Writing originated as pictograms but evolved to become more phonetic over time. Early writing systems included logographic scripts like Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs which represented morphemes and words. Later, the rebus principle was developed where symbols began representing sounds, moving towards syllabic scripts. The Phoenician alphabet was adapted by Greeks to create a true alphabet representing individual phonemes, which was then adapted by Romans. Runic writing also developed as an offshoot of early European scripts.

1. Writing and languageWriting and language
ByBy
Atheer LateefAtheer Lateef

2. __Writing, the symbolic representation of languageWriting, the symbolic representation of language
in storable graphic form, is comparatively recentin storable graphic form, is comparatively recent
cultural developmentcultural development..
__While spoken language comes naturally toWhile spoken language comes naturally to
human beings, writing does nothuman beings, writing does not..
__We use language to express inner thoughts andWe use language to express inner thoughts and
emotions, make sense of complex and abstractemotions, make sense of complex and abstract
thought, to learn to communicate with others, tothought, to learn to communicate with others, to
fulfill our wants and needsfulfill our wants and needs..

3. Types of writingTypes of writing
Logographic writingLogographic writing :: The term logographic refers toThe term logographic refers to
a type of writing in which symbols represent morphemesa type of writing in which symbols represent morphemes
or even entire words.or even entire words.
Logograms :Logograms : Logographic writing is the oldest type ofLogographic writing is the oldest type of
genuine writing. Ancient Mesopotamian cuneiformgenuine writing. Ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform
inscriptions, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and primordialinscriptions, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and primordial
Chinese characters were all highly logographic in theirChinese characters were all highly logographic in their
early stages. In fact, all writing systems maintain someearly stages. In fact, all writing systems maintain some
logographic. Conventional abbreviation such aslogographic. Conventional abbreviation such as &,, %,, $
and like logographic, as are the symbols for numerals.and like logographic, as are the symbols for numerals.

4. Phonographic writingPhonographic writing
Throughout human history, writing systems have alwaysThroughout human history, writing systems have always
evolved signs that represent some aspect of pronunciation.evolved signs that represent some aspect of pronunciation.
In phonographic writing, the symbols represent syllablesIn phonographic writing, the symbols represent syllables
or segmentsor segments..
Types of phonographic writing :Types of phonographic writing :
1_ Syllabic writing1_ Syllabic writing
2_ Alphabetic writing2_ Alphabetic writing

5. Syllabic writingSyllabic writing
As the name suggests, syllabic writing employs
signs to represent syllables ( a set of syllabic signs is
called a syllabary ). Language with relatively simple
syllabic structure such as CV or CVC.
( Japanese and Cree , for example ) are suited to
this type of writing, since they contain a relatively
limited number of syllable types.

6. Alphabetic writingAlphabetic writing
Alphabetic writing represents phonemic
consonant and vowel segments. Unlike the IPA,
which is devised expressly to represent details of
pronunciation, ordinary alphabets generally ignore
non-phonemic phenomena.
e.g. words pan and nap represent the phonemes
/p/, /n/, and /æ/,

7. The history of writingThe history of writing
Pre-writing : Figures and scenes depicted on the
cave walls and rock in the America, Africa, and
Europe twelve thousand years ago or perhaps even
earlier may have been forerunners of writing. Some of
these petroglyphs ( scenes painted on the stone ) may
represent a type of proto-literate stage that did not
evolve into a full-fledged written system.
(p.592). Look at figures 15.(1,2)
Pictorial records thus link the origin of writing with the
history of representative art.

8. PictogramsPictograms
Pictogram was an image of the object or objects
( concept ), it represented, and, as far as we know,
offered no clues to pronunciation. This kind of
communication has been found among people
throughout the ancient and modern world. (p.594(
Types of pictograms
- Amerindian pictography . Look at figure 15.3
- Contemporary pictograms ( British Sports Council
signs for sports events ). Look at figure 15.4
- Blissymbolics ( semantography ). Look at figure 15.5

9. The Evolution of writingThe Evolution of writing ::
The earliest known pictographic writing came fromThe earliest known pictographic writing came from
Sumeria, from where it spread to surrounding areasSumeria, from where it spread to surrounding areas
about thousand years ago. The inherently ambiguousabout thousand years ago. The inherently ambiguous
pictograms came to represent abstract notions bypictograms came to represent abstract notions by
extending their use to include concepts felt to beextending their use to include concepts felt to be
associated with them.associated with them.
(p.595). Look at figure 15.6(p.595). Look at figure 15.6

10. Rebuses and the emergence of writingRebuses and the emergence of writing
This major development in the history of writing took
place around 3000 BC with the first use of Sumerian
symbols to represent sound rather than just meaning.
Known as the rebus principle, this innovation allowed
a sign to be used for any word that was pronounced
like the word whose meaning it originally represented.
(p.596). Look at figure 15.7

11. Towards syllabic writingTowards syllabic writing
Once the breakthrough towards phonographic writingOnce the breakthrough towards phonographic writing
had been made, it does not take long before syllabichad been made, it does not take long before syllabic
writing began emergence. Within about five hundred towriting began emergence. Within about five hundred to
six hundred years, signs that clearly represent not justsix hundred years, signs that clearly represent not just
homophonous words, but word optionshomophonous words, but word options –– specifically.specifically.
(p.597). Look at figure 15.8

12. CuneiformCuneiform ::
Sumerian writing was simplified and eventually produceSumerian writing was simplified and eventually produce
with the use of a wedge-shape stylus that was pressedwith the use of a wedge-shape stylus that was pressed
into soft clay table.into soft clay table.
(p.597). Look at figure 15.9

13. HieroglyphicsHieroglyphics
The hieroglyphic signs at first represented objects, but later theyThe hieroglyphic signs at first represented objects, but later they
became logographic in that they began to be associated withbecame logographic in that they began to be associated with
wordswords..
--Egyptian hieroglyphicsEgyptian hieroglyphics developed into a mixed system of thedeveloped into a mixed system of the
both word writing and phonographic writingboth word writing and phonographic writing..
Only the consonants of words represented by hieroglyphics areOnly the consonants of words represented by hieroglyphics are
known with certainty. The Egyptians did not represent the vowelknown with certainty. The Egyptians did not represent the vowel..
The symbols eventually came to be used to represent theThe symbols eventually came to be used to represent the
consonant phonemes of words by applications ( is calledconsonant phonemes of words by applications ( is called
acrophonic principleacrophonic principle( .( .
)p.598). Look at figure 15.10

14. The emergence of alphabetsThe emergence of alphabets
In the Middle East, alphabetic writing was slowlyIn the Middle East, alphabetic writing was slowly
emerging from mixed writing systems over a longemerging from mixed writing systems over a long
period. The Semitic peoples of ancient Phoenicia hadperiod. The Semitic peoples of ancient Phoenicia had
devised a writing system of twenty-two consonantaldevised a writing system of twenty-two consonantal
signs. This systems was written horizontally, right tosigns. This systems was written horizontally, right to
left, without variation in the placement of the letters.left, without variation in the placement of the letters.
_ The Greek alphabet._ The Greek alphabet.
_ The Roman alphabet_ The Roman alphabet.
(p.599). Look at figure 15.11

15. The Greek alphabetThe Greek alphabet
The Greeks developed the Phoenician writing systemThe Greeks developed the Phoenician writing system
into a full alphabet: each sign represented oneinto a full alphabet: each sign represented one
phoneme and all phonemes were recorded by a sign.phoneme and all phonemes were recorded by a sign.
The Greeks were aware that some of the PhoenicianThe Greeks were aware that some of the Phoenician
symbols represented consonant sounds that were notsymbols represented consonant sounds that were not
found in Greek. Some of these symbols were adaptedfound in Greek. Some of these symbols were adapted
to represent Greek vowels, and other unneededto represent Greek vowels, and other unneeded
consonant signs were dropped.consonant signs were dropped.
(pp. 599-600). Look at figure 15.12

16. The Roman alphabetsThe Roman alphabets
When Greek colonies occupied southern Italy in the 7When Greek colonies occupied southern Italy in the 7thth
centuries BC, they took their alphabet with them. It was incenturies BC, they took their alphabet with them. It was in
turn taken up and modified by the Etruscan inhabitants ofturn taken up and modified by the Etruscan inhabitants of
central Italy, a non-Latin speaking people who were acentral Italy, a non-Latin speaking people who were a
political and cultural power before the rise of Rome. It ispolitical and cultural power before the rise of Rome. It is
believed that the Romans grew in power and influencebelieved that the Romans grew in power and influence
during the following centuries, first as masters of Italy andduring the following centuries, first as masters of Italy and
later of Europe, the Roman alphabet spread throughoutlater of Europe, the Roman alphabet spread throughout
the Empire.the Empire.

17. Runic writingRunic writing
Germanic tribes occupying the north of ItalyGermanic tribes occupying the north of Italy
developed an early offshoot of the Greek/Etruscandeveloped an early offshoot of the Greek/Etruscan
tradition of writing into a script known as Runic writing .tradition of writing into a script known as Runic writing .
This system emerged shortly after the beginning of theThis system emerged shortly after the beginning of the
Christian era, and its developments were eventuallyChristian era, and its developments were eventually
found as far as Scandinavia. Runic writing persisted untilfound as far as Scandinavia. Runic writing persisted until
the 16the 16thth
century in some areas before giving way to thecentury in some areas before giving way to the
Latin alphabet.Latin alphabet.
(p. 601). Look at figure 15.13

18. Cyrillic scriptCyrillic script
Another offshoot of the Greek script was created for theAnother offshoot of the Greek script was created for the
SlavicSlavic people in the 9people in the 9thth
century AD. The Greek missionarycentury AD. The Greek missionary
brothersbrothers ConstantineConstantine (Cyril) and(Cyril) and MethodiusMethodius introduced aintroduced a
writing system for the translation of the Bible that is nowwriting system for the translation of the Bible that is now
known asknown as GlagoliticGlagolitic script.script.
A later development, which combined adaptions ofA later development, which combined adaptions of
Glagolitic letters with Greek and Hebrew characters, hasGlagolitic letters with Greek and Hebrew characters, has
come to be known as thecome to be known as the CyrillicCyrillic alphabet.alphabet.
The currentThe current RussianRussian,, ByelorussianByelorussian,, UkrainianUkrainian,, SerbianSerbian,,
MacedonianMacedonian, and, and BulgarianBulgarian alphabets, as well as thosealphabets, as well as those
used to represent many non-Slavic language spoken inused to represent many non-Slavic language spoken in
the former Soviet Union, have evolved from this earlythe former Soviet Union, have evolved from this early
Cyrillic script.Cyrillic script.

19. Two Semitic alphabetsTwo Semitic alphabets
BothBoth ArabicArabic andand HebrewHebrew are written with alphabetsare written with alphabets
that descend from or are closely related to Phoenicianthat descend from or are closely related to Phoenician
script. Both are essentially consonant-writing systemsscript. Both are essentially consonant-writing systems
( vowels are indicated with diacritic dots), and both( vowels are indicated with diacritic dots), and both
are written from right to left.are written from right to left.
(pp. 602-603). Look at figures 15.(15,16)

20. Other descendants of Middle Eastern systemsOther descendants of Middle Eastern systems
Early Middle Eastern scripts gave rise toEarly Middle Eastern scripts gave rise to AramaicAramaic,,
Old HebrewOld Hebrew, and, and South ArabicSouth Arabic syllabaries, which, insyllabaries, which, in
turn, led to a host of further writing systems eventuallyturn, led to a host of further writing systems eventually
stretching across the Near East and North Africa fromstretching across the Near East and North Africa from
India to Morocco.India to Morocco.
(p. 604). Look at figure 15.17

21. Chinese writingChinese writing
The Chinese systemThe Chinese system of writing developed out ofof writing developed out of
pictograms that eventually came to representpictograms that eventually came to represent
morphemes. The oldest inscriptions are themorphemes. The oldest inscriptions are the oracleoracle texts,texts,
written on animal bones and tortoise shells and dating.written on animal bones and tortoise shells and dating.
CalligraphyCalligraphy is an ancient and respected art in China,is an ancient and respected art in China,
and Chinese writing exists in a number of styles. Theand Chinese writing exists in a number of styles. The
script is usually written from left to write along ascript is usually written from left to write along a
horizontal axis.horizontal axis.
Phonetic determinativePhonetic determinative provides information about theprovides information about the
pronunciation of the corresponding morpheme.pronunciation of the corresponding morpheme.
Radical or keyRadical or key provides clues about the morpheme’sprovides clues about the morpheme’s
meaning.meaning.
(pp.604-606). Look at figure 15.18, and table 15.1

22. Japanese writingJapanese writing
The writing system of modern Japanese isThe writing system of modern Japanese is
arguable the most complicated in the entire world.arguable the most complicated in the entire world.
Its use requires knowledge of three distinct script,Its use requires knowledge of three distinct script,
including a pair of syllabaries _ katakana andincluding a pair of syllabaries _ katakana and
hiragana _ which were created by modifyinghiragana _ which were created by modifying
Chinese characters.Chinese characters.
Types of Japanese writingTypes of Japanese writing
( katakana, hiragana, kanji, and romaji )( katakana, hiragana, kanji, and romaji )
(pp. 607-609). Look at figures 15. (19,20,21)

23. Korean writingKorean writing
Korean was once written with Chinese characters.Korean was once written with Chinese characters.
Korean suffixes could not be easily represented byKorean suffixes could not be easily represented by
Chinese writing.Chinese writing.
HangulHangul, consisting of eleven vowels and seventeen, consisting of eleven vowels and seventeen
consonants that became the standard Korean writingconsonants that became the standard Korean writing
system. An especially interesting features ofsystem. An especially interesting features of HangulHangul isis
that symbols are grouped together into syllable-sizedthat symbols are grouped together into syllable-sized
clusters rather than being arranged in a completelyclusters rather than being arranged in a completely
linear fashion.linear fashion.
(p. 609). Look at figure 15.22

24. American scriptsAmerican scripts
A number of major civilizations developed on the AmericanA number of major civilizations developed on the American
continents. In Mesoamerica alone more than eighteen writingcontinents. In Mesoamerica alone more than eighteen writing
systems have been discovered, among them those of thesystems have been discovered, among them those of the
Mayans of the Yucatan and the Aztecs of Mexico.Mayans of the Yucatan and the Aztecs of Mexico.
In both systems, the evolution of pictograms that leaned towardsIn both systems, the evolution of pictograms that leaned towards
phonetic word signs.phonetic word signs.
Mayan symbols are calledMayan symbols are called glypheglyphe.. GlypheGlyphe that mix syllabicthat mix syllabic
writing with logographic representation are also found.writing with logographic representation are also found.
(p. 610). Look at figure 15.23
_ Cherokee_ Cherokee
_ Cree_ Cree

25. CreeCree
The syllabic script of the Cree Indian was theThe syllabic script of the Cree Indian was the
creation of a missionary, J. Evans, in the 19creation of a missionary, J. Evans, in the 19thth
century. Itcentury. It
was employed for religious literature, and by 1861 thewas employed for religious literature, and by 1861 the
entire Bible appeared in the Cree syllabary. This scriptentire Bible appeared in the Cree syllabary. This script
is used by Cree speakers across Canadais used by Cree speakers across Canada.
(p. 611). Look at figures 15.(25,26)

26. CherokeeCherokee
Some American writing systems do not date back to aSome American writing systems do not date back to a
distant ancestor. After the colonization of North Americadistant ancestor. After the colonization of North America
by Europeans, a number of scripts were developed toby Europeans, a number of scripts were developed to
provide native peoples with a form of writtenprovide native peoples with a form of written
communication. In one well-known case, the Cherokeecommunication. In one well-known case, the Cherokee
leader Sikwayi devised a syllabic script of more thanleader Sikwayi devised a syllabic script of more than
eighty symbols, some based on the shapes of Englisheighty symbols, some based on the shapes of English
letters and others newly invented.letters and others newly invented.
(p. 610). Look at figure 15.24

27. AfricanAfrican scriptsscripts
In the past several centuries, societies in Central Africa haveIn the past several centuries, societies in Central Africa have
also produced syllabic scripts, which have either developedalso produced syllabic scripts, which have either developed
through stages from pictograms to refined syllabaries.through stages from pictograms to refined syllabaries.
Although the idea of writing appears to have been imported intoAlthough the idea of writing appears to have been imported into
these societies, the development of the various systems wasthese societies, the development of the various systems was
indigenous.indigenous.
The first sub-Saharan African writing seems to have been that ofThe first sub-Saharan African writing seems to have been that of
thethe VaiVai peoples in the region of Sierra Leone and Liberia.peoples in the region of Sierra Leone and Liberia.
The writing of the Bamum people in the Cameroons wasThe writing of the Bamum people in the Cameroons was
invented at the end of the 19invented at the end of the 19thth
century by Njoya the Great, sultancentury by Njoya the Great, sultan
of Foumban.of Foumban.
The only sure example of alphabetic writing developed inThe only sure example of alphabetic writing developed in
modern times among African peoples is themodern times among African peoples is the Somali alphabetSomali alphabet..
(pp. 612-613).

28. Some Indian scriptsSome Indian scripts
A pictorial script appears to have had an independentA pictorial script appears to have had an independent
origin in northern India.origin in northern India.
The date of the first appearance of Indian Sanskrit symbolsThe date of the first appearance of Indian Sanskrit symbols
cannot be ascertained, but they resemble Aramaic andcannot be ascertained, but they resemble Aramaic and
appeared as a full system writing in the edicts of Asoka. Theyappeared as a full system writing in the edicts of Asoka. They
were set down in two types of writing :were set down in two types of writing : KharosthiKharosthi andand BrahmiBrahmi..
TheThe BrahmiBrahmi script gave rise to all later varieties of Indianscript gave rise to all later varieties of Indian
writing.writing.
One of these varieties, a cursive type called the Gupta script,One of these varieties, a cursive type called the Gupta script,
was later employed to write Tocharian, Sake, and Turkish manwas later employed to write Tocharian, Sake, and Turkish man
script discovered in eastern Turkistan.script discovered in eastern Turkistan.
In India, it evolved into theIn India, it evolved into the DevanagariDevanagari script which was usedscript which was used
to record the voluminous literature of the Sanskrit language.to record the voluminous literature of the Sanskrit language.
Another ancient Indian script calledAnother ancient Indian script called PaliPali, gave rise to a, gave rise to a
number of Southeast Asian writing system.number of Southeast Asian writing system.
(p. 613). Look at figure 15.27

29. Writing and ReadingWriting and Reading
Types of writing :Types of writing :
_ Morphemes and words in the case of logographic systems._ Morphemes and words in the case of logographic systems.
_ Syllables in the case of syllabaries._ Syllables in the case of syllabaries.
_ Consonants and vowels in the case of the alphabets._ Consonants and vowels in the case of the alphabets.
Because of these differences, each orthography places differentBecause of these differences, each orthography places different
demands on readers. We know that different between parts ofdemands on readers. We know that different between parts of
the brain are used for reading logographic and alphabeticthe brain are used for reading logographic and alphabetic
writing systems and phonographic orthographies such aswriting systems and phonographic orthographies such as
syllabaries and alphabets.syllabaries and alphabets.
Further information about the relationship between languageFurther information about the relationship between language
and writing systems comes from the study of the congenitallyand writing systems comes from the study of the congenitally
deafdeaf. Because such people have never heard speech, they. Because such people have never heard speech, they
have little or no understanding of the phonological units thathave little or no understanding of the phonological units that
alphabets represent. Significantly, congenitally deaf individualsalphabets represent. Significantly, congenitally deaf individuals
have a great deal of difficulty learning to read English. Even afterhave a great deal of difficulty learning to read English. Even after
many years of instruction, their reading remains poor and fewmany years of instruction, their reading remains poor and few
attain college-level skills in this area.attain college-level skills in this area.

30. Kurdish writing system
Kurdish is a member of the Western Iranian branch of Indo-
European languages. Approximately 26 million people speak
Kurdish in Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Syria, Lebanon, Armenia, Georgia,
Kyrgyzstan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Afghanistan
Kurdish began to appear in writing in a version of the Persian
alphabet during the 7th century AD. However for much of their
history, the Kurds have prefered to use Arabic, Persian or Turkish for
their literary works.
In Turkey Kurdish is written with the Latin alphabet and in parts of
the former Soviet Union it is written with the Cyrillic alphabet.
When Kurdish is written with the Arabic script, Arabic loan words
retain their original spelling, though are often pronounced quite
differently in Kurdish.
Kurdish alphabets (Latin, Cyrillic and Arabic).
December 31, 2012 Retrieved from http://www.omniglot.com/writing/kurdish.htm

31. Electronic writingElectronic writing
ELECTRONIC WRITING is quite different from theELECTRONIC WRITING is quite different from the
traditional print-on-paper one, it may take visual andtraditional print-on-paper one, it may take visual and
auditory information as its assistant devices for betterauditory information as its assistant devices for better
expression.expression.
Electronic writing is non-written and non-spokenElectronic writing is non-written and non-spoken
language but something in between. It contains thelanguage but something in between. It contains the
spontaneity and informality of spoken language.spontaneity and informality of spoken language.
Computer mediated communication as a combinationComputer mediated communication as a combination
of written and oral styles of communication.of written and oral styles of communication.
Gye, L. (2005). Electronic writing. December 25, 2012 retrieved from
http://www.swinburne.infoxchange.net.au/media/halm316