ellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function. Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose (like a stretched rubber band), and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released. Some of it is captured in a form that can be used to do work in cells - a molecule called adenosine triphosphate or ATP. The energy that is not captured in ATP is usually given off as heat (one of the things that helps us maintain our normal body temperature).
The process of cellular respiration is similar to a car using gasoline as fuel. As gasoline is the fuel for a car, glucose is the fuel for a cell. A car burns gasoline and uses the energy released for movement. Similarly, a cell ‘burns’ glucose to capture the energy and create ATP. ATP is the primary form of energy that cells use to function.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is also formed during this process. The process can be likened to a waterslide. A person has more energy at the top and loses it as they slide down.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
ellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function. Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose (like a stretched rubber band), and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released. Some of it is captured in a form that can be used to do work in cells - a molecule called adenosine triphosphate or ATP. The energy that is not captured in ATP is usually given off as heat (one of the things that helps us maintain our normal body temperature).
The process of cellular respiration is similar to a car using gasoline as fuel. As gasoline is the fuel for a car, glucose is the fuel for a cell. A car burns gasoline and uses the energy released for movement. Similarly, a cell ‘burns’ glucose to capture the energy and create ATP. ATP is the primary form of energy that cells use to function.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is also formed during this process. The process can be likened to a waterslide. A person has more energy at the top and loses it as they slide down.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
Introduction, causes and symptoms, Mechanism and treatment are been explained about this deadly disease SCID where production of T and B cells is affected.
Content-
1. Background
2. Introduction
3. Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
4. Apoptosis in biologic processes
5. Apoptosis in pathologic processes
6. Morphologic features
7. Techniques to identify and count apoptotic cells
8. Biochemical changes
9. Molecular mechanism of apoptosis
10. Recent advancement and emerging trends in apoptosis
11. References
Introduction, causes and symptoms, Mechanism and treatment are been explained about this deadly disease SCID where production of T and B cells is affected.
Content-
1. Background
2. Introduction
3. Difference between apoptosis and necrosis
4. Apoptosis in biologic processes
5. Apoptosis in pathologic processes
6. Morphologic features
7. Techniques to identify and count apoptotic cells
8. Biochemical changes
9. Molecular mechanism of apoptosis
10. Recent advancement and emerging trends in apoptosis
11. References
A German biochemist, Dr. Otto Warburg showed in 1928 that
tumor cells have a higher rate of glucose metabolism.
▫ He showed that tumor cells convert ten times more glucose
into lactate into glucose (in a given time), under aerobic
conditions.
▫ It is said to be an adaptation of cancer cells, to counter the
variability in energy demand with time. They show high
glycolytic metabolism even with oxygen present.
Evaluation of hepatoprotective agents - Hemant KanaseHemant Kanase
1. Introduction
2. Hepatotoxicity: Mechanism
3. Therapeutic strategies available – their limitations
4. In vivo models of liver damage
- Non-invasive model
a. Chemically induced hepatotoxicity
b. Drug-induced hepatotoxicity
c. Radiation-induced hepatotoxicity
d. Metal-induced hepatotoxicity
e. Diet-induced hepatotoxicity
Models of Acute Hepatitis
Models of chronic hepatitis
Models of fibrosis
Models of cholestasis
Models of steatosis
4. Problems faced with animal studies
5. In vitro models of liver damage
6. Advantages and disadvantages of in vitro models
7. Parameters of evaluation
8. Clinical Assessment
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on the earth. Glycolysis is the first pathway of the cellular respiration used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. When energy is needed, metabolic processes mobilize glycogen to produce ATP and give the body fuel. Glycolysis is the major pathway for utilization of glucose & it takes place in the cytoplasm of all the cells of body, as all the glycolytic enzymes required are present in the cytosol. Major pathway for ATP in tissues lacking mitochondria viz. RBC, lens, cornea etc.. Glycolysis is unique because it may be aerobic or anaerobic - meaning it will proceed with or without oxygen also it occurs quickly, and can produce thousands of ATP molecules in milliseconds.
This presentation introduces a brief and rapid review for an important research area (oxidative stress) and its relation to liver fibrosis.
Liver fibrosis is very important for us as we are facing a very dangerous and continuously growing problem in Egypt, HEPATIC PATIENTS COMPLICATIONS.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
3. Introduction
• Warburg, considered by many the pre-eminent bio
chemist of the first half of the twentieth century, made
vital contributions to many other areas of biochemistry,
including respiration, photosynthesis, and the
enzymology of intermediary metabolism.
4. • In the mid 1920s Otto Warburg and co-workers
showed that, under Aerobic conditions, tumour tissues
metabolize approximately tenfold more glucose to
lactate in a given time than normal tissues.
5. • Question
WHY its advantageous for a cancer cell to rely on
seemingly inefficient glycolysis (which generate 2
molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose ) instead of
oxidative phosphorylation (which generates up to 36
molecules of ATP per molecules of glucose)
6. • ANSWER
• Aerobic glycolysis provides rapidly dividing tumour
cells with metabolic intermediates that are needed
for the synthesis of cellular components , where as
mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation does not
7. • Its important to recognize that rapidly growing normal
cells such as , in embryonic tissues also relay on
aerobic fermentation.
• Thus “Warburg metabolism “ is not cancer specific ,
but instead is a general property of growing cells that
become fixed in cancer cells
8. • This phenomenon later came to be known as
“Warburg Effect”. • Warburg purified and crystallized
seven of the enzymes of glycolysis.
• He used a tool called as “ Warburg Manometer”
which measured directly the consumption of oxygen
by monitoring changes in gas volume, and therefore
allowed quantitative measurement of any enzyme
with oxidase activity.
9. Some Features of Warburg Effect
• Glucose uptake and glycolysis proceed about ten
times faster in most solid tumours than in non-
cancerous tissues.
• Tumour cells commonly experience hypoxia (limited
oxygen supply), because they initially lack an
extensive capillary network to supply the tumour with
oxygen.
10. • The high glycolytic rate may also result in part from
smaller numbers of mitochondria in tumour cells thus
resulting in less ATP generation and higher
consumption of Energy (ATP).
11. • In some cases, tumour cells overproduce several
glycolytic enzymes, including an isozyme of
Hexokinase-II and it results in committing the cell to
continued glycolysis.
• HIF-1 is a protein that stimulates the activity of eight
glycolytic enzymes and it gives tumour cell capacity to
survive Anaerobic conditions.
12. Causes of Warburg Effect
• Mitochondrial Defects: mtDNA mutations lead to malfunction in
respiration and oxidative phosphorylation.
• Hypoxia : Possible adaptation owing to lack of Oxygen availability in
the Environment.
• Oncogenic Signals : Point Mutations in genes such as Ras family can
result in proliferation of cells and signal initiation.
• Altered Metabolic Enzymes: Overproduction and mimicking of
metabolic enzymes such as Hexokinase-II result in increased Glycolytic
activity
13. Significance of Warburg Effect
• Scientists after extensive research came to the
conclusion that most Tumour cells exhibit high
glycolytic uptake.
• Taking cue from this mechanism, numerous Glycolytic
Inhibitors have been developed. These compounds
are acting as potential anti- cancer agents.
14. • Alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid is a glycolytic
inhibitor that has been successfully used in Brain
Cancer.
• Recently, a molecule named Di ChloroAcetic or DCA
acid was devised by University of Alberta, claiming
that it’s introduction would result in normal
functioning of Mitochondria. The testing of this
compound’s claims are underway.
15. Why PET/CT Works: The Warburg Effect
● Normal Cells
• Low rate of glycolysis
• Aerobic metabolism
● Most Cancer Cells
• High rate of glycolysis
• Anaerobic metabolism
16. • Glucose hunger of tumour is used to visualize tumours
via PET scanning , in which patients are injected with
18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose , a nonmetabolizable
derivative of glucose that sis preferentially taken up
into tumour cells ( as well as normal , actively dividing
tissues such as bone marrow )