Test anxiety with displaced learners at the senior school

IJELLH ISSN-2321-7065
Volume V, Issue VII July 2017 395
ATHEER LATEEF KHAMMO
MA AT ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING, KURDISTAN, IRAQ
TEST ANXIETY WITH DISPLACED LEARNERS AT THE SENIOR
SCHOOL:
THE CASE OF YAZIDI DISPLACED LEARNERS
ABSTRACT
The main principle of this investigate was to study test anxiety among displaced learners at the senior
schools in Khanike IDPs in Kurdistan Region. It also considered examining the possible differences
among the variables of test anxiety and study performance, and the learners’ characteristics of age
and gender. Test Anxiety Scale (TAS, Sarason, 1980, which reproduced by Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc), which consisted of 37 items of (true / false) Likert scale, was used to collect data
from 81 displaced learners at the senior schools in Kurdistan. These participants were selected from
12th
grade displaced EFL learners from Sinone Preparatory school. However, all the participants
were Yazidi learners who participated in the current study. The data collections were analyzed by
using descriptive statistics and t-test and ANOVA. The findings of the research revealed that
displaced learners at 12th
grade had test anxiety (TA), whereas, learners at the age of 18th
and 21st
reported to be more anxious than the rest ages were and female students were found to be the most
anxious learners. On the other hand, the age of learners scored to have a differentiation of TA than
the gender of learners in this study.
Key words: anxiety, test anxiety, displaced learners, Yazidi,
Introduction
Testing refers to the process that teachers, tutors and examiners employ when trying to measure
competence in the target language. According to Bachman and Palmer (1996), tests can be valuable
tools for providing information that is related to several concerns in the language teaching/learning
process. However, Rezazadeh and Tavakoli (2009) also explain that when this amount exceeds the
naturally expected levels, it is called test anxiety. However, anxiety deserves a closer look on its own,
as it is the focus of the current study. According to Larson (2009)," anxiety is a phenomenon that
human beings routinely encounter within their daily experience. It is considered to be one of the most

prevalent and pervasive human emotions, with a large sector of the world’s populations suffering
from excessive and overbearing levels, (p. 3)". There may be several reasons for experiencing test
anxiety. Aydin (2013) explains anxiety as an unpleasant emotional state in which one feels powerless,
uneasy and experiences tension about an expected threat. Test anxiety is a difficult learners' state that
has mental, emotional and physical elements to it. In this regard, Cizek & Burg, (2006) defined test
anxiety as the set of phenomenological, physiological and behavioral responses that accompany
concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation.
Moreover, Zaheri, Shahoei and Zaheri (2012) note that test anxiety can be explained as physiological,
cognitive, and emotional responses produced by stress experienced throughout the measurement and
it is a sense has a negative role in the learners’ feelings towards therapies. Hence, the sources and
effects of test anxiety should be thoroughly investigated, especially for displaced learners at the senior
school in IDPs camps.
The aim of study and the research questions: The current study will look at test anxiety
behavior of EFL students in basic schools in northern Iraq. The study also will examine whether there
are any significant differences in the perspectives of different group’s displaced EFL learners
concerning test anxiety with displaced learners at the senior school. Accordingly, the following research
questions will guide the study: What is the level of TA with displaced EFL learners. Do learners differ in
their experiences with test anxiety as a function of gender and age during their studies? It is hoped that it will
provide relevant information on how test anxiety could be dealt with in relation to displaced learners.
Review of literature:
What is anxiety: In the previous sections, the literature related to testing, and language testing in
particular, has been covered. It indicates that anxiety is an issue that is closely associated with testing
situations in language learning contexts (Khammo, 2015). Loghmani and Ghonsooly (2012) identify
anxiety as one of the most widespread emotional conditions that students experience in any learning
situation. When this sort of emotional factor manifests itself in relation to an examination or
evaluation, it’s defined as test anxiety (TA). However, Birjandi and Alemi (2010) stated that anxiety
as a negative experience, and feeling anxious while preparing for or taking an examination is often
harmful, but it may be useful if it is not at extreme levels. As discussed briefly earlier, especially in
L2 classes, situations that cause a high level of anxiety are likely to arise at the time of testing.
According to Zeidner (1998), anxiety is a difficult construct related to worry, self-preoccupation,
physical distress, disruptive emotions and feelings, and maladaptive behaviors, which makes it

difficult for researchers to sort out all these mechanisms. Therefore, it is suggested that TA is one of
the issues, which are accountable for learners’ underachievement and low performance, but it can be
controlled by giving suitable training to learners to deal with factors causing test anxiety (Rana &
Mahmood, 2010). Lucas, Miraflores, and Go (2011) explained that test anxiety as a type of
performance anxiety, which is caused by fear of failing a test. Test anxious students often put
unrealistic demands on themselves. TA is considered one of the most important aspects of negative
motivation, which will affect learning. This type of fear is defined as an unpleasant feeling that the
anxious learner feels when taking formal tests or other evaluation situations (Lucas, Miraflores, &
Go, 2011). The person dealing with anxiety experience emotional state that has both physiological
and behavioral concomitants. Awan, et al. (2010), explain that lack of interest is another trait causing
learners’ anxiety, as interest and enthusiasm can make people overcome the limitations of
apprehension and anxiety, thus helping to decrease the anxiety level which otherwise hinders
language learning. Therefore, a detailed analysis of language anxiety in general and foreign language
anxiety in particular is necessary.
What is test anxiety: Test anxiety is a combination of physiological state, tension and somatic
symptoms, along with worry, fright and fear of failure, that occur with learners before or during test
situations. It is a physiological condition in which learners experience extreme stress, anxiety, and
worry during and/or before taking a test. This anxiety creates significant obstructions to learning and
performance with the learners at the academic year in the school. According to Zeidner, test anxiety
“is the set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioral responses that accompany concern
about possible negative consequences of failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation” (Zeidner,
1998, p. 17). Young (1991) defines test anxiety as “worry and negative emotional reaction aroused
when learning or using a second language” (p. 27). In addition, Rezazadeh and Tavakoli (2009) stated
that “test anxiety refers to a special case of general anxiety consisting of phenomenological,
physiological, and behavioral response” (p. 69). Nemati (2012) indicates that TA may have
significant negative effects on a learner’s ability to achieve at an optimal level. Ganschow and Sparks
(1996) explain that the role of anxiety in second language learning process may be explained as
follows; language learning is a cognitive activity that relies on programming, storage, and recovery
processes, and anxiety can hinder each of these by creating a separated consideration scenario for
anxious learners. Anxious learners are concentrated on both the task and their feelings towards it.
According to Khammo And Cavusoglu (2016), test anxiety and poor study behavior are two specific
areas that have been shown to have an impact upon academic success of learners. Asghari and et al.
(2012) indicate that test anxiety has a significant role in one’s educational, professional and emotional

life. Therefore, it is not surprising that the testing environment generates anxiety for a number of
individuals. Forthermore, Asghari and et al. (2012) found that the influence of TA on motivation
could also influence the achievement suspense. Accordingly, learners with higher test anxiety might
reduce the level of success expectations and transfer significant learning outcomes protectively.
According to Tope (2011), test anxiety is one of the most important factors that lead learners to score
poorly in tests. One of the problems of the educational and academic system and learners is the test
format (Tooranposhi, 2011). In their study, Trifoni and Shahini (2011) reveal that TA usually
influences learners before and especially during tests. They found that some of the factors that cause
TA are connected to lack of training for the tests and/ or insufficient test training, fear of negative
evaluation, bad results of previous tests, time limitations and stress, the number of topics included in
the test, and the complexity of course content. Additionally, TA gives rise to physical and emotional
problems. According to Nemati (2012), there are different factors that contribute to the development
of TA:
One factor is self-concept, which is the overall sum of self-referent information that an
individual has processed, stored and organized in a systematic manner. Another factor that
contributes to the development of test anxiety is self-awareness. It’s defined as the feeling of
being observed or evaluated by others, (p. 97).
As mentioned earlier, the current study will focus on one of these components, namely TA.
Additionally, Hedge (2008) states that evaluation procedures, which only yield scores or grades, do
not sufficiently meet the needs of classroom-based evaluation. Aydin (2009) found that the
relationship between test anxiety and foreign/second language learning indicates that TA is a
significant variable, which affects the language learning process. Rezazadeh and Tavakoli (2009)
state that TA has appeared as one of the most salient constructs in modern-day psychology and by far
the most widely studied specific from of anxiety in the literature.
Who are internally displaced persons: The definition of internally displaced persons (IDPs) most
commonly used comes from the United Nation's (UN) Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement.
The Guiding Principles define IDPs as "persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged
to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order
to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights
or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State
border, as an European Commission (2015), mentioned that conflicts, violence, human rights
violations but also natural disasters are forcing millions of people to leave their homes and to flee
from destruction and persecution. The majority of refugees and IDPs live in the developing world,

which means that they find refuge in countries and among people who already struggle with poverty
and hardship. Their survival usually depends on the availability of assistance which is provided by
local communities and international organisations.
The internal armed conflict in Iraq has escalated since January (2014) and prompted a protection
crisis impacting millions of Iraqis. About 20,000 civilians have been killed or injured across Iraq
between January and September 2014. Violations of international humanitarian law by all parties to
the conflict are widespread, including indiscriminate attacks and the use of explosive weapons in
populated areas. Multiple parties to the conflict, including Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL),
are engaged in increasing incidents of gross human rights abuses. Attacks on essential public facilities
such as hospitals and schools are frequent and the denial of access to basic services such as water and
electricity has been employed as a weapon of war. According to Iraq Strategic Research Plan (2015),
civilians of all ethnic and religious backgrounds have been targeted by the violence. This includes
minority communities such as Yezidis, Christians and Turkomen in the north, and also Shiites and
Sunnis. Women have been particularly brutalized, with thousands reportedly abducted, sold, and
abused. Rapes, executions and forced child recruitment are widespread. In August, 2014 (Islamic
State of Iraq and Syria) forces drove some 400,000 Yezidi people out oftheir hometown of Sinjar,
where they were forced towards the Sinjar Mountains in order to protect their lives and most of them
fledto Kurdish places in Kurdistan Region/Iraq. Presently, they are still under persecution and the
threat of genocide by ISIS in the northwestern Iraq, (Khammo And Cavusoglu, 2016).
Yazidi people: Historically, the Yazidi lived primarily in communities in locales that are in present
day Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, and also had significant numbers in Armenia and Georgia. However,
events since the 20th
century have resulted in considerable demographic shift in these areas as well as
mass emigration. As a result population estimates are unclear in many regions, and estimates of the
size of the total population vary. In addition The majority of Yazidis speak a dialect of Kurdish known
as Kurmanji; however, there are some small populations who primarily speak Arabic. The Yazidis
are generally accepted to be ethnically Kurdish, but many Yazidis dispute this and consider
themselves to be a distinct ethnic group. ISIS attacked the Yazidi homeland of Shingal in Iraq on
August 3, 2014; more than 9,000 Yazidis were killed, kidnapped, or sexually enslaved. Yazidis are a
historically persecuted religious minority in the Middle East. The Islamic State has institutionalized
a culture of rape and sex-slavery. ISIS is pursuing a literal war against women.
Methodology:

Design and populations: The present study was designed as a survey study with a quantitative
technique to find out the aim of the topic of the study. Test Anxiety Scale (TAS, Sarason, 1980, which
reproduced by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc), which consisted of 37 items of (true / false) Likert
scale, was used to collect data from 81 displaced learners at the senior schools in Kurdistan. These
participants were selected from 12th
grade displaced EFL learners from Sinone Preparatory school.
Whereas, the participants in the current study were selected amongst displaced learners studying at
12th
grade from senior school in Khanik province in Kurdistan, all of them were studying at Sinone
preparatory school and the material of this school was in Arabic language. The following table will
show the readers distributions of the applicants of the present study according to the gender and age
of learners.
Table 1: Distribution of participants based on gender and age of learners, according to Crosstabulation
Age Total
18 years 19 years 20 years 21 years
Gender
Male 13 14 16 7 50
Female 5 11 7 8 31
Total 18 25 23 15 81
Data collection and analysis procedures: To collect data from displaced learners on their test
anxiety, the Test Test Anxiety Scale (TAS, Sarason, 1980, which reproduced by Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc) was used. Before the questionnaires were used in the study, the TAS constructed by
Sarason was translated into Arabic language by the researcher and Mr Zayer Bibo to become easily
for the learners, also to help the participants understand TA items and answer properly. Once the
translation was arranged and finished, the questionnaires were distributed to the displaced learners
during their English language lessons by the researcher himself. Information about the aims of the
study and guidelines on how to fill in the questionnaires was provided to the students in advance by
the researcher. Finally, the researcher gave the participants an hour to fill in the questionnaire.
Whereas, data collected through the survey was analyzed by using the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20. Descriptive statistics, standard deviations, frequencies and
percentages were calculated for all items. T-test and ANOVA tests were used to find out the
significant differences between the TA scores of groups of participants based on the variables
identified in the research questions. Additionally, scoring of the Test Anxiety Scale is: The total
number of “True” answers is your test anxiety score. A score of 12 or below ranks in the low anxiety
range. If that is your score, the chances are that you would not be extra stressed right now. A score of

12-20 ranks in the medium range. Any score above 20 signifies high-test anxiety. Scoring 15 or
greater is a good indication that you experience considerable discomfort about taking tests during a
period of academic year at the school.
Findings and Discussion
Findings: The results of the present study indicated that the displaced persons who participated in
the current studty scored to have a moderate level of test anxiety, (M = 21, SD = 9,9), at the senior
school during academic year.
Table 2: The level of TA among displaced EFL learners
Mean Std. Deviation N Range Level of TA
21 9,9 81 20.50 Moderate
Levels of TA based on different variables: In order to understand the relationship between certain
variables and TA, further analysis of significance tests were carried out by using descriptive statistics
to find out the means of varibles. In the following explanation and table 3, these variables will be
investigated one by one. As shown in table 3, age of learners scored to have a higher level of test
anxiety (M = 2.4, SD = 1.1), whereas, the gender of displaced learners scored to have less anxiety
than age of learners (M = 1.4, SD = 0.5).
Table 3: Descriptive statistics based on different variables
Mean Std. Deviation Range N
Gender 1.4 0.5 1.00 81
Age 2.4 1.1 3.00 81
Futhermore; the results of the current investigation show that female displaced learners were more
anxious and worried during tests. In other words, female learners were found to have high levels of
TA, whereas male learners had least levels of TA. When individual items were observed, the results
of the independent samples t-test showed that there was only one item in the questionnaire that were
significantly different concerning to the gender and test anxiety. The item 2, scored that female
learners were more worried, (M= 1.80, SD = .43) while they were taking tests than male learners, (M
= 1.42, SD = .50). The difference is statistically found in this case, t(79) = -3.28, p < 0.000. As seen
in the table 4, significant differences between groups of learners based on gender.
Table 4: Items with significant differences between groups of students based on gender
Items Gender N M SD T df Sig.

Q2 / If I were to take an intelligence
test, I would worry a great deal
Male 50 1.42 .50
-3.28 79 .000*
Female 31 1.80 .43
In order to understand whether there was a difference between groups of learners based on their age,
one-way ANOVA was used. One-way ANOVA results revealed that there were 5 items in the test
anxiety scale scored significant differences among groups of learners based on the age. The tables 5
and 6 will show the reader the significant differences and descriptive statistics of items which were
scored to have significances. According to item 4, learners at the age of 21st
(M = 1.80, SD = .51),
scored to have more anxiety than the rest of the ages, it means that the older learners were more
anxious than younger displaced learners, (F [3, 77] = 2.82, p = 0.045). It indicated that the learners
had bodily symptoms while they were taking an important test at the school. These items indicated
that learners had slightly more bodily reactions, such as sweating and itching, discomfort during
taking tests.
Item 12, showed that learners had differences in the level of tension they felt while taking tests, (F
[3, 77] = 3.02, p = 0.035). Young learners at the age of 18th
years (M = 1.78, SD = 0.43) appeared to
have the highest level of tension, which was also found statistically different from the levels of tension
felt by the learners 20th
years (M = 1.43, SD = .51), 19th
years old (M = 1.40, SD = .50) and the older
learners at the age of 21st
(M = 1.33, SD = .49). While taking tests, learners at the age of 18th
years
reported that they were more tense and stressed than the other. Correspondingly to the results of the
study, there was another item in the TAS that was scored significantly different between age of
learners based on students’ stress and tension during tests, item 17 scored to have more tense and
anxiety with the young learners with the age of 18th
(F [3, 77] = 3.30, p = 0.025). Again, learners at
the age of 18th
(M = 2.83, SD = 1.65) were found to have the highest level of tension on the day of
the test and this difference was significant compared to the learners at the age of 21st
(M = 1.27, SD
= .46).
Table 5: Items with significant differences between groups of students based on age of learners.
Items Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Q4 / While taking an important
exam, I perspire a great deal.
Between Groups 1.10 3 .67 2.82 .045*
Within Groups 18.18 77 .24
Total 20.17 80
Q12 / After taking a test, I
always feel I could have done
better than I actually did.
Between Groups 2.13 3 .71 3.02 .035*
Total 20.22 80
Between Groups 2.30 3 .77 3.30 .025*

Q17 / I seem to defeat myself
while working on important
tests.
Total 20.25 80
Q28 / Thoughts of doing
poorly interfere with my
performance on tests.
Between Groups 2.92 3 .97 4.35 .007*
Total 20.17 80
Q31 / I don’t enjoy eating
before an important test.
Between Groups 2.36 3 .79 3.39 .022*
Total 20.25 80
In terms of worry, there was another item where significant differences were observed between age
of learners. Which was scored that learners at the age of 21st
years (M = 1.80, SD = .41) were more
worried about answering questions poorly and incorrectly while they were taking an important tests
The difference is statistically found in this case, (F [3, 77] = 4.35, p = 0.007). whereas, the young
learners scored to have lowest level of worry during examination times (M = 1.27, SD = .46).
According to the findings of the current study, levels of TA varied between learners of different ages
at the school. Interestingly, in relation to the tests themselves, learners at the age of 21st
expressed a
higher level of anxiety for eating before taking tests, (F [3, 77] = 3.39, p = 0.022). It means that they
have to eat something before tests (M = 1.60, SD = .51) compared to the other ages.
Table 6, Differences between TAS score based on age of learners
N Mean SD Std. Error
Q4 / While taking an important exam, I perspire a
great deal.
18 years 18 1.61 .50 .12
19 years 25 1.36 .49 .10
20 years 23 1.48 .51 .11
21 years 15 1.80 .41 .11
Q12 / After taking a test, I always feel I could have
done better than I actually did.
18 years 18 1.78 .43 .10
19 years 25 1.40 .50 .10
20 years 23 1.43 .51 .11
21 years 15 1.33 .49 .13
Q17 / I seem to defeat myself while working on
important tests.
18 years 18 1.78 .43 .11
19 years 25 1.44 .51 .10
20 years 23 1.48 .51 .11
21 years 15 1.27 .46 .12
Q28 / Thoughts of doing poorly interfere with my
performance on tests
18 years 18 1.72 .46 .11
19 years 25 1.36 .49 .10
20 years 23 1.39 .50 .10
21 years 15 1.80 .41 .11
Q31 / I don’t enjoy eating before an important test.
18 years 18 1.72 .46 .11
19 years 25 1.52 .51 .10

20 years 23 1.26 .45 .10
21 years 15 1.60 .51 .13
Summary of findings: The results of the present study seem to be largely in agreement with the
previous studies about TA, it showed that the learners had anxiety while taking tests at any situation.
According to the findings of the current study, the displaced learners in senior schools in Kurdistan,
they scored to have moderate levels of TA. However, it was clear that tension and worrying were the
biggest issue among displaced learners in senior schools in relation to TA. Whereas, the main purpose
of this study was to look at the TA behavior amongst displaced learners at the displaced schools in
Khanik province in Kurdistan. Based on the findings and the results of the questionnaire, the
following main results were obtained from data analysis:
1- The result of the current study was conducted that Yazidi displaced learners at the senior
schools in Kurdistan had moderate level of test anxiety throughout taking tests. However, the
results showed that there were significant differences between TA levels experienced based
on different variables.
2- Whereas; female learners stated that they felt more anxious and worry while taking tests
compared to males, which meant that displaced male learners had least TA than female
learners while they were taking tests at the school. However, the study indicated that male
learners were more comfortable and enjoyable tham female during testing.
3- Also, the finding of the data collection showed that, learners at the age of 18th
and 21st
expressed
a higher level of test anxiety at the time of testing or before than the other ages in the study. However;
the results of study point out that the young learners at the age of 18th
years old had scored to have
tension during taking tests, while the learners at the age of 21st
years old were scored to have worry
about tests. As, Aydin (2013) mentioned that the older the learners the more they are worried
about tests, are unhappy after testing and uncomfortable before, and likely to be afraid of
failure. For instance, learners in the senior school are more apprehensive about accepted
exams, and are affected more negatively by the conditions of their performance than learners
in primary and middle school. Furthermore, the study found that learners at the age of 18th
scored
to have more TA than the other groups while taking tests, as shown in table.
4- Based on these findings, it can be argued that TA is a learnt sensation with younger and older
displaced learners with higher levels at the school. They were scored that females were more
anxious at the time of testing.
5- The results of the study indicated that the Yazidi learners had test anxiety while taking tests,
because of the mind of displaced learners of what happened with them such as: forcing or

obliging them to flee or to leave their homeland, conflicut and fighting in their living place in
particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of
widespread violence, violations of human rights.
Recommendations for Practice: According to the findings of the current study, some recommendations
can be presented for further practice and researchers:
- According to United Nation's (UN) Guiding Principles (principle 1, 2 and 4) on Internal
Displacement; Internally displaced persons should enjoy, in full equality, the same rights and
freedoms under international and local law as do other persons in their country. They should
not be discriminated against in the enjoyment of any rights and freedoms on the ground that
they are internally displaced. When it is based on policies of apartheid, "ethnic cleansing" or
similar practices aimed at/or resulting in altering the ethnic, religious or racial composition of
the affected population. However, certain internally displaced persons, such as children,
especially unaccompanied minors, expectant mothers, mothers with young children, female
heads of household, persons with disabilities and elderly persons, shall be entitled to
protection and assistance required by their condition and to treatment which takes into account
their special needs.
- UN and other human organizations should take care about displaced people requirment and
prepare all things related to their daily life and especially in relation to the education field. By
opening extra schools for these group of learners who left their home from threatening and
forcing of ISIS in 2014. However, they should open special courses about psychology for
them and explaining how to decrease their anxiety and fear, (Khammo and Cavusoglu, 2016).
- UN and human organizations should stand by humanitarian projects for children in conflict
regions, providing them with their connection to go to schools in order to teach and learner.
These projects should be for Yazidi populations in Kurdistan region and focus on teaching
and learning process. They should perpare suitable place for the children, as well as with
psychological and sociological support to their shocking of war experiences and violation.
- Iraqi governments and Kurdish authorities should give more chance to displaced people to
work and share in local community and make them feel happy without any fear. They should
provide opportunities for displaced children to occupy their free time with learning. However,
local people should help them to share in their social activities without any differences
between these two group of people.
- Their teachers and parents should be aware that their learners may need more support in
dealing with learning process so to make them comfortable before taking test. Also, they

should give their learners more time in order to know what he/she studied at the school.
Teachers must have taking more oral test than written test.
- Displaced learners as test takers should be adequately informed about the demands of the
tests. The learners should be provided with some information about the structure and format
about questions. Basically, they must have access to samples of the test before taking midterm
or final tests at the school.
Conclusion: This section summarizes the findings of the current study and drew conclusions about
TA and displaced learners in senior schools in Kurdistan. However, the case of Yazidi learners and people
in Iraq presents an example of how displaced people can be subjective by several life threatening issues,
tormenting and forced to leave their religion that may happen outside of their control. This study
indicated that Yazidi learner had moderate level of TA, while this group of learners entering to the hall
examinatio, it can be argued that the testing situation may arouse feelings of fear and anxiety as well as bringing
out physical symptoms in test takers. Moreover, it can affect their performances during the test itself, which
may have real consequences for them in later life.
Acknowledgement: I would like to thank all the displaced learners who participated in this study.
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