Finch In A Pinch Lab Essay

Finch in a Pinch Lab Essay
Finch in a Pinch Lab
Problem Statement
As scientists, we have come to this island to observe the evolution of finches when forced into an
unfamiliar habitat with a changing food supply.
Hypothesis
We believe our finch, Pherous robustus, will have a good chance at survival because its beak will
allow for the finch to grasp many different seed shapes and sizes.
Conclusion
During our first 5 years, corn grew well on the island. Our finch population steadily increased
during this time period. Our finch was very well adapted to eating the corn because it was very easy
for our finch to pick up. During the next five years there was a drought and only block plants grew.
Our finch population steadily decreased during this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Data Table
Population Per Year
Specie 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Pherous robustus 153 157 167 170 172 164 155 149 146 141 140 140 140 137 136 139 143 146 149
152
Tweezeris bentails 149 146 146 146 145 151 150 157 162 166 161 172 172 174 172 169 164 172
177 178
Plierous normalis 154 158 166 183 181 187 188 193 196 202 202 205 205 206 211 215 220 230 240
247
Tweeseris pointus 155 156 165 172 178 177 180 181 181 179 184 192 192 193 200 202 204 201
208 212
Tosserus saladis 143 141 142 138 136 154 164 177 191 203 195 179 179 168 157 156 164 163 165
163
Summary All of the finches studied in this experiment originated on the same island. On this island
there was diversified food success, allowing natural selection to take place and create separate
species to fill different niches on the island. When the natural disaster occurred the finches were

forced to migrate to another island where the conditions were not as favorable. The finches that were
once separated by clines and food sources are now competing for survival.
The adaptations that the finches evolved on the original island made some finches more successful
at food acquisition on the new island. Due to allopatric speciation the isolated population began to
deviate form the parent population because of the founder effect and is was less likely to gene flow.
The isolated finch population began to diverge
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Inherit The Wind, By Charles Darwin
Every living thing on this planet has evolved from the same original specie. Having this
information, could it not be concluded that all living things are, to some degree, related? Yes. To
further explain, evolution is a theory that states that organisms have diversified or in other words,
have changed into a more complex living thing. In the book Inherit The Wind, the townsfolk of the
play disagree heavily with the theory of evolution. Common ancestry is the theory that states that all
living things share a common ancestor or common descendent, which then ties into evolution.
Speciation, both allopatric and parapatric, show evidence for common ancestry. Speciation is when
new species arise due to an evolutionary process. There are multiple and observable accounts that
are used to support the theory of common ancestry. Charles Darwin's book, The Descent of Man
And Selection in Relation to Sex, goes into specifics with these accounts with placental mammals.
Placental mammals are mammals that nourish their embryos using the mother 's blood supply.
Common Ancestry in placental mammals provides sufficient scientific evidence, such as the
similarities in bone structures and genetic coding between animals, to support the theory of
evolution.
One of the biggest arguments against the theory of evolution and the theory of common ancestry is
that they are theories. A scientific theory is an explanation for something in the natural world
supported by facts and has successfully gone

Speciation in the Butterfly Essay
Recent studies into the genome of the various Heliconius butterflies, has shown a clear indication of
the process of speciation. Speciation is usually thought of as a long term process, just like the
process of evolution. Very few changes to the genome are needed to create the possibility of a new
species evolving– even if the original species is still in contact and reproducing. Once the changes to
the genome have begun, the evolutionary divergence is a rapid process that results in a new
genetically isolated species. Speciation is the divergence of a population into different species.
There are two forms of speciation; allopatric, where physical or environmental factors can cause a
population to form a new species, or sympatric, where a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Researchers have analyzed the genome of two subspecies of the Heliconius butterfly– having only
recently diverged into subspecies– in order to locate the genetic differences that are the critical
points for speciation. These two subspecies are still able to interbreed and are located in the similar
ecological habitats; therefore these butterflies will be able to experience a small amount of genetic
exchange. This ability of regular exchange causes the unimportant variants in the process of
speciation to become silent– the researchers found that this allowed them to locate the main genetic
areas that natural selection has influenced. In the research they determined that the two Heliconius
butterfly species genome had only 12 differing regions and the rest of the genome was nearly
identical. Of the 12 differences eight of these they found to code for the wing color patterning, a key
trait as it affects mating and avoiding predators in their perspective environments, the other four
were still yet undetermined. In a second test they compared the two previous genomes to a third
Heliconius species. The third species was farther removed on the evolutionary time scale but was
still closely related to the previous groups. The comparison showed the genomes to have hundreds
of differences; they concluded that once the initial genetic changes

Discontinuous Species Criticisms
Nature is very much discontinuous, but natural selection acts in a continuous manner, so the hard
part is finding out how nature is filled with these discrete and discontinuous groups called species.
The common criticism is that the inability to observe the formation of the new species means natural
selection is causing it, and the species never actually form, but as Coyne says, "...it's like saying that
because we haven't seen a single star go through its complete life cycle, stars don't evolve, or
because we haven't see a new language arise, languages don't evolve" (183). Just because we aren't
seeing the new species form right away, it doesn't mean it isn't happening. As stated before, it can
take a lot time for a new species to form. The three–step process for speciation to occur includes: the
initial step of geographical ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some pre–zygotic isolating mechanisms include: temporal, ecological, behavioral, and mechanical.
Temporal isolating mechanisms include the time at which species mate during the year can affect the
possibility of two species mating together. Ecological isolating mechanisms include the habitat in
which the species is living in. Behavioral isolating mechanisms include the mating behaviors of
species and how they are able to find mate. An example includes male birds having specific songs
they sing to find females. Mechanical isolating mechanisms include the way in which a species will
mate, including the genitalia. Post–zygotic isolating mechanisms include: hybrid inviability, hybrid
infertility, and hybrid breakdown. Hybrid inviability happens when the hybrid is produced but
cannot develop and eventually dies. Hybrid infertility occurs when the hybrid develops, but is
unable to reproduce because it is sterile. Hybrid breakdown occurs when the hybrids in the first
generation are able to reproduce but the hybrids in the second generation are unable to develop and

Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
Evolution is the concept published by Charles Darwin that organisms change over time. Evolution
transpires by natural selection, which is the process where an organism with beneficial traits, or
fitness, produces more offspring than organisms with non–beneficial traits. Over time, this creates
organisms that are more adapted to survive for whatever place they are living in, because nature
passes on the variations of organisms that are most useful, and with the greatest chance of surviving.
In order for evolution to occur, the traits must be heritable, there must be a difference in fitness
within the population, there must be limited resources, which leads to competition, and there must
be variation.
Darwin knew the facts that must be true in order for evolution to occur and he had much evidence
backing up his theory, but he did not have a complete understanding of the pathways of evolution
because the laws of genetics put forward by Gregor Mendel were not known to him. It wasn't until
the early 1900s when Mendel's work was published, that scientists understood the full process of
evolution. From Mendel's experimentation, we are now taught that variations of traits are heritable,
and the variations are caused by alleles. Microevolution is evolution that occurs because of the
constant change in alleles over time. Macroevolution occurs over geologic time above the level of
the species, which is shown by fossil records, (CK–12 275). It is caused by microevolution
happening over

Models Of Speciation By Sexual Selection On Polygen By...
The article Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygen by Russell Lande discusses the
reasoning behind natural and sexual selection. Russell Lande starts by describing the differences
between the processes of natural and sexual selection according to Darwin's theory of evolution and
continues on to question the reasoning for why females prefer extreme phenotypic traits in a
polygamous mating system, which is not explained in Darwin's studies. Russell defined a
polygamous mating system as a system in which the male provides little more than gametes in their
offspring to the relationships. When this is the case the females have many potential mates and when
there is no sexual preference a preference can evolve. This happens because a

What Is Darwin's Theory? True Or False?
True or false?
a) Darwin was a crew member of the HSM Beacon – False
b) Darwin was influenced by the writing of Thomas Maithus – true
c) Species whose features make them better able to cope tend to increase over time – true
d) When two features are found together the term used is genetic connection – false
e) If related individuals continue to breed inbreeding problems arise – true
f) Small differences can be found when the same species lives in different environments – true
g) Darwin's theory was published under the title The Original Species – False
Speciation
The term given for the separation of these birds on different islands is called speciation.
The first step of speciation is variation, it is the reason that the beak ... Show more content on
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The birds on island one and two, have similar beaks as the mainland birds. The beak starts to bend
more which allows the birds to hunt insects and cactus flowers. Island 3 has a slightly smaller beak
then the mainland and would be used to hunt insects and island four has a smaller but stronger beak
which means the island would have many nuts and hard shells that the bird could open with its beak.
Examples that demonstrate speciation and natural selection include the English peppered moths.
One species of the moth survives better in light coloured areas, while the other survives better in
dark coloured areas. (Biology, 1997)
Another example that demonstrates speciation is rock mice with different colours. They survived
under the exact same circumstances as the rock English peppered moths. (Pearson Places, 2012)
Comparative anatomy provides evidence for evolution because it illustrates the changes that have
occurred over a large period of time. In the example, the feet/leg structure strongly provides
evidence for evolution. This is because it is evident that the structure is changing slightly, this is
most likely why there are two feet/leg structures for each fossil. The skull of is the most obvious
piece of evidence and can vary

Sympatric Speciation Research Paper
In order to solve that question, let's follow me and Time travel to 55 millions years ago! There was
an animal the size of a small dog called Hyracotherium.Everyone would like it to be a pet. It's the
oldest found horse ancestor, They were scampering through the forests full of plants rich in foliage
that covered North America. For more than their history they lived in there, and horses remained
small, forest browsers. Their toes, four at the front and three at the back, sprawled out at different
angles which helped them from sinking in the marshy ground.
Until one day the changing climate Conditions allowed grasslands to expand, foliage plants
disappeared. And about 20 million years ago, many new species rapidly evolved. Some but not all of
the hyracotherium become bigger and stronger. And only those who become bigger and stronger can
run faster which lead ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Biologist usually recognize two types of speciation allopatric and sympatric. In this case it is a
sympatric speciation. It is a species(hyracotherium )evolves into a new species without a physical
bar. The reson that let them become two separate species because one specie like eating leaf the
other one prefer grass.
Most horses evolved on the North American. During ice age they across the Bering land bridge into
what is now Siberia. From there, the Genetic drift begins , that is one of the reason why today we
have so many different kind of horses. Horses spread across Asia into Europe and south
Africa.Because after some of the horses across the Bering land bridge, the sea level is rising, the
bridge is disappeared. So it is a small group of horses stuck in Asia and Africa. Because this small
group is a random subset of the orginal population, they carries a random subset of the population
genes. All the uncommon maybe become common in the next

The Disadvantages Of Sexual Diversity Of Reproducing Species
One advantage of sexual reproduction is that these organisms generally have greater genetic
diversity. Organisms who reproduce asexually, on the other hand, are essentially clones of each
other. This means that their predators can adapt to hunt them easily. The diversity of sexually
reproducing organisms allows them to stay a step ahead of their predators because of their genetic
variations and their ability to adapt via natural selection (Brockmyre 2015).
The Red Queen Hypothesis states that species must keep evolving to keep up. It is based on a quote
from Through the Looking Glass: "It takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place."
Predators are evolving to best hunt their prey so the prey must keep evolving to survive (Brockmyre
2015).
Robert Vrijenhoek observed these processes in topminnows. The ponds where these fish live include
fish that reproduce sexually and fish that produce assexually. This population is affected by parasites
that cause black–spot disease. He found that more of the assexual fish were afftected than the sexual
fish. This is because when the parasites were able to effeccrively attack one assexual fish, they could
attack all of them as they are clones. This didn't apply to sexually producing fish as they were all
different ("The Red Queen" 2001). Sexual reproduction has caused monogamy in some species. In
these species, it is essential for the father to help raise the young, but the father won't help unless he
believes that the

Reproductive Specialist ( Reproduction, Speciation &...
Devipriya: Reproductive Specialist (Reproduction, Speciation & Symbiosis)
Sarina: Epidemiologist (Human Disease, Vector Control & Virus/Phage)
Is it possible to have a bacterial infection that selectively kills males? If so, explain the biology.
How has this strange biology propagated throughout the species?
The illness does not respond to any known treatments. As biologists, how might you stop the spread
of this disease?
Devipriya/Sarina
Briefly describe the basic biology of Wolbachia.
What is meant by an obligate, intracellular symbiont?
It cannot reproduce outside of the host's cell, meaning that the parasite's reproduction is dependent
on the host
An obligate intracellular symbiont cannot reproduce outside of the host's cell which ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
These effects can cause an entire population to have a small gene pool because of speciation which
put all of them in one spot, and after a little bit of time, it will make the entire colony have
wolbachia.
How can we "cure" the host of asexual reproduction?
The cure to rid the host of wolbachia is antibiotics. Antibiotics can neutralize the impact of
wolbachia on people and other different insects. We would inject the antibiotics into them and as
they mate with other insects, the endosymbiont would make its way into the DNA of the insects and
then it will be a constant in the species. This would render wolbachia useless, and humans would not
be impacted by the disease either.
Speciation in Insects
Devipriya
What is meant by reproductive isolation? How can it lead to speciation?
The insects that go through reproductive isolation end up not being able to cross breed with any
other species. However speciation can lead to by the matter of when time changes what might
happen is insects might become more used to different places and overtime change the way they act
even with reproductive isolation.
How does Wolbachia influence speciation?
Wolbachia can impact speciation by a matter of the infected and uninfected species mating with
each other. If two uninfected insects have taken an antibiotic and mated then the offspring will be

normal. The infected ones no matter what will just become more and more infected because it passes
through the parent to

Allopatric Speciation
Natural selection creates biodiversity by creating competition within a species. Though this is not
evident to the species, an organism with a mutation of a more desirable trait is potentially a threat to
others in the population by having higher chances of surviving, mating and reproducing–thus
passing on its traits. When an organism slowly evolves in this way, by passing on new, desirable
genetic information, the population begins to differ over time. As this continues, biodiversity is
created. The change of one organism also impacts other things in the community. For instance, if a
rodent of sorts experiences a mutation that helps it camouflage better, and this slowly enters future
generations, predators will have a harder time hunting and either adapt to better account for this
change or start hunting new animals or in new places. Therefore a change in one species can ...
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Allopatric speciation involves a species being physically separated and thus evolving and
experiencing natural selection in different conditions. Over many, many generations this produces
entirely new species unable to breed with one another if ever reintroduced. If the two new species
join together again one day, the biodiversity in the community will increase significantly, especially
since neither species will be competing with one another for mates. This could, however, create
issues of competing for location and food.
It is a complex concept to inquire, "What strategy best supports preserving biodiversity?" Obviously
there are pros and cons to each of the ones listed. With legislation, guidelines would be more strictly
enforced and bring about consequences if not obeyed. There is no telling, however, how strict these
guidelines would be or if the punishments would be enough of an incentive for people to change
their

Differing Rates of Evolutionary Change and Common...
Evolutionary Time Scales EVOLUTIONARY time scales are difficult to comprehend from a human
perspective; resultantly, anthropocentric conceptions of time have perverted evolutionary theory.
Evolution is seen by laymen as a generational process – a process pondering the question: if the
offspring of sexual organisms are always different from their parents, why does speciation only take
place over many thousands of generations? Speciation – even adaptation for that matter – cannot be
viewed in this microcosmic scope. For the purpose of this paper, speciation will be defined as the
elimination of any "potentiality for interbreeding among members" of non–conspecific groups (Daly
& Wilson, p70). Adaptation arises by the "trial and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, only minor genotypic novelties are likely to become adaptations; hence, adaptation can only
occur with minor changes in an environment (Kawecki, p2–4).<p> One significant concession,
however, must be interjected here: minor genotypic changes sometimes result in major phenotypic
changes. The issue here concerns "regulatory genes:" genes controlling the specific intervals of, and
duration of, maturation periods in an organism. An organism that matures differently can undergo
tremendous phenotypic alteration. For example, since human and chimpanzee genomes are 99%
alike, it has been hypothesised that the mere 1% difference contains a regulatory gene. Regulatory
genes are, perhaps, the greatest accelerator for the evolutionary pace; however, these genes, like all
other genes, are subject to an organism's environment: they are just as likely to be overwhelmed by
the genetic tyranny of the majority. In short, since the potential for any genetic novelty occurring
and radiating is low, the likelihood for a specific genetic novelty (an altered regulatory gene)
occurring and radiating is lower.<p> Adaptation, further slowing evolutionary velocity, functions by
trial and error (Wright, p25), not, as Lamarck would argue, by intentional adaptation to an
environment (Wright, pp232–234). A deer straining its neck to eat berries on high branches, for
example, will be no more

Essay on Varying Patterns of Speciation
Varying Patterns of Speciation
Wallace's line, located in the Malay–Archipelago, is one of the best known and most studied
boundaries of zoogeography in the world. It is a transition zone between the islands of Borneo and
Sulawesi and the islands of Bali and Lombork, which marks both the convergence and division of
the diverse flora and fauna found in the Asian (Borneo, The Philippines, and Western Indonesia),
and the Australian regions (Sulawesi, Eastern Indonesia, Australia, and New Guinea) (Schulte
2003). The hypothetical line was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858 after observing
many morphological differences of various bird species in the Asian and Australian regions (Raven
1935). In the past, to confirm the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Around 140 million years ago India separated from the still connected South America–African and
Antarctica–Australian landmasses and drifted northward until it collided with Eurasia (Europe and
Asia). This collision created a continental block which caused a separation of the Antarctica–
Australia landmass and caused the individual landmasses to shift in opposite directions (Whitmore
1981). This separation formed an underwater ocean ridge, which caused Australia to drift
northwestward. Around 15 million years ago, Australia converged with Asia, uniting the diverse
flora and fauna of both regions (Schulte 2003; Whitmore 1981). It was then the continuous
separation of these two landmasses that has dynamically shaped the present–day distribution of
unique ecosystems and species found on the Asian and Australian continents, as well as on the
islands in the Malay–Archipelago.
When Wallace drew his hypothetical line to define the boundary between Asian and Australian
zoology, he had an incomplete understanding of continental drift and plate tectonics. He only used
morphological observations of cockatoos found on Lombork and Bali, and of parrots found on
Borneo and Sulawesi, to support the placement of his line

Speciation In New Species
habit. But the biggest change to Drosophilia behavior would their two host interaction creation a
reproductive behavior, leading to immune related incompatibilities by symbiosis.
Taking symbiosis into action, when two species works together and have an influence on each other
that could lead to morphological, molecular changes. This is when speciation is seen in a different
light, and a solid proof of why organisms cannot be fixed. Bacteria has the ability to alter the gene
loci creating a reproductive barrier, the genetic changes leads to negative epistasis change, making
the daughter hybrid inviable. When and alteration as such is possible to influence a species it's a
little questionable to think that species is fixed. Symbiotic interaction can physically alter the organ
making the host look different from the parents or change their behavioral patterns creating a
behavioral isolation, like release difference pheromones. Sexual selection then ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A genomic Island is a nucleotide that has a vast change, and it causes a great mutation. Organisms
with mutation of such, when put into similar ecological locations, show different speciation when
natural selection acts on it, this is Mutation–order speciation. The population size between the
original and the new species formed may fluctuate but this is contradicting to the statement because
a small change created a different species. Today is species fixed? Yes, we are not going to mate
with chimpanzee! But the process that got us here couldn't have happened if species were fixed.
Every mutation, isolation random drift, ecological segregation leading to gene flow and then natural
selection, sexual selection acting on the species, worked in order for speciation to occur.
Compressing all of these mechanisms as fixed is unfitting but accepting the fact that were fixed right
now is not, but are we fixed forever? I don't think

Sympatric Speciation In Grey Fish
Divergent evolution occurs when two populations of the same species are separated and become
genetically different. Two types of divergent evolution are demonstrated in Figure 2. One type is
called Allopatric speciation; this occurs when a population or group of organisms belonging to the
same species, are separated geographically. Over time, the separated groups develop different traits
due to environmental differences. In Figure 2a, the grey fish evolved in a lake the receives salt water
runoff, they would need to have evolved traits to survive the increased salinity.
Sympatric speciation occurs in the populations are not separated (Figure 2b). For some reason the
two populations don't mix even though they are in the same environment. Differences in behavior
can lead to sympatric speciation. For instance, one population feeds on plants at the bottom of the
lake , while the other feeds on insects near the surface. Over thousands of years of separation based
on behaviors, they become different species because each population would have traits to make
them better suited to eating plants at the bottom of a lake, or eating insects near the surface. ... Show
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Allopatric speciation happens when a population of a species is separated by a geographic barrier. B.
Sympatric speciation happens when a population is separated by behavior.
Coevolution
Coevolution happens when two species evolve together because of the relationship they have with
each other. For example, as prey gets faster to avoid being eaten, predators also have to be faster in
order to eat. Coevolution can also happen between organisms with a relationship a mutualistic
relationship as shown Figure 3. Pollinators, such as hummingbirds, have evolved beaks to feed on
specific plants. The plants benefit because they are pollinated. Figure 3: Hummingbirds have
evolved beaks that fit the flowers which they

Is Charles Darwin A Speciation?
We all wonder how organisms became of and how there are different variations of them, where did
we start off and how did we get from there to present day? To answer all your questions, a naturalist
and geologist named Charles Darwin was a major contribution to the science of evolution. He
studied species and noticed similarities among the species, along with variations based on specific
locations. After collecting lots of evidence and finding similar theories from other naturalist and
geologists, he put together the idea of evolution and how species derived from other species. A key
part that he could not comprehend was the diversity in the species, "speciation". Speciation– the
formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. This happens within a population
when there is some sort of barrier isolating organisms that were originally living all together in the
same environment. Over the course of time, these organisms adapt to their new requirements to
survive in their environments which causes minor variations between the species. Over time, when
the two isolated population finally meet again, the two groups can no longer mate and reproduce
among one another ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
First of all reproductive isolation is when the specie gets separated/isolated from their original
environment and population, and from there, natural selection occurs and the best fit start to
reproduce in the new isolated environment. The occurrence of the natural selected organisms
reproducing in their new environment causes future generations to have different DNA because of
these must–have adaptations to survive in their environment. As the environments differs so does
the essential need of adaptations does, causing different DNA in the future

Andes Mountains Or The Amazon River: Article Analysis
What the main point of the article is about is the Andes Mountains or the Amazon River. It has to do
with speciation because the changes in the landscape has diverged the species of each animal. Like
the birds that Darwin studied the animals that adapted to the environment due to the climate or the
resources that are relevant to the species. But the article says that "speciation occurred later" and
what that means is most of the animals that were not use to the terrain died off until speciation took
place to speed up evolution or natural selection.
A man named Robb Brumfield and his colleagues studied the genealogy on 27 bird kinds that were
from the same continent but on different sides of landscapes. By using detailed sampling of many
bird lineages, we were able to get a clearer and larger picture of when and how species formed
within those lineages," Brumfield said. When they were doing the studies it showed the many
divergences and how they have changed over time. They took samples of the birds and that is the
recent studies that they have found from those birds and taught many the uniquenesses of speciation
due to natural selection and landscape. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
We have come so far in the knowledge of science we can figure out what most people could not
imagine. Speciation is a brilliant process and I think we can learn more about it. Darwin's theory of
natural selection has been modified since then and we learn more and more

Diversification In Chameleons
Quantifying diversification dynamics in Chameleons
The objective of this research is to investigate diversification rate shifts to see if there was a higher
speciation rate in chameleons once they dispersed from Africa to Madagascar. My phylogenetic tree
was built from 6–genes, multiple nuclear and mitochondrial markers and 174 taxa, it represents over
eighty–three percent chameleon species. Using three different reconstruction methods, Bayesian and
likelihood approaches it was seen that the family originated in Africa, with two separate oceanic
dispersals to Madagascar. I will be using BAMM software to test diversification rates to see if there
was colonization from Africa to Madagascar. There are three Malagasy genera found on the
phylogeny ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The table from figure 1, shows the rate shifts from a scale of zero to five, strong evidence suggests
there is a high probability in the rate shift at model one, producing a result of 48%, this shows that
there is a significant shift in the branch of the phylogenetic tree. The second table in figure2,
compares different shifts of models from the post file and prior file using the Bayes factor. The table
shows a slight support for model one when compared to model zero since it has a Bayes factor of
2.35. (Might have mixed this up, ask dr blair). When checking the effective sampling size of the
log–likelihood and the number of shifts present, strong evidence suggest, the higher the sampling
size, the more confident we are when working with our parameters. The effective size for the
number of shifts is 2326.543 and the effective size for the log–likelihood is 2605.621, this is shown
in figure 4. The BAMM analyses were run for 20,000000 generations with four chains, sampling a
sequence of every 4000 generations and a burn of ten percent. From the phylogenetic tree, it can be
seen that there was a higher speciation rate in the past, this can be identified because of the warmer
color on the branches of the clade. Speciation rate gets lower as we come closer to the present time,
which results in a colder color, blue. When looking at the phylogenetic tree above, it shows a great
significance for adaptive radiation. This is where one species, due to the change in the environment
quickly evolve, this occurs when a species is dislocated to a different location and has to quickly
adapt. From the tree, rapid speciation can be seen on a branch closest to 90 Myr, but as speciation
continues towards present time, it declines. It could be the new geographical location is not the same
ecological set up as the previous location, hence only the fittest species survive. The diversification
rate declines over time due

St Kitts Speciation Research
Selena Vazquez Mr. Manroe Biology May 26, 2017 Speciation of the St. Kitts and St. Nevis Rodents
Speciation is when a population cannot exchange genes with another population. This occurs
because of geographic, behavioral, and temporal isolation. The rodents in the St. Kitts island is a
small species that has been threatened by development. The populace is extremely minuscule and
the rodents are struggling in finding a mate. During my study, I noticed the Nevis rodent population
were very healthy and could be used as potential mates for the rodents in the island of St. Kitts.
Unfortunately, after 240 attempts to mate the populations no reproductive event was successful. The
St. Kitts rodents and the Nevis rodents cannot exchange genes ... Show more content on
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Kitts rodents. The behavioral data deduces that the St. Kitts are herbivores, while the Nevis are
omnivores. This means, that their diet is similar except that the Nevis eat meat. The data for nesting
behavior declares that the two species have excessive resemblance in their nesting habbitts, other
than the use of canopy by the St. Kitts, trees used by the Nevis, the permanent nest in the tree
hollows (St. Kitts), and the lasting nest in fallen tree hollow (Nevis). Not only that, but the data
claims that both of the females in the population release a strong scent to attract a male, the only
distinction is that the Nevis females make a "muk–muk" sound and the St. Kitts females make a
"cheep" sound. In other words, the sameness in these various behaviors suggest that the species can
no longer proliferate because of

Pleistocene Ecosystem
During the Pleistocene many barriers to fish dispersal and recolonization already existed in the
western United States. The Rocky Mountain Range was formed before the Miocene and the Sierras
elevated in the Pliocene, both formidable North–South barriers (Smith 1981). Along with these
significant geographic barriers, the western U.S. has historically had much smaller and more
climatically unpredictable basins compared to the east. These basins held lower populations of fish
which increased the probabilities of extinction and the lack of stability often interrupted speciation
(Smith 1981). Despite these factors, there is still some diversity that arose out of these basins largely
due to the lacustrine environment that was in place during ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
2; Echelle 2008). The three species diverged from one another in the last one million years, with C.
diabolis falling out most recently some 0.5 MYA. The speciation is believed to be allopatric, but
there is still some uncertainty regarding C. diabolis (Duvernell & Turner 1998). The reason for this
uncertainty is that the cavern that C. diabolis currently inhabits, Devil's Hole, only opened to the
surface around 60,000 years ago (Martin et al. 2016). It is possible that there was some degree of
sympatric speciation happening before a colonization event occurred or, because mtDNA was used
to determine divergence times, C. nevadensis could have been polymorphic for mtDNA before the
cavern opened and was subsequently colonized (Echelle 2008). So how did the allopatric speciation
of the Death Valley pupfish occur? Was it the result of dispersal or vicariance? When we examine
figure 2 closely, we see that although the Pleistocene lakes in the Death Valley region were
extensive, they still might not have connected all of the waterways. In addition, this map shows a
summary of the lakes, that is to say that all of them did not exist at the same time (Knott et al. 2008).
Limited connectivity of waterways as well as the late colonization and subsequent speciation of C.
diabolis are potentially evidence against the hypothesis for speciation through vicariance. On the
other hand, pupfish are notoriously very poor dispersers.

Inselberg Lizard Lab Worksheet
Based on the prompt above, "Design a lab based on the following observations in the lizard lab
worksheet" I devised a hypothesis that states, If we place two populations of desert iguana and
inselberg lizard together, the two species will be able to produce a fertile offspring because they
belong to the same species. From the experiment the results that arose concluded that the Desert
Iguana and Inselberg Lizard belong in the same species because they were able to produce an
offspring that were fertile and viable. When I placed the two population of inselberg lizards and
desert iguana together they were able to produce a hybrid offspring. Four years later when only there
was only the hybrid species left (Population of 75) and no population ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In this experiment the gene pool variation consists of 2 sets of alleles–the alleles and genes for the
desert iguana and the alleles for the inselberg lizards. They each have a certain set of genotypes and
the different phenotypes. The inselberg lizard has an allele and trait for darker–colored skin and is
slightly smaller than the desert iguana(Michael 2012). On the other hand, the desert iguana has an
allele and trait for lighter–colored skin and is slightly bigger than the inselberg lizard(Sloan 2012).
When the hybrid population was produced, they were able to produce an incomplete dominance of
the two phenotypes which made the hybrid have a size and skin tone that was in between the desert
iguana and the inselberg lizard. In conclusion the inselberg lizard and desert iguana came from a
species that had the same gene pool, but they developed certain traits that set them apart, but are still
within the same species which explains why they were able to breed, even though, they had different
phenotypes. In order to explain why the two developed different traits and are still considered to be
the same species, the understanding of the concept of natural selection is a

Fahrenholz's Co-Speciation?
Co–speciation is the shared speciation of two or more lineages that are ecologically connected, the
paradigm example being a host and its parasite. The association need not be parasitic; symbiotic,
mutualistic, and other relationships may also demonstrate co–speciation. Co–speciation is the
process whereby one population speciates in reaction another, and is a consequence of the associates
dependence on its host for its survival. If this occurs for all instances of speciation by the host, the
associate and host phylogenies would be topologically identical. This notion was formalised by
Fahrenholz in 1913, however, in almost all instances of cospeciation, except those cases where the
host is pathologically dependent on its associate, this principle is rarely strictly adhered to.
Exceptions to a strict interpretation of Fahrenholz 's rule are revealed by topological incongruence
between the host and associates phylogenies. Consequently Farenholtz's rule is an important
methodological tool for reconstructing the history of cospeciation between hosts and their
associates. Nevertheless, it should ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By comparing the phylogenies of lice and their hosts we can assess the congruence between the host
and parasites shared evolutionary history. In the example shown above Hafner and Nadler looked at
the host–parasite associations of eight species of pocket gopher (Geomyidae) and their Ischnoceran
lice. Their phylogenies were reconstructed using gel electrophoresis to provide a measure of the
distance between speciation events that it probably proportional to time. Both the branching pattern
and branch lengths of these phylogenies form near mirror images of each other, suggesting that the
lice have cospeciated with their hosts. In this instance deviations to the pattern are attributed to
instances of host switching in which a louse from one host has switched to a non–ancestral

Lizard Lab Report Bio
Lizard Lab
Hypothesis: If the Inselberg Lizard and the Desert Iguana can mate and reproduce a fertile offspring
then they are the same species.
Materials: – 51 male Inselberg Lizards – 51 female Inselberg Lizards – 51 male Desert Iguanas – 51
female Desert Iguanas – Four suitable contained habitat – More than 2–year worth of food for the
Desert Iguana and the Inselburg lizard
Procedures:
1. Put the male Inselberg Lizards into one of the four suitable contained habitat with the female
Desert Iguana.
2. Put the female Inselberg Lizards into the other suitable contained habitat with the male Desert
Iguana.
3. Observe them every month for 2 years.
4. Write down observations about the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This two separate species may be the result of Natural Selection. Natural Selection is a process
when the environment "chooses" which trait will best fits the environment. The organism that is a
best fit to the environment has a better chance of survival, and a better chance of passing on its
traits. The Desert Iguana and the Inselberg Iguana are similar but they also have different
characteristics. Their skin color and diet, are just some of the things that are different. The Inselberg
Iguana's skin color is darker than the Desert Iguana. It's darker skin color help it blends in with the
Inselberg's rocky terrain, escaping predators. The darker skin trait is in the Inselberg Lizards genes.
The lighter Inselberg Lizards are dying off because predators can easily spot them and rarely survive
to reproduce. Much less often than the darker skin one. Through time, they eventually became all
darker skin and now seen as a different species to the Desert Iguanas.
Speciation is a process in which one species gives rise to another, and this process may have occur
here. There are two types of speciation, allopatric and sympatric speciation. Allopatric speciation is
when isolation, time, and natural selection may cause a new species to emerge. This type of
speciation often requires geographical isolation of a small population of the species. Sympatric
speciation

ASSIGNMENT 1 Essay
ASSIGNMENT 1
Name– Ali Asgar Saleh Maccawala
Module Code– HRM 3120
Module Name– Leading Change
MISIS Number– M00423392
Campus– Dubai
Declaration of Originality
Statement
Yes
No
1
I have included a full reference list using the Harvard style of referencing
2
I have provided Harvard style references for all the ideas, empirical evidence and other materials I
have used.
3
I have referenced all passages from my source material.
4
Wherever I have copied someone else's words (a quotation), I have clearly shown in the text how
much was copied by using speech marks.
Student Name – Ali Asgar Saleh
Student ID – M00423392 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Maybe one needs to catch this reality of continuous changing by remembering that companies can

no more stand to "freeze" structures and frameworks into a permanent state. Weick and Quinn
(1999) used the term 'episodic' to allude to change that are rare, intermittent and deliberate. As per
Weick and Quinn (1999), pictures of associations that are better with rambling change incorporate
those constructed around the thought of Punctuated Equilibria. The focal dispute of the punctuated
equilibrium model is that change includes moving over and over again between long stretches of
dependability and short blast of radical (far–reaching) change. The punctuated balance model is in
the forefront of educational theory it is out of sight of the knowledge of numerous firms. Truth be
told, numerous firms contend by evolving persistently. For some associations, the capacity to change
quickly and consistently, particularly by presenting fresher ideas is rising as a center skill. (Jackie
Jeffery & Rebecca Mathews, 2013, p.163) Nevertheless, as change is delayed in time, the companies
get to be progressively disconnected. It is here where uniqueness between the associations begins to
happen, bringing about slackening of their connections; as a radical period is experienced; say as far
as a sudden innovative

) Explain how natural selction may bring about changes in...
a)} How may Variation Arise in Natural populations b) Explain how natural selction may bring
about changes in a population and what conditions may be necessary to bri about speciation A
species is a group of organisms that look alike and can reproduce successfully to produce fertile
offspring. Within a species there is variation which can be caused my meiosis, random fertilisation,
mutations and the natural environment. Genetic variation increases the chance for survival of a
population if the environment changes. For example the introduction of a new virus in to the new
environment may kill some organisms but others may be resistant to it and survive. If all the
organisms had been ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The chromatids break at these points and rejoin so that the alleles from one chromatid join alleles on
another. An exchange of chromatids takes place between chromatids. Although sexual reproduction
produces variation it does not actually introduce new alleles. These are brought in by mutations. A
mutation is a change in the structure or amount of DNA in the amino acids sequence produced. A
mutation in a gamete will be inherited, whereas a mutation in other body cells will not be passed to
offspring. Gene mutation is an alteration in the base sequence of one or two base pairs by addition,
deletion or substitution. This occurs at a single gene locus on a chromosome altering the DNA
sequence of bases and the amino acid sequence being produced. The resulting protein shape may be
significantly altered and then does not function properly. This is important if the altered protein is an
enzyme which if changed, may no longer match the shape of its substrate, and therefore stop and
subsequent enzyme action. Some mutations are harmful, others may have no effect. Chromosome
mutations involve changes to either the number of chromosomes of to large sections of the actual
single chromosome. Thus meaning many genes are changed. Some mutations are harmful, however
the mutations which are

Vertical Evolution And Theoretical Analysis
In general, speciation requires vertical evolution but vertical evolution does not require speciation
and for the most part, speciation covers a broad spectrum of events. In fact, some biologists suggest
that some species differ by as a little of three genes from others species (Wilson, 1999).
Furthermore, we learn that no one have seen a speciation event so, it's based off driven to theory –
heavy models of speciation (history of life, "n.d"). We also learned that speciation is how a new
plant or species created and when a group within a species separates from one species and
developed its own characteristics (education.nationageographic, "n.d").
For the most part, generalist species is able to survive in wide environmental conditions and

Adaptive Radiation And Species Diversification
Adaptive Radiation and Species Diversification
Through a common ancestor, species diverge into new populations which eventually adapt to their
new environments and evolve to become their own sub species and then distinct species. This occurs
through the process of adaptive radiation. The population of an ancestor species radiates outwards to
different ecological niches. From there, these now separate populations adapt to their new habitats
and resources in isolation. This gives them opportunity to evolve and become their own species
based off of genetic changes that make them most fit for their new environments. Examples of these
kinds of adaptations derive from geographic isolation from other species, reduction of gene flow
among the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
From there, the newly inhabited populations performed the process of specialization in which they
adapted to their individual resources and environments. This differentiated the populations and
confirmed the process of speciation as they became their own species in isolation. Specialization can
be found in the different beaks of the finch species. The different sizes and shapes of the beaks are a
result of the different sizes and shapes of the seeds that the populations feed on in their own niches.
For example, bigger and bulkier beaks can help crack open harder seeds, whereas smaller beaks can
be more successful in obtaining smaller seeds. And longer and thinner beaks can help reach into
flowers, whereas medium sized can be more successful in obtaining insects. Because of this
separation in characteristics, these different finches do not continue to breed with each other,
resulting in fully separated species with their own traits. The specialization found between and
within the species is a direct result of the geographic isolation that occurs from adaptive radiation.
Gene flow is the movement of genes among populations that ultimately reduces differences within
and between species. This process keeps populations genetically similar, but when restrictions on
gene flow are present, separation and speciation are able to occur.

Sympatric Speciation Essay
Learning Journal Unit Seven
What is the difference between Allopatric Speciation and Sympatric Speciation?
Allopatric Speciation refers to an outside source begetting geographic separation between two or
more groups of animals obviating them from copulating with each other and leading to the
speciation of their lineage (University of California Museum of Paleontology, 2016a). In contrast,
Sympatric Speciation does not involve physical separation, but instead occurs when development of
a habitat reduces gene flow between a species (University of California Museum of Paleontology,
2016e). For example, a species of bug typically lays its eggs on oranges, but the introduction of
peaches to their environment spurs some of the species to lay their eggs on the peaches instead.
Moreover, with this particular species, the females always return during mating season to the fruit
they hatched from and males of the species ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(see second link above).
According to the University of California Museum of Paleontology (2016d) there are four lines of
evidence in evolutionary research, "fossil evidence, homologies, distribution in time and space, and
evidence by example".
Choose one of the four lines of evidence. Which did you choose? Give a quick outline of what that
line of evidence is, and how researchers study it and use it in evolutionary research.
Out of the four lines of evidence, I have chosen evidence by example. Though no technology exists
that would empower scientists with the ability to travel into the past and directly observe the
evolutionary process, scientists can observe evolution via artificial selection in a laboratory or note
how modern organisms relate to each other to obtain an augmented understanding of how animals
acclimate to their environment (University of California Museum of Paleontology, 2016c).
How is the class going so far for you? Do you find it okay to manage two learning

Defining Ecotype Via Analysis Of Ecological Speciation...
BIO 206
Kara L. Smith
Final Written Assignment
12/3/2014
Defining Ecotype via analysis of Ecological Speciation within a Subspecies of Bacillus subtilis
What defines a species? Prior to modern molecular understanding of evolution, defining a species
was mainly determined by use of morphology and the fossil record. However, now evolutionary
biologists can analyze evolution at the molecular level, with even a simple substitution leading to a
significant change in the fitness of an organism. The current hypothesis for the origin of species in
centered around the idea that one lineage diverges into two ecologically distinct lineages that are
able to coexist. This can even be observed in the most ancestral of domains of life, bacteria. In ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In addition, these segments of newly exchanged genes are very brief, so that there is little co–
transfer of niche specifying genes with the transfer of the new niche–transcending adaptations
(Zawadski, 124). Most importantly, the astronomical sizes of bacterial populations increase the rate
of adaptive mutations and recombinations occurring at the population level (Bergstrom and Levin,
6982). However this theory that even the closest related bacteria may be ecologically distinct, has
not been steadily evaluated. Most previous work focused only comparing members of varying
bacterial species taxa (Cohan, 521) but not the genomic contents members of close relatives within a
certain species. If differences are found between close relatives, then these differences must show
ecological significance in terms of adaptation to the varying environment these relatives inhabit.
This study attempted to define these phylogenetic groups of close relatives that are very similar
ecologically by sharing genetic adaptations that confer a fitness advantage to a particular
environment they inhabit as an "ecotype". This defied the current scholarly landscape which defined
an ecotype only conferring ecological distinctness, but no other

Natural Selection : Darwin 's And The Whys Of Adaptation...
Natural selection was Darwin's way of explaining the how's and the whys of adaptation and
speciation that concern the continuance of life. Attributes of species is not by happenstance or by
chance, but by years of evolution altering the genetic composition so as to ensure the preservation of
its lineage. In virtual lab number seven, specific alleles and starting percentages (independent
variable) of each were manipulated in varying environments (dependent variable) to show how a
species adopts certain traits that are advantageous to its survival. I predict that as the independent
variable changes the species will continually search for ways to match the dependent variable that
ensures not only a continued existence, but one that is more formidable. Understanding how species
co–exist in the world can assist mankind in understanding the differences in cultures.
Procedure
For this experiment we assume that the organisms' survival depends upon a single gene with two
alleles, A & a, that show incomplete dominance. Furthermore, these alleles combine to form three
genotypes: AA, Aa, & aa. All 3 genotypes are phenotypically expressed as varying traits of the
organism as follows:
AA: Individuals carrying this genotype display "yellow" scales
Aa: Individuals heterozygous for this allele have mostly "brown" scales aa: Individuals of the
homozygous genotype have "grey" scales
Steps:
1. Choose initial allelic frequencies of A & a and an environment.
2. Click the Natural Selection

Speciation
Speciation
Speciation is known to take place in two general ways. Species are known to change over time into
something that is so extremely different they are considered a completely different species. In other
words, a species can change so drastically that it splits into two separate groups that no longer share
a similar gene pool. In each case of speciation, reproductive isolation occurs. Even for a single
definition of species, there are many ways for speciation to occur. Under the biological species
concept, speciation is the evolution of one or more reproductive isolating mechanisms. Under the
cohesion species concept, speciation is the evolution of isolation or otherwise distinct reproductive
communities and/or the evolution of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a normal organism contains two chromosomes (diploidy), there new offspring contain four
chromosomes (tetraploidy). This creates reproductive isolation because a diploid organism is unable
to mate with a tetraploid organism (Stebbins Jr., n.d.). Since sympatric speciation is uncommon, it
occurs in plants because they generally fertilize themselves. Tetraploidy plants can reproduce with
other tetraploidy plants of the opposite sex, allowing them to form a new species.
Allopatric speciation is a more common type of speciation, and this occurs when the species become
isolated geographically. Once populations gap, or separate, the gene flow becomes nonexistent. The
two populations that were separated become genetically different over time, due to natural selection
in the different regions. However, if the species population is small, enough they can experience
something known as the founder effect. Meaning the genetic diversity is reduced in the population
due to the lack of a large variety of ancestors (Lemmon, n.d.). Because the two populations are
separated by geography, genetic drift and natural selection will influence each population
differently. Over time, this will create two genetically different species.
Natural selection plays an important role on the creation of new species, as well as allopatric
speciation and sympatric speciation. Each of which plays a major

Sympatric Speciation Research Paper
Species are groups of organisms that share characteristics or have some characteristics that are
similar and can successfully interbreed. Species can also be broken down more to include
subspecies.
2. Sympatric speciation is organisms that come from a single ancestor, within the same geographic
region, but when habitats overlap and they could freely mate they do not (Principles of Biology). An
example of sympatric speciation is now also considered to be an example of allopatric speciation
because of more research that has been done, according to our book. The example given in the book
is the apple maggot, once thought to be one of the few definitive cases of sympatric speciation work
done in 2003 changed that. Our book says that evidence ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most well–known extinction event is when the dinosaurs went extinct, although they are not the
only organism that perished. This event took place about 65 million years ago, between the
Cretaceous and Tertiary periods and wiped out nearly 75% of plants and animals (Principles of
Biology). Our book says that most dinosaurs and many other sauropsid lineages died, but many
lineages survived, including bird. Crocodiles are lineage of dinosaurs and are often studied to see
how they have changed over millions of years, turtles are also part of the lineage that survived.
Asteroid impact hypothesis which can be found in class rooms, some textbooks and on TV or in
movies has been well explained and accepted as the cause of the extinction of dinosaurs. There is
geological evidence that supports a large asteroid creating the Chicxulub crater on the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico, but the supposed consequences of the event alone cannot account for the
major extinctions (Principles of Biology). They say that something else had to also happen in order
for all the diversity of animals that became extinct, which would be expected when such a large
object impacted earth at what is thought to have been at a high speed too. Changes in sea level and
massive volcanic eruptions were also altering the environment, so all this combined is likely what
cause the diversity in the extinction event (Principles of

Orchid's Methods of Deception Essay example
Deceit in orchids have proved advantageous in floral and species diversification. The article,"Orchid
diversity; an evolutionary consequence of deception?" was written by Salvatore Cozzollino and
Alex Widmer. In this article they discuss two types of deceptions in orchids: food deception and
sexual deception. These methods of deception, which are used for pollination, have proved
successful where there are pollinator limitations. However, where there are successes there are also
consequences. Some factors that orchid deception effects are: mating systems, the evolution of
reproductive isolation, and the evolution of speciation. To understand these consequences is to better
understand how these deceptive orchids have become successful. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This genetic flow can help maximize outcrossing rates and genetic diversity, which translates into
larger population sizes in deceptive orchids. While reproductive isolation benefits from outcrossing,
it more specifically benefits from orchids' pollinator specificity. Around 60–70% of orchids have
just a one pollinator species. This specificity is the main prezygotic reproductive isolation
mechanism for the orchids. However, this high specificity in deceptive orchids can be unclear. It
depends more on the pollinator specificity of the most deceptive orchids– the food deceptive
orchids. Food deceptive orchids that are sympatric often share pollinators. This can lead to species'
barriers to be broken and hybridization, which subsequently, leads to low fertility and fitness in
hybridized deceptive orchids. The low fitness of these orchids that share (no specific pollinator) or
have a weak pollinator specificity indicates a late postzygotic reproductive isolation rather than a
prezygotic.This is due to species sharing pollinator specificity causing a greater divergence in
karyotypes than those who are pollinated by specific pollinators. In regards to speciation in
deceptive orchids, pollinators have an undeniable connection¬. A specific example would be in the
sexually deceptive Mediterranean Ophrys species. In these orchids, since there are slight differences
in its active floral odor compounds, they are able to attract

Island Biogeography Paper
The purpose of island biogeography is to help take a closer look at the speciation of animals on
mainland landscapes, and compare them to surrounding islands that separated from the mainland. In
this study, the focus is on avian birds and the differences in landscape make up that can influence
speciation. The differences can possibly lead to populations of different species settling apart from
one another, maybe leading to the extinction of one species and the thriving of another. Although
island geography has been a useful tool, it has also been questioned, leading to a new tool:
countryside biogeography. In Wolfe et al. (2015) it is explained how countryside geography is a tool
that can be used to look at different aspects of speciation in

Speciation And Evolution Of Cichlids
Speciation and Evolution of Cichlids in East Africa
Dr. Hoeh WIC
Matthew S. Holcomb
March 2, 2015 Introduction
The East–African cichlids are a rather interesting and diverse group of fish, and have caught the eye
of many scientists particularly because of the speed, diversity, and convergent patterns of their
radiation (Yong–Hwee et al. 2012). For instance, there are 500+ species in just one lake, Lake
Victoria, and an estimated 2,000+ species in total. The fish in lake Victoria, which is estimated to be
100,000–400,000 years old or less and to have suffered a complete drought only 14,600 years ago,
are an amazing example of just how quickly these fish have diversified (Rijssel et al. 2014). And on
an evolutionary time scale, 14,600 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2009). And also, as can be seen from the figure below, Schwarzer and his team were able to
determine that the ancestral lineage of the EAR's have spread from the lakes in Central Africa.
However their research does not determine how the EAR's came into existence. Figure 1: Consensus
BI Tree of the African Cichlid Phylogeny.
Consensus tree (50% majority rule) of the African cichlid phylogeny based on the concatenated
dataset. The dataset comprises mitochondrial and nuclear sequences of nine independent markers.
Green numbers at nodes refer to bootstrap–values (BS, 1000 replicates) of the ML run and black
numbers to Bayesian poste– rior probabilities (BPP). Filled circles represent a 100% BS support and
1.00 BPP and empty circles 1.00 BPP and lower BS val– ues. Major groups within the phylogeny
were named based on either their center of geographic distribution (Austrotilapiini and
Boreotilapiini) or based on taxonomic aspects (Oreochromini). The asterisk (*) in the tree marks the
type species of the genus Tilapia. The leaf stability index exceeded 0.95 for all specimens, except for
clade AI (all taxa 0.90). Note that for clade AI only representatives of the EAR are included. The
results presented here were verified using a more detailed taxon sampling based on ND2 (see
additional file 3). The map in

The Effects Of The Speciation Of WO3 Species
The speciation of WO3 species and the effect of B2O3 on the coordination states of WO3 species
were surveyed by the UV–vis DRS technique, and the results are shown in Fig 6. All the spectra
were obtained by deducting the spectrum of the support UiO–66. For comparison, the UV–vis DRS
spectrum of bulk WO3 is also presented, exhibiting a strong absorption band at 450 nm with a weak
shoulder at 360 nm, accompanied by relatively weaker bands at 230 and 280 nm (Fig. 6A–a), and
these bands are attributed to crystalline WO3, isolated WO4 tetrahedral species, and isolated or low
condensed oligomeric tungsten oxide species in octahedral coordination, respectively. Compared to
bulk WO3, different WO3/UiO–66 samples absorbed at 230, 280, and 310 nm ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
XPS measurement was used to investigate the chemical state of the tungsten and boron species in 40
wt% WO3/UiO–66 and 15 wt% B2O3–40 wt% WO3/UiO–66 samples. Fig. 7(A) shows the W 4f
XPS spectrum and the curve–fitting result of 40 wt% WO3/UiO–66 sample. Tungsten species
appear in two different states in 40 wt% WO3/UiO–66 material. The peaks with the binding energies
at 35.3 and 37.5 eV are associated with W5+ species, whereas the peaks at 34.6 and 36.8 eV can be
assigned to W6+ species. The corresponding results for 15 wt% B2O3–40 wt% WO3/UiO–66
sample are shown in Fig. 7(B). The XPS spectrum of 15 wt% B2O3–40 wt% WO3/UiO–66 material
appears to be same as that of 40 wt% WO3/UiO–66 material and shows identical positions for the
W4f peaks, except for the minor charging effect. Both W5+ and W6+ species are detected; however,
the molar ratio of W6+/W5+ calculated according to the relative peak intensity of W4f increases
from 2.1 to 2.2 (Table 2) after the introduction of B2O3 species as an active additive promoter,
suggesting that the content of W6+ species on the surface of B2O3–WO3/UiO–66 sample increases
and forms some aggregated tungsten

Types Of Plants And Insect Herbivores Influence Community...
Nutrient availability, plants, and insect herbivores influence community structure and function both
aboveground and belowground, but it is unclear whether these factors are independent or
interdependent (Wright et al. 2014). Ehrlich and Raven (1964) used butterflies as a model organism
to examine coevolution between closely interacting organisms, specifically between plants and
insect herbivores. Ehrlich and Raven (1964) noted that structural and mechanical characteristics of
plants have the potential to modify these relationships. Additionally, many plants produce secondary
metabolic compounds, which may act as repellents to insects and correlate with the presence of
nutrients. The chemical composition of plants may change with age, exposure to sunlight, or other
environmental factors, and changes in chemical composition may influence the attraction or
repulsion of insects to plants (Ehrlich and Raven 1964). According to the study, secondary plant
substances played an integral role in determining patterns of plant utilization by various species of
butterflies, as well for other phytophagous and parasitic insect groups. Through mutations and
recombination, plants were able to produce chemical compounds not directly related to their
metabolic pathways. Ehrlich and Raven (1964) noted that some of these compounds appeared to
reduce the palatability of the plant. The abundance of phytophagous insects in the tropics may
accentuate the rate at which these interactions between

Trouble in Paradise
Scirius Kittis meets Scirius Nevile: The Evolution of a New Species
Various experiments and measurements were performed in the field in order to compare the two
types of rodents. The following is a list of the data collected through multiple observations over a
span of two years. We captured 100 rats of each rodent population, and we found the average
weight, length, hind limb, and forelimb measurements. In addition, we conducted experiments in
regards to their top speed, average height that they could leap, gestation time, and average time
spent in the courtship display.
Research Data:
St. Kitts Rodent
Weight = 83g
Length = 21.8cm
Hind limb = 7.8cm
Forelimb = 4.2cm
Speed = 2.2m/s
Average leap height = 1.4m
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The species on St. Kitts also have a speed and height advantage over the Nevis population, so the
bottleneck effect is more likely to have wiped out their population since they have more favorable
traits than their counterpart. If the island underwent a catastrophe, it is likely that the rodents were
separated physically. The second factor, allopatric speciation, occurred between the two rodents'
habitat. This is when a population is divided by a geographic barrier which prevents interbreeding
between the two populations. These species are found on two different islands, so the water in
between separates the two populations from interacting with one another. Due to this, both species
could have developed changes in courtship rituals, developed new traits, and undergone changes to
adapt to their environment. The final factor, behavioral isolation, occurs when two species don't
recognize one another as mating partners due to incorrect courtship rituals. Since we tried to
repopulate the St. Kitts by introducing the population from Nevis onto the island and no
success was found, behavioral isolation is very likely to have been the reason why. Our data
supports this as well since the St. Kitts rodent spends 12.6 seconds during courtship display while
the Nevis rodent spends 21.3 seconds, almost

Speciation And Extinction
Assignment 3
Chapter 7 – Chapter 9
Due Friday, February 19, 2016 at 11:59 pm
Directions: Answer the following questions (2 – 5 sentences) in your own words. Type your answers
beneath each question and upload your document through Blackboard before the due date/time.
Chapter 7 – Speciation and Extinction
1. Describe two species concepts that we discussed.
Evolutionary Species Concept , Biological Species Concept
2. What are the four microevolutionary processes that can lead to genetic divergence?
Mutation, Genetic Drift, Natural Selection, and gene flow.
3. What is natural selection?
Natural selection was a Natural selection is the micro evolutionary process where certain species
develop certain traits that help them adapt and survive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Describe a biogeographic consequence of tectonic events.
A biogeophraphic consequence would be mass extinction from the change in wind, weather, and
seas and from the movement of continents. Also marine basins being destroyed as well as climates
dramatically changing which in turn would affect species and the environment.
Chapter 9 – Glaciation and Biogeographic Dynamics of the Pleistocene
11. What is the most likely explanation for the overall pattern of heating and cooling during the
Pleistocene?
The overall pattern of heating and cooling during the Pleistocene is most likely due from the cyclical
changes in Earth's orbit from the positioning of the planets in the solar system and the magnetic pull
that's placed on the Earth.

12. What are glacial – interglacial cycles?
Glacial cycles were cycles of cold temperatures and glacial advances during the ice age period.
Interglacial cycles on the other hand are warmer temperatures and climates between glacial periods.
13. Explain three biogeographic responses to climatic cycles of the

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