of
PVX are discussed.
Classification
Potato virus X (PVX) is a small non–enveloped virus, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The 5'–terminus has a methylguanosine cap and the 3'–terminus consists of a poly(A) tail [7]. The
genome contains five open reading frames (ORFs), see figure 1A.
The 5' proximal ORF (ORF1) can be translated directly from the gRNA by host translation
machinery. ORF1 encodes a 165kDa replicase, which consists of three domains. These include a
methyltransferase–, helicase– and RNA–dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain. Interestingly
the three domains remain as one protein, whereas it is often cleaved into separate subunits in other
plant viruses.
The other ORFs are translated from subgenomic RNAs (sgRNAs), see figure 1B. ORF2–4 overlap
and are therefore called the triple gene block (TGB). The encoded proteins are TGB1, TGB2 and
TGB3 respectively. TGB1 is a 25kDa protein with a RNA helicase motif similar to the one found in
the viral replicase. TGB2/3 contain sequences for transmembrane domains and are ER–associated.
TGB1 is expressed from its own 2.1kb sgRNA (sgRNA1) whereas TGB2/3 are both expressed from
the same 1.4kb sgRNA (sgRNA2). This co–translation occurs through leaky scanning. All three
TGB proteins are associated with cell–to–cell movement through plasmodesmata (PD) [8]. ORF5 is
expressed from a separate sgRNA of 0.9kb (sgRNA3) and encodes the coat protein (CP). CP is
required both for encapsidation and cell–to–cell movement. Figure 1 – Schematic visualization of
the

Hepatitis A Virus Essay
Introduction:
Hepatitis A virus (formerly known as Enterovirus 72) has a long history and it still has a big impact
on human populations in the modern world. From time of the ancient Greek doctor Hippocrates,
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) was noted for causing jaundice. By the 8th century, it was realized that
icteric disease was caused by an infectious agent. Later in the history, in 1885, it was discovered by
scientists that hepatitis could be spread through blood transfusions. Now, it is well– known that the
virus is mainly transmitted via fecal–oral route which results from contamination of food and water
by fecal matter and direct contact with infected individuals. Initially another icteric agent, Hepatitis
B virus, was isolated in 1973 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, later studies that tried to transmit viral hepatitis to non–human primates gave negative
results. In the current time, humans are known to be the only host for hepatitis A virus. Up to date,
single human serotype and 4 distinct genotypes of the virus are detected(2). HAV is noted as being a
highly stable virus in high temperature and low pH conditions(3).
Replication of HAV: HAV targets hepatocytes which are cells of main tissue of liver. The virus is
non–enveloped as it is released from the host cell via lysis of the host cell membrane without
acquiring a lipid bilayer membrane from the host. Site of replication for HAV is cytoplasm of the
host cell. Upon detection of hepatitis a virus cellular receptor on the target cell by viral capsid
protein(s), the viral capsid undergoes conformational change releasing its genome into the host cell
cytoplasm. Primary event followed by uncoating process is translation of ss (+) RNA of virus which
serves as a, mRNA, translational template. Genome of HAV is a single stranded (+) RNA containing
5' nontranslated region (5' NTR), a single large open reading frame (ORF) , and a short 3' NTR
followed by a poly(A) tail(4). 5' end of the RNA genome contains VPg protein bound to it. VPg acts
as a primer during replication of viral genome. Host cell mRNA contains 5' cap which is

Influenza A Virus Essay
In the human body, there are commensal bacteria serving as part of the normal flora. Various viruses
can interact with these bacteria in order promote their infectivity. Poliovirus can bind with bacterial
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for stabilization to prevent premature RNA release and improve cell
attachment to host cell through the poliovirus receptor. For retroviruses, specifically MMTV (mouse
mammary tumor virus), binding to LPS improve their chances of successful transmission. MMTV–
bound LPS get binds to toll–like receptor 4, which is a pattern recognition receptor of LPS. This
event eventually leads to the induction of interleukin–10 (IL–10), which is an immune response
inhibitory cytokine. By producing IL–10, it allows MMTV to go undetected by the ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Furthermore, bacteria and virus interactions extend beyond the binding of virus with normal
intestinal microbiota. Through the co–infection on influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae,
it increases chances of mortality. It is important to note that the two are working together rather than
through any direct binding to increase infectivity. Prior infection with Influenza A virus allows for
colonization of S. pneumoniae in the nasopharynx. Sialic acid, a non–reducing sugar, is released
from cells and mucus after cleavage by influenza neuraminidase. The sialic acid serves as a nutrient
source for S. pneumoniae for colonization. In addition, a deficient of the S. pneumoniae's
neuraminidase, NanA (neuraminidase A), which is essential for breaking down of sialic acid to
allow for adherence to host cells can decrease colonization. During co–infection, influenza virus can
partially restore nasal colonization of NanA–deficient pneumococci. Co–infection is also beneficial
for the virus since it can decrease specific influenza antibodies. Another study also present that
having respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can increase the risk for acute otitis

Herpes Simplex Virus : Virus
The herpes simplex virus, HSV for short, is a double–stranded DNA virus with an enveloped,
icosahedral capsid. It is an infection of the skin and mucous membranes (CDC, 2014). According to
the ancient Greeks, herpes means to "creep or crawl". It is named herpes because the virus creeps
onto the skin from under the surface. It presents itself as fluid–filled blisters (AAD, 2014). Humans
are the only primate species known to be infected with the distinct herpes simplex viruses. There are
two types of the herpes simplex virus (Hunt, 2010).
The first one is called herpes simplex virus 1, HSV 1 and the second is herpes simplex virus 2, HSV
2. Both of these viruses cause herpes (blisters/sores) to appear in the oral or genital area (Davis, ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In severe cases HSV 1 can spread to other parts of the body such as the eyes, brain and skin (AAD,
2014). HSV 1 is so common that 65% of people in the United States have antibodies of it.
Worldwide 90% people are infected with at least one herpes simplex viruses (Simon, 2010).
According to a study done on viruses at Stanford, it wasn 't until 1893 that it was noticed that the
virus was being spread through human transmission. There was speculation of the virus but it was
not experimentally confirmed until 1919 by Lowenstein. In the 1920 's and 1930 's HSV was heavily
studied and it was found that the virus travels from the skin and makes its way to the nervous system
(Simon, 2010).
The infection process of the herpes simplex virus type 1 is: the virus enters vulnerable cells in the
lower layers of the skin tissues and tries to reproduce in the cell nuclei, if the virus destroys the host
cells when it multiplies inflammation and fluid–filled blisters or ulcers appear (Hunt, 2010).
Herpes simplex virus type 1 is most commonly contracted as a child although anyone can contract
the virus at any age. The first initial contact with the infection is higher between ages 6 months to 3
years old. By age 5, more than 1/3 of children in low income areas are infected opposed to 20% of
children in middle income areas (Ehrlich,

Influenza Virus Evolution
Unlike DNA viruses, the RNA influenza virus lacks the proofreading mechanism to self–repair
arising errors during its replication. Thus two forms of genetic variations representing a hallmark
feature of influenza viruses. The antigenic drift occurred in influenza type A and influenza type B.
The accumulation of changes in surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, by gene
sequence mutations of virus RNA segments causing the antigenic drift. These mutations cause minor
changes in HA and NA antibody–binding sites generating novel strains of influenza virus that
responsible for the seasonal epidemics. As these novel strains are not detectable by host antibodies
that were generated against previous strains, they can infect both vaccinated ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
New influenza virus strain release with a unique combination of HA and NA proteins that causing
the pandemics influenza infections among the population who have no previous antibodies response
against these novel antigens. Previous studies have demonstrated levels of genetic diversity among
HCMV within and between hosts. The inter–host diversity is a level of genetic variation observed
between hosts while intra–hosts diversity occurred within a single host. These genetic diversity
studies have demonstrated divergence in the sequence of CMV glycoproteins, gB, and gH, using
several assays including PCR–RFLP, DNA sequencing, single strand conformation polymorphism.
Currently, the mechanisms of HCMV diversity are not well understood however some mechanisms
were suggested to cause the genetic diversity. In HCMV primary infection, de novo mutations
generated within hosts as a result of high levels of viral replication which lead to intra–hosts
diversity. HCMV reinfection leads to repeatedly introduce the most common divergent sequence to
immunocompromised and healthy

Swine Influenza Virus
Swine Influenza (swine flu) is a respiratory disease of pigs caused by type A influenza viruses that
causes regular outbreaks in pigs. People do not normally get swine flu, but human infections can and
do happen. Swine flu is also known as pig influenza, swine flu, hog flu and pig flu. This is a viral
disease caused by several type swine flu viruses known as Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine–
origin influenza virus (S–OIV) which is a strain belongs to the influenza family and endemic to
pigs. There are several subtypes of Influenza A virus known as H1N1, H1N2, H2N1, H3N1, H3N2,
and H2N3. CDC has determined that this virus is contagious and is spreading from human to
human. However, at this time, it not known how easily the virus spreads between

The Epidemic Of Ebola Virus
In our decade, there have been mass discoveries of ways to treat, cure and prevent infectious
viruses. If you were to just Google infectious virus breakthroughs the results would almost seem
endless. With the recent outbreak of the Ebola virus one might begin to forget or bypass any recent
advances. There is no denying that the Ebola virus has already had a tragic effect on our globe, and
with our 24–hour news update availability it is often uncertain of what is true and what is untrue.
What we do know is that Ebola has mostly been deadly, but it is treatable. Ebola is scary; it is a
virus that has taken many lives, mostly in North Africa. Now our President has decided to send
troops to help curb the spread of the disease. Many Americans now I'm sure, are concerned for the
well being of the soldiers being sent overseas, and the possibility of a wider spread of the virus.
Although there is a risk in aiding our fellow countries, as a Nation under God, we have an obligation
to help our fellow man. We once made a legendary pledge of allegiance, which should be upheld.
Otherwise, these would just be words without meaning, and as a Nation would we not want our
brother and sister countries to help us in our time of need?
In our Country and in our lives we deal with threats every day, big and small. We have problems
come in and out of our lives on a daily basis. Did you know that there is a scientific formula or a
process if you will for how to deal with these problems?

AAV Virus
AAV is a little, non–enveloped, single–stranded DNA dependovirus which belongs to the family of
parvoviridae. It requires a helper virus, ideally Ad or herpes virus or on the other hand human
papillomavirus or vaccinia virus to encourage effective, completely permissive AAV infection and
replication (Bloom and Young, 2001). Without helper virus, AAV sets up an inactive disease and
keeps up as a dormant provirus coordinated into a unique site of human chromosome 19. AAV can
efficiently infect a wide variety of cell sorts furthermore contaminate both mitotic and post–mitotic,
quiescent cells, through heparin sulfate proteoglycans and integrin (Summerford et al., 1999). AAV
has not been connected with any human disease which in this way conquers the security concerns
experienced ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
the relatively single genome of AAV can be effortlessly manipulated to produce recombinant AAV
vectors that do not have a wild–type coding sequences (Pfeifer and Verma, 2001) and in this way
offer a decreased danger of undesirable host immune responses. The main cis–acting components
essential for effective encapsidation and integration are the inverted terminal repeats. Up to 5kb
expression cassettes can be housed by recombinant AAV particles (Dong et al., 1996), an undeniable
burden of AAV vectors for the wide range of gene therapy applications. Nonetheless, strategies have
been produced to extend the transgene size limitation of AAV vectors. In a trans–splicing AAV
vector framework, the transgene expression is driven from two autonomous AAV vectors (Duan et
al., 2000; Nakai et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2000). Another way to deal with increase packaging limit of
AAV vectors have been the production of AAV–Ad (Goncalves et al., 2004) and AAV–HSV
(Johnson et al., 1997) cross breed vectors which exploit the extensive cloning limit of Ad or

Rabies Virus Research Paper
Rhabdovirus (rabies) is a viral disease that is transmitted through the saliva or tissues from the
nervous system from an infected mammal to another mammal. It's an RNA virus who's genome
encodes 5 proteins designated as N, P, M, G, and L. The arrangement of these proteins and the RNA
genome determine the structure of the rabies virus. It belongs to the order of mononegavirales which
are virus with a non–segmented negative stranded RNA genome. Under the rhabdoviridae family is
the lyssavirus genus which rabies virus falls under. Rabies is a zoonotic disease (meaning it can be
transmitted between animals and humans).
The target host for this virus are all warm blooded mammals except Lagomorphs (rabbit).The most
common mode of transmission is through the bite and virus–containing saliva of an infected host.
Another form is through contamination of mucous membranes (i.e., eyes, nose, mouth), although
aerosol transmission, and corneal and organ transfer has rarely been documented. ... Show more
During this period this newly infected animal does not show symptoms. This said period is called
the incubation period. The rabies virus has a variable of incubation period running from 30 days to
18 months. When the virus eventually reaches the brain it begins to multiply creating an
inflammation and then starts the first sign of rabies. Which is later moved to the salivary glands.
Studies have shown that ferrets, dogs and cat can be excrete this virus in its saliva couple days
before the disease is obvious. The excretion of this virus before and after the beginning of clinical
signs varies because different factors which include the site of exposure, immunity in the bitten
animal and the type of rabies affect

Family: Hepatitis A Virus
The family or group name for Hepatitis A virus is picorna. Other examples of picorna viruses are
polio, Rhino and from the look of these viruses we can tell that they are nasty disease to
have.1111111
As the family name sugguests, hepatitis A is a RNA virus. It is a naked virus meaning it is
unenvoloped, however it does have a capsid surround it. It also has spikes on the outer layer that
along it to be tropic, meaning to bind at a specific tissue type. The tissuse type that this dangerous
guy is after is the liver cells. This viruse is classified as a etroviruse. An example of an etoviruse is
HIV. Hepatitis A has a core eneymes know as reverse transcriptase which is embedded in the
chromosome. Think about the core eneyme as a recipe of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
To back my founding up I double–checked my notes, and I found out the family name of this virus
is hepadna. From looking at the family name of the virus, we can tell that the virus affects the liver
and the three–letter world at the end of the viral family name describes the chromosome type; which
happens to be DNA. 11111111111
Hepatitis B is an enveloped bacterium, meaning that it has an outer coding that protects it from the
host cell. As mention earier in the above paragraph, these viruses genetic materials are made up of
DNA. It has spikes on the outside and the core proteins surrounding the chromoses on the inside of
them. The spikes are attach to a lipid bilayer membrane. For instead in the case of transcription and
translation the virus does not need to translate the viral DNA into RNA to make copies of the virus,
because the virus itself is already in a DNA form. DNA–to–DNA translation between the host and
the viral chromosomes takes place very easily. Most RNA viruses required core enzymes to help
translate the viral RNA into DNA, this then assist the viral DNA to match with the host DNA and
then after it turns right back into an RNA. Since these viruses are in the DNA form, I will say they
don't required core enezymes to replicate; so they donot have core enyemes. This viral DNA is part
stranded. It use the host eneymes to get the job done,

M13 Virus
Viruses are usually known for sickness, or wreak havoc on your computer. Yet, scientists from the
U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) have
developed a way to generate power using harmless viruses that convert mechanical energy into
electricity. Seung–Wuk Lee, a faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab's Physical Biosciences Division and
a UC Berkeley associate professor of bioengineering conducted the research with a team that
includes Ramamoorthy Ramesh, a scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and a
professor of materials sciences, engineering, and physics at UC Berkeley; and Byung Yang Lee of
Berkeley Lab's Physical Biosciences Division. The scientists are exploiting a principle ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The M13 bacteriophage only attacks bacteria and is benign to people. Being a virus, it replicates
itself by the millions within hours, so there's always a steady supply. It's easy to genetically
engineer. And large numbers of the rod–shaped viruses naturally orient themselves into well–
ordered films. These are the traits that scientists look for in a nano building block. But the Berkeley
Lab researchers first had to determine if the M13 virus is piezoelectric. Lee turned to Ramesh, an
expert in studying the electrical properties of thin films at the nanoscale. They applied an electrical
field to a film of M13 viruses and watched what happened using a special microscope. Helical
proteins that coat the viruses twisted and turned in response–a sure sign of the piezoelectric effect at
work. Next, the scientists increased the virus's piezoelectric strength. They used genetic engineering
to add four negatively charged amino acid residues, biologically important organic compounds
containing amine (–NH2) and carboxyl, to one end of the helical proteins that coat the virus. A
helical proteins, or alpha helix, is a common biological molecule in the secondary structure of
proteins and is a right hand–coiled or spiral conformation in which every backbone N–H, or amine,
group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group, or carbonyl group, of the amino acid
located three or four residues earlier along the protein, sequence. The scientists further enhanced the
system by stacking films composed of single layers of the virus on top of each other. They found
that a stack about 20 layers thick exhibited the strongest piezoelectric

Chikungunya Virus
In our world, in every ecosystem there are a millions of different types of viruses that exist. In this
paper we are going to talk about one specific emerging arbovirus called Chikunganya virus. About
thousands of people have been affected by Chikungunya virus throughout the world. During the
years of 2005 and 2006, the virus altered over a millions of people in the Africa, Asia and the Indian
subcontinent. Now, Chikungunya virus have spread to Europe, South American and North America.
Chikungunya is a viral disease that is spread by mosquitoes. There are two type of mosquitos that
spread this disease that we will talk further into in this paper. There is no signs or researches that the
virus can be passed on or spread by contact from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The other polyprotein is the structural polyprotein, consisting of five proteins which are a capsid,
E3, E2, 6K and E1. In structural polyprotein, The E1 and E2 glycoproteins are expected to form
heterodimers that associate as trimeri spikes on the viral surface covering the surface evenly.
Chikungunya virus is a small (about 60–70 nm–diameter), spherical, enveloped, positive–strand
RNA virus (see figure 1). Early 2006, the complete sequence of a chikungunya isolate from Reunion
Island was made available through NCBI/ GenBank accession no. DQ443544.1. The virion consists
of an envelope and a nucleocapsid. The chikungunya virus genome is 11,805 nucleotides long and
encodes for two polyproteins – the non structural polyprotein consisting of four proteins (nsP1,
nsP2, nsP3 and nsP4) and the structural polyprotein consisting of five proteins (Capsid, E3, E2, 6K
and E1) (see figure 2). The 5' end of the RNA molecule is capped with a 7–methylguanosine while
the 3' end is poly–adenylated. A subgenomic positive–strand RNA referred to as 26SRNA is
transcribed from a negative–stranded RNA intermediate. This RNA serves as the mRNA for the
synthesis of the viral structural proteins. Alphaviruses have conserved domains that play an
important role in the regulation of viral RNA synthesis. These domains are found at the 5' and 3'
ends as

Microorganism: Rabies Virus
Rabies
Microorganism – Virus (Rabies Virus)
Rabies comes from the saliva from rabid/infected animals such as cats, dogs, bats, skunks, raccoons,
coyotes, foxes and other wild animals.
The average incubation period for the rabies virus after someone has been exposed is approximately
2 months; the first symptoms are tiredness, flu like symptoms of sore throat, chills, vomiting and
headache. If left untreated the symptoms continue to worsen and can cause disorientation and
hallucinations. The third and final stage if left untreated includes paralysis, coma and ultimately
death.
There is a vaccination that is primarily used for people that have been exposed or to those that are at
risk for exposure such as veterinarians, animal handlers and rabies lab workers.
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Up to 24 months after the tick bite people may develop a chronic disease such as arthritis and have
ongoing medical issues.
Lyme disease can be treated with antibiotics at any state however, if they do not seek medical
attention until the third stage they could be left with the permanent chronic disease.
In 1998 the FDA did approve a vaccine for Lyme disease that was a series of three injections.
However, the vaccine provided protection for less than a year and the only age group that was
eligible to receive the vaccine was between ages 15 and 70. The vaccine also did not provide any
protection against any other diseases that ticks may have produced.
Due to the vaccines high cost and low demand it was removed from the market in 2002 therefore
there is no vaccine currently available for Lyme disease.
While on the surface you might think Rabies and Lyme disease may be similar for their initial
symptoms may go unnoticed and you can get rabies from your dog or cat as well as the tick that was
on your dog or cat could now have infected you. However they are not similar for one is a virus
while the other is a bacterium, if left untreated one will cause death while the other will cause a
chronic

Thrax: The Deadly Virus
Thrax – The Deadly Virus
Introduction: Who is Thrax? How does he look like?
Thrax is the antagonist of the movie, Osmosis Jones. He is a tall, purplish–red coloured, bacterium
that has a glowing, fiery finger on one of his hands, which allows him to infect everything that he
touches with it. Thrax is said to be the deadly disease of anthrax, which is passed to humans by
animals that have it. The reason why Thrax resembles anthrax disease is because he is a tall and
purplish–red bacterium that entered Frank through an egg he had consumed, which was in contact
with a monkey's mouth. Due to Frank consuming this egg and allowing Thrax to enter his body, it is
assumed that the agent of anthrax, called Bacillus Anthracis, was in the monkey. Bacillus ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Osmosis Jones then shot from Drix's arm to get to Thrax, as he did. Once they saw each other, they
were fighting for the DNA bead. Jones was able to get the DNA bead back from Thrax and return it
to the hypothalamus gland to return Frank's temperature back to normal. At the end of the fight
though, Thrax was knocked off of the surface they were fighting in and was dissolved by rubbing
alcohol.
Rubbing alcohol is used to kill germs or bacteria. For example, that is what a nurse would rub on
your arm before a needle. As Thrax was a deadly bacterium, he dissolved in the alcohol, which was
the end of him. In reality, the anthrax bacterium would never have just come out of the infected
person's body. To treat anthrax, one must start very early. This is because once the toxins are
released from the bacterium; it is hard to get rid of. So if someone were to start treating this
bacterium before it has done much harm, then they would often use antibiotics penicillin,
ciprofloxacin or doxycycline (Obringer, 2001). Today, we have vaccines for anthrax, so they could
be prevented in that way. But in a case like Frank's, where the anthrax bacterium went into the
bloodstream, it is highly unlikely that the person would survive, as the toxins would have taken over
the body, and killed the

Virus
Abstract The Business problem to be sold is how to prevent viruses from infection the networked
computers, education the staff on what a virus is and why it is important to know what harm it can
do to you network. How to prevent getting a virus, and why you should use encryption software
when sending important data to others in your business. This will provide instie for the company
and help them keep cost down as they will not have to keep hiring or paying for an IT technician to
fix and repair their systems, and also why the use of encryption usage will keep their confidential
information from getting in to the wrong hands or the hands of a competitor.
Company Background Wing Warehouse is a sport bar and grill, famous for their ... Show more
They have no anti–virus software on their phones and as for sending emails with no encryption they
were leaving themselves wide open to the problem they ended up having when the business had to
close for a three day period due to a virus and hacker incident.
Details about Virus and encryption A computer virus is created when a programmer creates
computer code that has the capability to replicate itself, hide, and watch for a certain event to occur,
and/or deliver a destructive or prankish payload on a disk or in a computer program. Viruses can
attach themselves to just about any type of file and are spread as infected files are used by other
computers. Some viruses are relatively harmless, while others are very devastating. They can
destroy files, software, program applications, and cause the loss of data. New computer viruses are
constantly being created by malicious programmers. Because of this, it is vital to keep anti–virus
software on computers up–to–date. Some anti–virus software programs allow users to set them to
silently check for updates whenever users are connected to the Internet. Others remind users to
periodically check for updates. Worms and Trojans are closely related to viruses. A worm makes
copies of itself on a computer, rather than infecting other files like viruses. A Trojan is a program
that secretly installs itself on a computer and opens a back door to the computer so that malicious
attacks can be remotely

The Importance Of The Zika Virus
Zika virus is becoming a common occurrence in our country, so it is important to start digging deep
into the research. The article titled, "History, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations of zika: A
systematic review", focused on the current knowledge, frequency, and clinical manifestations of this
virus, while linking the data to the occurrence of microcephaly in newborns. Data was collected
from multiple other sources, including 52 studies, and results show Zika as a state of emergency.
Conclusions
This article does a great job at explaining the importance of researching the Zika virus because it is
continuing to become more common in the United States. It gives the reader a clear view on the
detrimental affects of the virus. I think the title is a good representation of the content in the article
and keeps the reader interested. The abstract is specific and pulls important information out of the
article for the reader to focus on. In the methods section, it gives the reader insight to the searching
process that took place, including the databases used (Medline, Embase, & Global Health Library)
and keywords such as "Zika", "epidemic", and "outbreak" to name a few (Paixao...Rodrigues, 2016).
In the results section of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not only the ones affected, but others as well due to fear of obtaining the disease. Zika is the new
upcoming disease and communities all over the world are sitting on the edge of their seats waiting
for it to reach them. It is extremely important that research is continued until one solution is formed
to prevent the possibility of Zika, and studies like this are the beginning steps to understanding and
stopping this disease from overtaking our country. Public health and community health both come
into play when there is an epidemic involved, and multiple organizations will stand together to come
up with a solution to protect the individuals in that

The Rubella Virus
Rubella virus, which is also known as German Measles causes a bright red rash on the surface of the
skin, slight fever, and swollen lymph nodes. This virus in an enveloped virus (has an envelope on
the outside). It has genetic material on the inside, then a capsid, and finally an envelope. Unlike
many viruses, rubella has no integument between the capsid and envelope. An integument is a bunch
of proteins that lines the space between the capsid and envelope. The rubella virus is 40 to 80 nm in
a spherical shape. The hemagglutinin is spiky and the entire virus is surrounded by a lipoprotein
envelope.
This particular virus's host is only humans. We can get the virus two way, one, by inhaling the virus
after someone sneezes or coughs. And two,

Rota Virus
Viruses come in different genomes and different forms however they all have a capsid where they
maintain their genetic material. Viruses are classified into families that are distinguish based on their
shape and form as well as they have names that are used for identification and is usually related to
the type of disease they cause. Rotavirus is a member of the family Reoviridae that is nonenveloped
segmented double stranded RNA and globally is the leading cause of severe diarrhea problems
among infants and young children worldwide (1). Rotavirus developed in a wheel shaped virus that
is surrounded by a triple layer coat composed of different structural proteins. The outer layer is
composed of VP7 and VP4 that is cleaved by trypsin into two ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
They used a rhesus monkey epithelial cell line MA104 and the murine fibroblast L929 cell line
(ATCC) that were grown in advanced Eagle's minimal essential medium (MEM; Invitrogen)
supplemented with 5% and 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), respectively, at 37°C in a 5% CO2
atmosphere. Then, they propagated in the MA105 cells different kinds of RV strains. RV cell lysates
were activated with trypsin. TLPs and DLPs of the RRV and BRV UK strains were purified by CsCl
isopycnic gradients (45). The mammalian reovirus strain type 3 Dearing (ReoT3D) was propagated
in L929 cells, and the viral titer was determined in MA104 cells (36, 46). Monoclonal antibodies
were used for detection of cellular proteins. Virus infectivity was determined by either
immunoperoxidase or immunofluorescence focus–forming assays. In order to bind the assays
created they used the MA104 cells that where transferred with the indicated siRNAs. Confluent cells
were then washed twice and incubated with MEM for 30 min at 37°C and virus binding was
assayed. To evaluate the binding in the cells treated with neuraminidase, the assay was carried out.
There were two type of treatments depending if the MA104 cells were LBPA–blocking assays they
will incubate the cells of anti–LBPA antibody with an isotype IgG control or if the MA104 cells
were protease inhibitors they were treated with leupeptin (in water) or with cathepsin B or L
inhibitors. Then the cells that had grown on glass coverslips were washed twice with MEM to get
them ready to localize the rotavirus particles with endocytic markers. The cells went through an
immunoblot analysis. Finally the qRT–PCR was done as well as the statistical analysis using the two
tail paired

Comparison Of The Ebola Virus
Essay 1;2014 Comparison of the Ebola outbreak and the CDC study module for "Gastroenteritis at a
University in Texas"
1) Ebola Virus– Belongs to the family Filoviridae. It has a single–stranded –sRNA genome, so it
uses a RNA polymerase to create the +sRNA template, which acts as mRNA inside the host cell.
The envelope is made up of peptidoglycan; the structure is made up of 7 structural proteins and 1
non–structural protein. This means it is an enveloped and susceptible to the outside environment.
The Ebola virus replicates in Monocytes, Macrophages and Dendritic Cells. When the Ebola virus is
ready to leave the host cell it buds out and takes part of the cell membrane with it. Ebola has an
incubation period of 8–10 days. (CDC) Norovirus– ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These symptoms are also similar to the symptoms caused by the common cold or the flu. Most
people are not going to be running to the emergency room if they have a slight fever, headache, or
nausea. This can make it difficult to contain these viruses once an initial infection happens in the
host. An infected person may travel to another area unaware that they are carrying one of these
diseases. Both of these viruses do not have a vaccine or real treatment. The best ways to "treat"
these are to let them pass and allow the immune system to fight the virus off. Norovirus is not as
serious as the Ebola and most of the persons infected can fight it off in a few days. Getting rest and
keeping the body healthy. The Ebola is more serious, the fatality rate according to WHO is 50%.
The best way to handle this is to isolate the person and give them IVs and hope their immune system
is strong enough to fight off the virus. If they can fight off the virus they will recover, but if not then
the virus kills the host. Since Ebola has no cure this plays to the advantage of controlling the virus.
When someone has contracted the virus action is taken very quickly to isolate and quarantine. The
source of the virus is put as top priority to stop the spread. Because it is so serious controlling it
when it arises is the number one objective. The Norovirus is foodborne virus. So tracking the source
and removing it in

Ebola Virus : A Virus
Britney Moncada Biology 101, MWF 10am Ebola Paper
Ebola Virus
Over the past couple years, discussion regarding the Ebola virus has gone viral and ignited chaos
both domestically and abroad. Ebola is a virus that was discovered back in 1976, but has not failed
to grab people's attention in the recent years (1). It is a very fatal virus that targets the liver and
blood vessel lining (10). When Ebola goes untreated it can lead to fatalities or worse off, deaths.
There are 5 virus species of Ebola that are linked with infecting not only humans, but also animals
(2). In fact, many animals are suspected of being the primary source of the Ebola Virus. African
chimps, monkeys and other primates have been thought to transmit the virus to humans (2). It is
very easy for scientists who are conducting experiments on infected animals to contract the virus
themselves (2). A person could also eat a contaminated animal and not even be aware of the
infection the animal contains.
Considering that the Ebola virus originated from Africa, Africa still remains the country with the
highest number of infected citizens (2). The spread of Ebola has become particularly problematic in
western Africa. The outbreak has killed over 40,000 people in Liberia, over 3,500 in Sierra, and over
2,536 in Guinea. Luckily, casual contact with an infected person is not sufficient enough to
contaminate someone. It is through direct contact with body fluids such as the

Zika Virus
Case study on Zika Virus: Public Health Concern to Workers
This case study particularly on the topic I chose – Zika Virus is pandemic that affects everyone from
children to adult, and from employers to employees. The overall health and safety issue, is that
workers working in areas of active Zika transmission are liable to contract the virus and healthcare
workers who may have been exposed to infected blood or other potentially infectious materials from
people infected with Zika virus may require extreme protection. As of 2016, the illness cannot be
prevented by medications or vaccines (Wikipedia, 2016). The new rules, issued by the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), urge employers of outdoor workers to inform employees of the risks of exposure to Zika
through mosquito ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, historic reports suggest that first cases were found in African and Asia in 1947. The rise in
the spread of Zika virus has been accompanied by an unprecedented rise in the number of children
being born with unusually small heads, which is identified as microcephaly. Out of five people with
the virus, four show no symptoms. The virus has long circulated in Africa and Asia, and now
affecting workers worldwide. But it is new to the Western Hemisphere. Current reports show that as
many as 1.5 Million people are thought to have been infected by the virus in Brazil and the virus has
spread to Latin America and the Caribbean. Statistics have also shown that 1 in 5 people develop
signs like fever and joint pain. Zika Virus is usually transmitted by the bite of infected mosquitoes
(Musso D and Gubler DJ., 2016). These infected mosquitoes carry diseases like Yellow Fever,
Chikungunya and Dengue. It is also note–worthy to point out that only the female mosquito's bite
whereas the male don't bite people they usually drink nectar from

Essay on The Hanta Virus
The Hanta Virus
The hanta virus is not a new foe to humanity. This mysterious and sometimes fatal disease has
plagued humanity for over 1000 years. This virus, most likely originating in China over 1000 years
ago, is transmitted by human contact with mice. Only relatively recently has the hanta virus
captured the attention of the United States. Although the hanta virus has been known for such a long
time, there is little known about the virus. In the United States most cases are found in the
southwestern part of the country, although cases have been reported from all four corners of the
country. Recently, there have been successful tests done on prospective vaccines for the hanta virus.
Despite this, strains ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There can be no human to human transmission of this virus, therefore it is not spread by people but
only by deer mice (www.slac.stanford.edu). Most infections of the hanta virus resulted from contact
with mice or their droppings in homes while cleaning (Ince).
The first symptoms of the hanta virus are often characterized as flu–like. This includes a fever,
coughing and muscle fatigue (www.pharminfo.com). Other beginning symptoms may also include
chills, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and stomach pain (www.bepestfree.com). Untreated or severe
cases can lead to fluid in the lungs, causing respiratory failure and ultimately, death
(www.nmus.edu). Not typically reported, the hanta virus can also cause kidney failure, again with
the possibility of leading to death (www.latinolink.com). As of March 17, 1997, there were 158
confirmed cases of the hanta virus in the United States (www.bepestfree.com). As of July 1996 there
were 133 cases of the hanta virus confirmed in the United States, and approximately half of these
cases lead to death (www.nmsu.edu).
There are several steps that can be taken to reduce the risk contracting the hanta virus. One highly
recommended measure is to spray mouse feces, dead mice or areas inhabited by mice with a water
and bleach solution (5:1). After this, all work done around the area, such as cleaning, should be done
while wearing rubber gloves and a dust mask. All contamination

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Essay
Back in 1960s, there was an outbreak of coryza, also known as rhinitis, a contagious inflammatory
disease involving the upper respiratory tract. In 1965, Dr. J.A. Morris and his colleagues were able
to recover and isolate the pathogen that caused this outbreak from a captive chimpanzee. (Lambert,
2014) Through their research and study, they found out that Respiratory syncytial virus was causing
the infection. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a specific type of virus that is able to cause both
upper and lower respiratory tract infections. It is an enveloped RNA virus that can infect people of
all ages but has severe impact on children under the age of two. Respiratory syncytial virus is a
typical childhood disease. Out of the human population, infants are the most susceptible. Within the
infant population, there are four main groups that are affected: premature infants, infants with lung
disease, infants who have a weak immune system, and infants who suffer from a heart disease
(Medline Plus, 2014). RSV targets about ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
RSV is a highly contagious disease. Exposure and infection of respiratory syncytial virus can easily
spread in a crowded atmosphere for example at school or in a daycare environment (CDC, 2014).
People can become infected with RSV through either direct or indirect contact. Direct contact can
occur through physical contact with people who are infected or fine aerosol droplets from one who
coughed or sneezed. Indirect contact results when the infectious disease passes from the infected
host to an intermediate conveyor such as an inanimate object, and then to another host. According to
the CDC (2014), RSV can survive on hard surfaces for several hours, and for a shorter amount of
time on soft surfaces such as tissues and hands. This is how respiratory syncytial virus can be
transmitted from one host to

The H1N1 Influenza Virus
The H1N1 Influenza Virus
A virus is "snippet of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA" (YouTube, Dr. Tony Fauci, H1N1 Influenza
a Virus, 2009) that is able to replicate itself only in other cells. Unlike bacteria, a virus cannot thrive
on its own. A virus has to break into a cell and take control of the cell functions in order to replicate,
often causing disease. Some viruses are benign, and others cause diseases like polio, smallpox, and
measles. There are be three types of influenza: A, B, and C, which are all found in humans.
Influenza A is found in "birds, pigs, whales, horses, and seals" (Microbiology: An Introduction,
2016, pp. 364) and also humans. It has the ability to attack the respiratory system, nose, throat, and
lungs. Influenza A can also cause fever, chills, sore throat, runny nose, cough, muscle aches, and
fatigue. The swine flu (influenza a virus) is an acute virus. The infected person shows the symptom
of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was evolved by its molecular make up from genes that have rearranged themselves from multiple
viral species from an influenza virus that is in pigs or swine; from an influenza virus that infects
birds; and from an influenza virus that infects humans. In 2009 when H1N1 was spreading, there
was no effective vaccines available at the time because the scientists or the physicians just became
aware of this brand new virus. It has been isolated and characterized and they certainly intend to
move forward to make a vaccine against this H1N1 influenza virus. Later, a vaccine was developed
to cure people who were infected and also prevent others from being infected. The injectable form
of H1N1 influenza virus vaccine is a "killed virus" vaccine and does not cause people to be infected
with the virus. The vaccine effects itself by stimulating the body to make an immune response
against the virus before the body actively sees the virus that it

The Ebola virus (EBOV) Essay
1. Introduction
The Ebola virus (EBOV) is a dangerous virus which has a chance of mortality when infected up to
90%. This makes it one of the most deadly viruses for humans in the world. 1, 2 It does not stop
there. Various EBOV outbreaks have fatally infected tens of thousands of chimpan–zees, duikers
and gorillas. It those areas it is a great threat to the wildlife.3
EBOV belongs to the order of the nonsegmented negative–sense (NNS)RNA type viruses, the
Mononegavirales and it is part of the family Filoviridae. EBOV is a member of the genus
Ebolavirus. This genus has five distinct species: Bundibugyo ebolavirus, Zaire ebolavirus, Su–dam
ebolavirus, Taï Forest ebola virus and Reston ebolavirus.4 The Ebola virus should not be confused ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Interferon signaling is the release of proteins by the host cell to communicate to the immune system
that there are pathogens present in the host cell. Second in combination with NP and VP35 it takes
part of the formation of the nu–cleocapsid and third, it is shown that without VP24 there is far les
VP30 in virus–like particles. The last shows VP24 is nessecary for a fully functional
nucleocapsid.13
The polymerase cofactor VP35 is a protein in the nucleocapsid that just as VP24, possesses the
ability to inhibit interferon signaling.14 Also it probably regulates the transcription and
replication.15
VP30 is also in the nucleocapsid and possible has a direct interaction in the transcription of EBOV
RNA. Also it probably regulates replication. 15
The RNA Polymerase L protein is a part of the replication and transcription cycle. It is also believed
that it regulates the enzymatic activities for replication and transcription
The NP plays an central role in virus replication. Also it is necessary, together with VP24 and VP35,
to build nucleocapsid–like structures.6 Although NP is so important for the virus, its exact role is
still unknown.
Figure 1:6 A. This is a schematic diagram of EBOV genome The proteins depicted are the three
prime untranslated region (UTR), nucleoprotein (NP), the viral proteins (VP) 35 and 40, the
glycoprotein (GP), VP30, VP 24, the RNA–dependent RNA polymerase (L) and the five prime
untranslated region.7, 16 The transcription starts at the

Avian Influenza A Virus
Since December 2014, the USDA has confirmed numerous cases of highly pathogenic avian
influenza (HPAI) H5 in the Pacific, Central, and Mississippi flyways, known as migratory pathways.
This makes more sense to the fact that wild birds can carry this influenza, and that more birds go
through these migratory pathways, instead of in other regions.
Avian Influenza is an infection generated by the avian influenza A viruses. It can occur naturally
among birds. Both domestic and wild avian can acquire it. Wild birds worldwide contract influenza
A infections in their intestines, but usually don't get sick. However, it's exceedingly contagious
among birds, and some of the viruses can make them immensely sick and kill them.
It's relevant because influenza

Arena Virus
The family of Arenaviruses is genomically a negative single strand RNA virus. It has an enveloped,
icosahedral symmetry with a diameter of approximately 120nm. Its ambisense genome is segmented
into two divisions. The derivation of its name is from the Latin word 'arena' which translates to
sandy. Many sources indicate this is due to its appearance microscopically of a grainy or sandy
particle.(2) This appearance is due to ribosomes being present throughout the virus. The entry of the
virus into the host cell is via clathrin mediated endocytosis and reproduction is via budding from the
host's cell membrane. The initial Arenavirus was discovered in 1933–1934 by scientists who were
studying encephalitis. It was called LCM (lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus).(4) Over the next
decades, more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In order to maintain safety for all of the healthcare workers diagnosing a patient, biosafety level
(BSL) 4 containment should be used per the CDC.(8) The primary way to diagnose this infection is
with isolation of the virus followed by antigen and antibody detection via enzyme linked
immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) or indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) methods. Another method
of determining that Arenaviruses are in the sample includes the presence of reverse transcriptase
polymerase chain reactions. (RT–PCR) RT–PCR can be used for many different types of scientific
applications including, genetic testing, determining the presence of oncogenes, detecting infectious
pathogens, and determining genetic fingerprinting. RT–PCR has taken over from Northern blot
testing as the standard to determine the presence or absence of a specific type of RNA. It occurs by
having the RNA converted into a complementary DNA through a reverse transcriptase. The
expression of certain genes can be measured and the type of RNA present determined.(5) Once the
presence of Arenavirus is determined, a treatment plan must be

Is The Virus A Virus?
What is a virus, by definition it is a "Software that is self–replicating and spreads like a biological
virus." (Easttom, 2013–2014) They're many forms of virus such as: Spyware which like its name
spies on your behavior and sends this data to a remote computer. You also have Adware which like
its name as well targets you for ads and different advertisements. You're more harmful forms of
viruses are Trojans which is a type of malware that is often disguised as legitimate software
(Kaspersky Lab, 1997–2015) Trojans basically make the user/s believe one thing have them
download something from their site which is really downloading that Trojan. What that Trojan then
does is possibly steal personal information, install a backdoor to your computer which then the
person who created this Trojan can access at any time. You also have rootkits, dialers, keyloggers,
botware and many other names of different viruses and malware. With all of these viruses and
malware being put into the world by hackers and black hats how can you protect yourself from it?
One of the first things you may want to invest in is your first line of defense a virus protector or
anti–virus software. Anti–virus software such as Mcafee or Norton come with what you call a
firewall. Think of this firewall as the Great Wall of China, it help to keep things that you don't want
in out. That same firewall also prevents things that you do not want leaving your computer as well.
Personal data such as Visa card numbers,

Essay on virus
Virus Overview
The virus was first thought about in 1883 when A. Mayer was seeking to find the cause of the
tobacco mosaic disease. Though he was unable to see them with the microscopy of his day, he
postulated that a small agent caused the disease. D. Ivanowsky, later tried tests as well and also
concluded that it was a disease caused by something smaller than they could see. The virus was first
found and discovered in 1935 by Wendell Stanly. He was able to crystallize the virus, now known as
the tobacco mosaic virus.
The smallest viruses are only 20 nm in diameter, smaller even than a ribosome in a cell. Though not
a living thing, viruses are infections particles ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once control of the cell is achieved, the genes tell the cell to start producing more viral parts and
assemble them. Eventually, so many new viruses are produced, the cell swells and eventually bursts,
spewing hundreds or even thousands of new viruses.
The lysogenic cycle, is nearly the same as the lytic cycle, though a bit more controlled and hidden.
The gene code splices into the cells code and lies dormant, waiting for the time to then begin
producing itself. This way, the cell does not die after infection until the genes take over and begin
the lytic cycle.
Many variations on the viral infect scheme are among animal viruses. There are two variations,
viruses with envelopes and viruses with RNA genomes, though some have both of these features.
Classes of Animal Viruses dsDNA Papilloma, Herpes, Small Pox ssDNA Parvovirus dsRNA
Diarrhea viruses ssRNA + Poliovirus ssRNA – Rabies, measles ssRNA DNA leukemia
Viruses with an envelope outside the capsid use the membrane to help enter the host cell. This
membrane is generally a lipid bilayer, with glycoproteins protruding from the surface.
The viruses that infect humans

Essay On Influenza Virus
Influenza Virus
Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system – your nose, throat and lungs. The
virus is sphere covered with spike like proteins, called the hem agglutinin and the neuraminidase,
ready to latch on to a healthy human cell. The process of entering a cell, reproducing, and moving to
another cell takes about 4 to 6 hours. There are multiple complications of the influenza virus such as
Guillain–Barre syndrome and Reye's syndrome. The most serious complication is pneumonia. When
having the flu, you can have a bunch of symptoms. Headaches, fever, runny nose, coughing, sore
throat, body aches, and tiredness are a few symptoms of the flu.
The influenza virus looks like a sphere covered with spike like proteins for grip ready to latch on to
a healthy human cell. The virus holds RNA in the very center of the virus. The outside layer is called
the envelope. "The H spike (hem agglutinin) and the N spike (neuraminidase) are called proteins
and exist in the envelope and they are used for antigenic typing" (Pearson 2004). These proteins
allow the virus to enter and exit the host (our cells). Once the virus is inside the cell, the virus can
begin reproducing. Soon, each infected cell is filled with thousands of new viruses, each of them
looking to leave the cell to find a new home in another cell and begin ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The virus attacks your respiratory system – your nose, throat and lungs. The virus accesses into the
body by going through the mouth or nose. People can also pick it up by touching the virus on an
object, such as doorknobs, pens, pencils, keyboards, telephone receivers, and eating or drinking
utensils, then touching their mouth or nose. "Lower–respiratory symptoms include cough and
breathing problems. Upper–respiratory symptoms include sore throat, runny nose and congestion"
(Demand Media 2015). The digestive system is also affected by the flu and that causes vomiting and

Influenza Virus Essay
Influenza viruses are unique. They have the ability to avoid host immunity, therefore causing annual
reoccurring epidemics of disease, and sometimes, major worldwide pandemics. The recognition of
the variability in antigenic characteristics of influenza strains led to the establishment of a global
Influenza Surveillance Network by the World Health Organization. The network monitors changes
in viruses that cause outbreaks of influenza throughout the year all around the world. This article
aims to explain the difference in epidemiology between influenza strains A and B, and how they are
related to previous viruses. Since the introduction of H3N2, an influenza A strain, into the human
genome, the antigen H3 on the hemagglutinin (HA) gene has evolved as a single lineage. The rate of
accumulation of mutations is approximately 4x10^–3 substitutions per ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In HA1, there are about 5x10^–3 amino acid substitutions per residue per year. The majority of these
changes occur on the surface of HA1 and are present in antigenic sites close to the receptor–binding
site. Additionally, when modifying antibody binding to HA, changes in glycosylation are found to
be very important. In the evolution of H3N2 viruses, studies show that changes in conserved amino
acids at the receptor–binding site also have an effect. Predominant viruses that cause outbreaks of
disease often have a high degree of similarity, even when they are largely distributed throughout the
world. The importance of reassortment of HA and viral neuraminidase (NA) genes in the emergence
of epidemic viruses is indicated by the co–circulation of several H3N2 variants. In terms of H1N1,
another influenza A strain, significant properties of the virus did not evolve directly from viruses
that came before it. Another strain of influenza, Influenza B, has shown to have a

Rabies: A Neurotropic Virus
The rabies virus is a neurotropic virus that causes rabies in both animals and humans. It is a highly
infectious viral disease and mostly transmitted by infected animals' saliva. Simply, a neurotropic
virus or neuroinvasive is a virus that can access or enter the nervous system and neurovirulent to
cause disease within the nervous system. Neurotropic viruses are increasingly being exploited as
research tools and for their potential use in treatment. They are being used to improve the
understanding of the nervous system circuits [1]. There are two forms of rabies: furious and
paralytic. During furious rabies, the rabies virus goes straight to the brain and animal displays signs
of extreme restlessness and aggression. In addition, they attack ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In the wild it has been found infecting many mammalian species, while in the laboratory it has been
found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from mammals, birds, reptiles and insects
[4]. In virology, rabies virus is serotype 1 of 7 serotypes of the genus Lyssavirus, which belongs to
the larger classification of rhabdoviruses. Interestingly, at least 6 of these viruses have been found in
bats [10]. The rabies virus is an enveloped virus in the Rhabdoviridae family with a cylindrical
morphology. The structure of this virus is unique. It is a rod or bullet shaped, single–stranded,
genome with negative–sense, unsegmented, and enveloped RNA virus (Fig. 1). The picture shown,
outer part of the cartridge contains the matrix protein and a glycoprotein on which are located the
epitopes that induce neutralizing anti–bodies

Describe The Function Of A Virus
Viruses are microscopic organisms that are able to reproduce themselves using a host call. Viruses
play the role of a parasite or an uninvited guest in an organism. Epidemics occurs when a disease
spreads through many people; ex: THe Great Influence Epidemics of 1918.Pandemics its is a global
outbreak of a disease; ex: HIV/AIDS. Viruses are similar to cells they have genetic material and
reproduce just like cells.Viruses are different from cells because they are not made of cells and
cannot metabolize nutrients. Viruses can have either DNA or RNA and it can be Double Stranded
and single stranded for viruses. The function of a virus is to replicate itself or reproduce ; Ex;
Hepatitis A has RNA and Hepatitis B has DNA as genetic material. Viral Capsids are protein shell
made out of protein shell made out of proteins.
Some shapes of viral capsids are helical or icosahedral: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Virus surface markers are protein expressed and have different receptors. Function of a virus surface
marker is to recognize other matching surface receptors and bind; For Ex: Influenza surface markers
are hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase. Viral Envelope are composed of lipid bilayer and its derived
for host cell's membranes. Function of a viral capsid is that it envelopes the viral capsid and some
examples of viral envelopes are CMV viruses and HIV virus. In Lytic Cycle Viruses reproduce
quickly and burst cell for example flu and rabies however some virus go through Lysogenic which
means the virus does not replicate quick but stay dormant for very long time and them become
active and go through the lytic cycle . Lytic and Lysogenic cycle are similar because for both cycle
the attach and insert genetic material by after that while lytic cycle

The Deadly Hanta Virus Essay
The Deadly Hanta Virus
Hanta virus is a dangerous and often deadly disease that must be guarded against. If proper
precautions are not taken, hanta virus could lead to a nationwide outbreak causing many deaths.
While there are a few cases of hanta virus reported each year, the consequences of coming down
with the disease dictates that the U.S. set up certain safeguards to educate the population on how to
protect themselves. Even though research is being done on hanta virus and its related illnesses, there
persist many unanswered questions. Hanta virus like all other viri are some of the smallest
organisms known to man. Their existence as living organisms is debated. Viri perform only the most
basic functions of life. They seek ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition, the incubation time of the virus is uncertain. Researchers think that it takes between one
and five weeks after the initial contact with the virus before victims start showing symptoms of the
illness. These early symptoms can vary significantly from person to person. While most people will
feel fatigue, fever and muscle aches in the large muscle groups. Other may also experience chills,
dizziness, and abdominal pains. A week later, infected people will begin to experience coughing and
a shortness of breath as their lungs fill with fluid. It is important to note that most hanta virus
victims became ill even though they did not see rodents or their dropping, and others have had a
large amount of contact with both before they became sick (CDC.gov pg. 1). Because of the wide
variety of symptoms, hanta virus has gone through several different names.
"The common clinical features among the case–patients included a prodromial illness of fever,
chills, and myalgia. The prodrome was followed by dyspnea, cough, throbocytopenia, severe
hemodynamic instability, neutrophilid with immature forms, atypical lymphocytes, elevated serum
levels of lactate dehydrogenase. There was a high mortality rate, approximately eighty percent in the
initial group of patients, the chest x–ray examinations revealed a diffuse, interstitial infiltrate that
resembled that observed in patients with adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which is a
common pattern in patients

Hendra Virus Case Study
Everyone listen up, it is now time to take caution. A virus has re–emerged and is spreading fast. We
first saw a case like this in 1994 where well–known horse trainer, Vic Rail died after 6 days and
experienced severe lung inflammation, interstitial pneumonia and respiratory failure (Grant,2013).
14 of his horses also died when it broke out not far from here, in fact Hendra and now it has come
back to haunt us with its lethality (Betterhealth.vic.gov.au, 2015).The emergence in humans was
unprecedented and shocking.
The Hendra Virus and Nipah Virus fall under the genus of the family Henipavirus. The Hendra Virus
is characterised by it's wide range of possible hosts, large genome and ability to emerge as a
zoonotic pathogen. This pathogen is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Once transmitted to a human, Hendra Virus is characterised by a systematic infection of the host. To
begin with the virus invades the epithelial cells of the lower respiratory tract and then attacks the
endothelial cells of the lungs (Microbewiki.kenyon.edu, 2015). This results in an inflammatory
response in the lungs as cytokines are released which is damaging to the body's tissues. Once the
infection reaches the lungs the Hendra virus is then disseminated into the oxygenated blood and is
transported throughout the circulatory system (Microbewiki.kenyon.edu, 2015). Hendra virus is able
to travel independently in the blood or whilst bound to leukocytes without infecting. In labs it has
been proven that the virus is also capable of infecting more blood cells such as monocytes, natural
killers and some T cells (Microbewiki.kenyon.edu, 2015). If the virus is able to bond to cells such as
these in the human body it would explain how it is capable of been transported across the blood–air
and blood–brain barriers directly into the central nervous system (Microbewiki.kenyon.edu, 2015).
As the Hendra Virus is a modern virus, there is still much more to find out but it is known that this
virus is characterised by a systematic infection through the breakdown of endothelial cells and
strong inflammatory

Arguments Against Mimi Virus

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Arguments Against Mimi Virus

Similar to Arguments Against Mimi Virus (20)

More from Theresa Singh

More from Theresa Singh (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Arguments Against Mimi Virus