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Vaisesika philosophy

The Vaisesika philosophy analyzes aspects of reality according to six categories: substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, and inherence. It describes a world composed of eternal atoms where souls undergo cycles of rebirth determined by past karma and the will of God. The goal is moksha or liberation from rebirth through cultivating virtues, restraining desires, and gaining insight into the true nature of the self and reality.

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Vaisesika (VA)Philosophy Analysis of Aspect of RealityBy Sage Kanada

PadarthaA padartha is an object which can be thought (artha) and named (pada). All objects of experience, and not merely the things of the physical world, are padarthas. Include not only things predicable of another, but also subjects capable of having things predicated of them. The intimate relationship between name and thing is recognized

1. Dravya: SubstanceSubstance, is that in which a quality or an action can exist but which in itself is different from both quality and actionA cloth is formed by the combination of a number of threads of certain colors. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth

Substance: eternal and non-eternalCompound substances (Murt)Dependent, transitory and non eternalAre caused and destroyed not by themselves but by something different from themselves Simple substances (Bhut)They are eternal, independent and ultimate individualityThey are neither caused nor destroyed.

ParmanuThe smallest particle of earth, water, fire and airThe most indivisible state of matter.The atoms of water, earth, fire and air are eternal because an atom is part less and cannot be produced or destroyed The common elements of air, water, fire and air are noneternal because they are produced by a combination of atoms and therefore can disintegrate and changeThe existence of atoms is proved by inference not by perceptionAll composite parts of the world can be broken into smaller parts. But when one comes to the part which cannot be broken further that minutest part in VA is called atom. Atoms can neither be produced nor destroyed they are eternal.

1.5 AkasAkasa, is the substratum of the quality of sound, is not made up of atoms. Sound can be perceived, but akasa cannot be perceived because it lacks two conditions for the perception of an object i.e. perceptible dimension and manifest color. Therefore, Akasa cannot be perceived but can be inferred from the perception of the quality of the sound that it contains. Akasa is the one and eternal because it is not made up of parts and does not depend on any other substance for its existence. It is all pervading in the sense that it has an unlimited dimension and that its quality (sound) is perceived everywhere.

1.6 Direction and 1.7 Time Imperceptible substances and they are likewise single, eternal, and all pervading. Direction is inferred on the basis of such concepts such as here, there and so on. Time is inferred from the concepts now, today, tomorrow and so forth. Although all pervading space, direction and time are spoken of as many due to certain limiting conditions known as Upadhis. E.g. when the indivisible space is limited by a jar, that space is known as the space of the jar. In the same way time is referred to as one hour, two hours and direction as east, west, north etc.

1.8 Atman or soulAtman is also considered to be eternal and all pervading. There are two kinds of souls, individual and supreme. The former is known as jivatman and the latter as Iswara. The Supreme Soul is inferred to be the creator of the world in the same manner as has been explained in Nyaya. Conversely the individual soul is perceived to possess mental qualities like I am happy.

1.9 Mind or ManasIt is the eternal sense faculty of the individual soul. Like the soul, the mind is indivisible. Its existence is not perceived from inferred from the following propositions. First, like an external sense facility is required to perceive the outer world, an internal sense facility is required to perceive the inner objects like soul, pleasure and pain. Second it is apparent that the five external senses may all be in contact with their respective objects simultaneously but not all perceptions are received at the same time. Attention is focused on one object, which means that there is a coordination of the mind with the senses. We must thus admit the existence of the mind as an internal sense facility

2. Guna or Quality While substance is capable of existing independently by itself, quality or guna cannot so exist. It abides in substance and has itself no qualitiescolor (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparsa), number (samkhya), size (parimana), individuality (prthaktva), conjunction (samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), priority (paratva), posterity (aparatva), knowledge (buddhi), pleasure (sukha),pain (dukha), desire (iccha), aversion (dvesa), effort (prayatna), heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscidity (sneha), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), sound (sabda), and faculty (samskara).

3. Karma or ActionKarma, or movement, is regarded as an irreducible element of the universe. It is neither substance nor quality, but an independent category itself. All movements belong to the substances as much as their qualities. Unlike a quality of substance, its activity is a transitory one. Thus the heaviness of the body is a quality, while its falling is an accident. Qualities which continue to exist are called guna, while those that cease to exist are called karma. Karma in all its forms is transient, and comes to an end either by a subsequent conjunction or destruction of its basic substance. Akasa, time, space, soul -- though substances -- are devoid of action, since they are incorporeal.

4. Samanya or GeneralityThe idea of samanya is motivated by the desire to distinguish the unchanging from the changingGenerality relates to abstract characteristics that is singular and eternal and yet pervades many. Samanya is the essence of the common characteristics that unites different entities into one class.Generality is regarded as the eternal, one, and residing in many things belonging to the group of substance, quality or action

Types of SamanyaHigher and LowerSatta or being (existence) is a different object from substance, quality and action, It possesses the highest generality. It covers the largest number of things. It includes all and is not included in anything. While being is the only true universal, the true particulars are the individuals themselves and between the two there are universal-particulars. This extension determines the grade of generality. The universal is eternal and one, while the individuals come and go. Men are born and die, but man remains. Universals, individuals and relations do not exist in the sense in which substances, qualities and actions do. The distinction between the universal and the particular is real, since the relation is said to be one of intimate union (samavaya).

5. Visesa or ParticularBy means of visesa (or particularity) one is able to perceive things as different from one anotherEmpirical objects are distinguished by means of the parts of which they are composedAtoms, time, space, akasa, souls and manas all have their particularities, which are not qualities of classes but only of individuals

6. Samavya or InherenceThe relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea, "This is in that." The relation between cause and effectGenerally the relation which binds a substance and its qualities, a whole and its parts, motion and the object in motion, individual and universe, cause and effect, is that of samavaya (inherence).

Samyoga (Nearness) vsSamavya (Inherence)Nearness is temporary, allows two more things to exist together without being affected by each other. This nearness is an external relationship existing as an accidental quality of the substances related to it. Inherence, on the other hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one of whom inheres in the other. Here one of the entities depends for its existence on the other. Inherence is said to be eternal.

7. Abhav or Non ExistenceAbhava is different from the first six categories in the sense that it is negative. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six positive categories, and yet according to VA philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for instance, space and direction do. e.g., how does not one know that there is no chair in the room? Answer by looking at the room. Thus nonexistence also exists as such.the non-existence was there all the time, though it was hidden when the jar was on the ground. Thus the absolute non-existence of everything is at all times present everywhere, though it is hidden for the time and in the place the thing happens to be.

Types of Abhav or Non ExistenceAntecedent nonexistencenonexistence of a thing prior to its creation for e.g. in the sentence ‘A book will be written using this paper’ the book is nonexistent in the paper. But when a book is written its previous nonexistence comes to an endNonexistence of a thing after its destruction there is something in existence, which shall cease to exist after its destruction for e.g. when a jar is broken into pieces, and then there is nonexistence of that jarAbsolute nonexistencethe type of nonexistence that does not belong to time and space is called absolute nonexistence.

Mutual NonexistenceMutual nonexistence is the difference of one thing from another. When one thing is different from another, they mutually exclude each other, and there is the nonexistence of either as the other. For e.g., a pen is different from a book, so there is nonexistence of the book in the pen and of the pen in the book.

Vaiseskia: Creation and AnhilationThe entire universe is composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, VA does not ignore the moral and spiritual laws that govern the process of union and separation of atomsthe functioning of atoms is guided by the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being. This will of the Supreme Being directs the operation of atoms according to the past Samskaras of individual beings

VaCosmologyThere is no creation or annihilation but rather than orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of Adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of the Supreme Being, which back to the self with interest

Concept of Iswara of GodGod (Isvara) is the efficient cause of the world, while the atoms are the material causeThe eternal and uncreated nature of souls and atoms, and accounts for their varying states by the principle of adrsta (under God's will)Vedas are authored by intelligent beings, under the guidance of an eternal omniscient, all-holy spirit.There is only one God and his intelligence, desire and effort are eternal. God is distinguished from souls by his omniscience and omnipotence, which qualify him for governing the universe. He is never entangled in the cycle of existence. He sets the world under certain laws, lets it go, and does not interfere with its course

VA EthicsTwo types of Karma or Action : Voluntary and InvoluntaryActs due to organic life are involuntary, while those which spring from desire and aversion are voluntary. The former have organic ends in view, while the latter aim at realization of human values. Dharma, according to the Vaisesika, treats of the attainment of worldly prosperity as well as spiritual good. While the former is the product of ceremonial piety, the latter is the result of spiritual insight. The highest kind of pleasure is the pleasure of the wise, which is independent of all such agencies as the remembrance of the object, desire, reflection, and is due to their knowledge, peacefulness of mind, contentment, and the peculiar character of their virtue.

Thirteen universal dutiesfaith (sraddha), non-violence (ahimsa), kindly feeling for all beings (bhutahitatva), truthfulness (satyavacana), integrity (asteya), sexual purity (brahmacarya), purity of mind (anupadha-bhavasuddhi), renunciation of anger (krodhavarjana), personal cleanliness through bathing (abhisecana), the use of purifying substances (sucidravyasevana), devotion to the deity (visistadevatabhakti), fasting (upavasa), and non-neglect of duties (apramada).

Sanyassannyasin (hermit or swami) is not one who gives up the world to itself, but one who takes the vow of universal benevolence. The observance of above duties results in virtue (dharma) when they are done, without a desire for gaining thereby any visible results (as wealth, etc.), and with the utmost purity of motive. Spiritual growth requires suppression of self. It is said: "to the unrestrained (ayatsya), exaltation (or abhyudaya) does not accrue from eating what is pure, since there is no self-restraint." Yoga as a means of self-control is allowed. It is not mechanical conformity to the rules but inner goodness that counts.

DharmaDharma is not only the content of morality to the Vaisesika, but also the power or quality which resides in the human being and not in the action performed. A selfless insight into the truth of things can secure the final release (moksa). So long as a person is dominated by desire and aversion, he stores up dharma and adharma or adrsta, and the results of his deeds force on him an embodied existence.

Moksa or LiberationThe body is the seat of enjoyment (bhogayatanam). Union with adrsta and its effect of body is samsara; separation from it is moksa. Soul in the state of liberation is absolutely free from all connection with qualities, and subsists like the sky free from all conditions and attributes, while according to the Nyaya, the state of freedom is one of bliss and wisdom.Activity motivated by the feeling of separate self-existence is based on ignorance of the truth of things. When it is realized that the objects which look so attractive and repulsive are only temporary compounds of atoms, they cease to be significant and having power over the person. Similarly, when he realizes the true nature of the atman, which is distinct from this or that form of its existence, he shall know that all souls are alike.

LiberationWhen the true knowledge dispels the motive of self-interest, self-activities cease, no potential worth is produced, and there will be no more birth. The bliss of deliverance is regarded as the result of divine grace, and the rules of dharma as the expression of the will of God.All the time the soul is in samsara, it is incarnate in some body or other, which is subtle in pralaya (dissolution) and gross in creation, and there is never a state when the atman is devoid of adrsta, since there is no beginning for the series of incarnations. The time, place, and circumstances of birth, etc., are determined by the adrsta. Each soul is allowed the chance to reap the harvest of its past deeds. Note, like other Hindu systems, the Vaisesika admits that it is possible for a person to rise to a superior order of existence through good effort or fall into a subhuman one through neglect.

Vaisesika philosophy

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Vaisesika (VA)Philosophy Analysisof Aspect of RealityBy Sage Kanada
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Origin
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Key Philosophy
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Vaiseskika vs. NyayaSimilarities
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Vaiseskika vs. NyayaDifference
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Vaisesika Sutra
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Epistemology Theory of Knowledge
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Source of ValidKnowledge
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Source of InvalidKnowledge
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Vaisesika OntologyCategories
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PadarthaA padartha isan object which can be thought (artha) and named (pada). All objects of experience, and not merely the things of the physical world, are padarthas. Include not only things predicable of another, but also subjects capable of having things predicated of them. The intimate relationship between name and thing is recognized
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Seven Padarth (categoriesof Reality )
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1. Dravya: SubstanceSubstance,is that in which a quality or an action can exist but which in itself is different from both quality and actionA cloth is formed by the combination of a number of threads of certain colors. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth
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Substance: eternal andnon-eternalCompound substances (Murt)Dependent, transitory and non eternalAre caused and destroyed not by themselves but by something different from themselves Simple substances (Bhut)They are eternal, independent and ultimate individualityThey are neither caused nor destroyed.
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Substance Types
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ParmanuThe smallest particleof earth, water, fire and airThe most indivisible state of matter.The atoms of water, earth, fire and air are eternal because an atom is part less and cannot be produced or destroyed The common elements of air, water, fire and air are noneternal because they are produced by a combination of atoms and therefore can disintegrate and changeThe existence of atoms is proved by inference not by perceptionAll composite parts of the world can be broken into smaller parts. But when one comes to the part which cannot be broken further that minutest part in VA is called atom. Atoms can neither be produced nor destroyed they are eternal.
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1.5 AkasAkasa, isthe substratum of the quality of sound, is not made up of atoms. Sound can be perceived, but akasa cannot be perceived because it lacks two conditions for the perception of an object i.e. perceptible dimension and manifest color. Therefore, Akasa cannot be perceived but can be inferred from the perception of the quality of the sound that it contains. Akasa is the one and eternal because it is not made up of parts and does not depend on any other substance for its existence. It is all pervading in the sense that it has an unlimited dimension and that its quality (sound) is perceived everywhere.
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1.6 Direction and1.7 Time Imperceptible substances and they are likewise single, eternal, and all pervading. Direction is inferred on the basis of such concepts such as here, there and so on. Time is inferred from the concepts now, today, tomorrow and so forth. Although all pervading space, direction and time are spoken of as many due to certain limiting conditions known as Upadhis. E.g. when the indivisible space is limited by a jar, that space is known as the space of the jar. In the same way time is referred to as one hour, two hours and direction as east, west, north etc.
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1.8 Atman orsoulAtman is also considered to be eternal and all pervading. There are two kinds of souls, individual and supreme. The former is known as jivatman and the latter as Iswara. The Supreme Soul is inferred to be the creator of the world in the same manner as has been explained in Nyaya. Conversely the individual soul is perceived to possess mental qualities like I am happy.
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1.9 Mind orManasIt is the eternal sense faculty of the individual soul. Like the soul, the mind is indivisible. Its existence is not perceived from inferred from the following propositions. First, like an external sense facility is required to perceive the outer world, an internal sense facility is required to perceive the inner objects like soul, pleasure and pain. Second it is apparent that the five external senses may all be in contact with their respective objects simultaneously but not all perceptions are received at the same time. Attention is focused on one object, which means that there is a coordination of the mind with the senses. We must thus admit the existence of the mind as an internal sense facility
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2. Guna orQuality While substance is capable of existing independently by itself, quality or guna cannot so exist. It abides in substance and has itself no qualitiescolor (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparsa), number (samkhya), size (parimana), individuality (prthaktva), conjunction (samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), priority (paratva), posterity (aparatva), knowledge (buddhi), pleasure (sukha),pain (dukha), desire (iccha), aversion (dvesa), effort (prayatna), heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscidity (sneha), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), sound (sabda), and faculty (samskara).
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3. Karma orActionKarma, or movement, is regarded as an irreducible element of the universe. It is neither substance nor quality, but an independent category itself. All movements belong to the substances as much as their qualities. Unlike a quality of substance, its activity is a transitory one. Thus the heaviness of the body is a quality, while its falling is an accident. Qualities which continue to exist are called guna, while those that cease to exist are called karma. Karma in all its forms is transient, and comes to an end either by a subsequent conjunction or destruction of its basic substance. Akasa, time, space, soul -- though substances -- are devoid of action, since they are incorporeal.
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4. Samanya orGeneralityThe idea of samanya is motivated by the desire to distinguish the unchanging from the changingGenerality relates to abstract characteristics that is singular and eternal and yet pervades many. Samanya is the essence of the common characteristics that unites different entities into one class.Generality is regarded as the eternal, one, and residing in many things belonging to the group of substance, quality or action
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Types of SamanyaHigherand LowerSatta or being (existence) is a different object from substance, quality and action, It possesses the highest generality. It covers the largest number of things. It includes all and is not included in anything. While being is the only true universal, the true particulars are the individuals themselves and between the two there are universal-particulars. This extension determines the grade of generality. The universal is eternal and one, while the individuals come and go. Men are born and die, but man remains. Universals, individuals and relations do not exist in the sense in which substances, qualities and actions do. The distinction between the universal and the particular is real, since the relation is said to be one of intimate union (samavaya).
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5. Visesa orParticularBy means of visesa (or particularity) one is able to perceive things as different from one anotherEmpirical objects are distinguished by means of the parts of which they are composedAtoms, time, space, akasa, souls and manas all have their particularities, which are not qualities of classes but only of individuals
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6. Samavya orInherenceThe relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea, "This is in that." The relation between cause and effectGenerally the relation which binds a substance and its qualities, a whole and its parts, motion and the object in motion, individual and universe, cause and effect, is that of samavaya (inherence).
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Samyoga (Nearness) vsSamavya(Inherence)Nearness is temporary, allows two more things to exist together without being affected by each other. This nearness is an external relationship existing as an accidental quality of the substances related to it. Inherence, on the other hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one of whom inheres in the other. Here one of the entities depends for its existence on the other. Inherence is said to be eternal.
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7. Abhav orNon ExistenceAbhava is different from the first six categories in the sense that it is negative. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six positive categories, and yet according to VA philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for instance, space and direction do. e.g., how does not one know that there is no chair in the room? Answer by looking at the room. Thus nonexistence also exists as such.the non-existence was there all the time, though it was hidden when the jar was on the ground. Thus the absolute non-existence of everything is at all times present everywhere, though it is hidden for the time and in the place the thing happens to be.
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Types of Abhavor Non ExistenceAntecedent nonexistencenonexistence of a thing prior to its creation for e.g. in the sentence ‘A book will be written using this paper’ the book is nonexistent in the paper. But when a book is written its previous nonexistence comes to an endNonexistence of a thing after its destruction there is something in existence, which shall cease to exist after its destruction for e.g. when a jar is broken into pieces, and then there is nonexistence of that jarAbsolute nonexistencethe type of nonexistence that does not belong to time and space is called absolute nonexistence.
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Mutual NonexistenceMutual nonexistenceis the difference of one thing from another. When one thing is different from another, they mutually exclude each other, and there is the nonexistence of either as the other. For e.g., a pen is different from a book, so there is nonexistence of the book in the pen and of the pen in the book.
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VA Cosmology
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Vaiseskia: Creation andAnhilationThe entire universe is composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, VA does not ignore the moral and spiritual laws that govern the process of union and separation of atomsthe functioning of atoms is guided by the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being. This will of the Supreme Being directs the operation of atoms according to the past Samskaras of individual beings
33.
VaCosmologyThere is nocreation or annihilation but rather than orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of Adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of the Supreme Being, which back to the self with interest
34.
Concept of Iswaraof GodGod (Isvara) is the efficient cause of the world, while the atoms are the material causeThe eternal and uncreated nature of souls and atoms, and accounts for their varying states by the principle of adrsta (under God's will)Vedas are authored by intelligent beings, under the guidance of an eternal omniscient, all-holy spirit.There is only one God and his intelligence, desire and effort are eternal. God is distinguished from souls by his omniscience and omnipotence, which qualify him for governing the universe. He is never entangled in the cycle of existence. He sets the world under certain laws, lets it go, and does not interfere with its course
35.
VA EthicsTwo typesof Karma or Action : Voluntary and InvoluntaryActs due to organic life are involuntary, while those which spring from desire and aversion are voluntary. The former have organic ends in view, while the latter aim at realization of human values. Dharma, according to the Vaisesika, treats of the attainment of worldly prosperity as well as spiritual good. While the former is the product of ceremonial piety, the latter is the result of spiritual insight. The highest kind of pleasure is the pleasure of the wise, which is independent of all such agencies as the remembrance of the object, desire, reflection, and is due to their knowledge, peacefulness of mind, contentment, and the peculiar character of their virtue.
36.
Thirteen universal dutiesfaith(sraddha), non-violence (ahimsa), kindly feeling for all beings (bhutahitatva), truthfulness (satyavacana), integrity (asteya), sexual purity (brahmacarya), purity of mind (anupadha-bhavasuddhi), renunciation of anger (krodhavarjana), personal cleanliness through bathing (abhisecana), the use of purifying substances (sucidravyasevana), devotion to the deity (visistadevatabhakti), fasting (upavasa), and non-neglect of duties (apramada).
37.
Sanyassannyasin (hermit orswami) is not one who gives up the world to itself, but one who takes the vow of universal benevolence. The observance of above duties results in virtue (dharma) when they are done, without a desire for gaining thereby any visible results (as wealth, etc.), and with the utmost purity of motive. Spiritual growth requires suppression of self. It is said: "to the unrestrained (ayatsya), exaltation (or abhyudaya) does not accrue from eating what is pure, since there is no self-restraint." Yoga as a means of self-control is allowed. It is not mechanical conformity to the rules but inner goodness that counts.
38.
DharmaDharma is notonly the content of morality to the Vaisesika, but also the power or quality which resides in the human being and not in the action performed. A selfless insight into the truth of things can secure the final release (moksa). So long as a person is dominated by desire and aversion, he stores up dharma and adharma or adrsta, and the results of his deeds force on him an embodied existence.
39.
Moksa or LiberationThebody is the seat of enjoyment (bhogayatanam). Union with adrsta and its effect of body is samsara; separation from it is moksa. Soul in the state of liberation is absolutely free from all connection with qualities, and subsists like the sky free from all conditions and attributes, while according to the Nyaya, the state of freedom is one of bliss and wisdom.Activity motivated by the feeling of separate self-existence is based on ignorance of the truth of things. When it is realized that the objects which look so attractive and repulsive are only temporary compounds of atoms, they cease to be significant and having power over the person. Similarly, when he realizes the true nature of the atman, which is distinct from this or that form of its existence, he shall know that all souls are alike.
40.
LiberationWhen the trueknowledge dispels the motive of self-interest, self-activities cease, no potential worth is produced, and there will be no more birth. The bliss of deliverance is regarded as the result of divine grace, and the rules of dharma as the expression of the will of God.All the time the soul is in samsara, it is incarnate in some body or other, which is subtle in pralaya (dissolution) and gross in creation, and there is never a state when the atman is devoid of adrsta, since there is no beginning for the series of incarnations. The time, place, and circumstances of birth, etc., are determined by the adrsta. Each soul is allowed the chance to reap the harvest of its past deeds. Note, like other Hindu systems, the Vaisesika admits that it is possible for a person to rise to a superior order of existence through good effort or fall into a subhuman one through neglect.
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Cycle

Editor's Notes

#3 Vaisesika or VA for short. The founder of VA philosophy is sage Kanada, who was also known as Uluka, so this system is sometimes called Aulukya. Kanada wrote the first systematic work of this philosophy, VA Sutra. This work is divided into ten cantos, each containing two sections. Prasastapada wrote a great commentary on this Sutra entitled Svartha Dharma Samgraha that is so profound and famous that it is called Bhasya, which simply means ‘commentary’. Two well-known explications of Prasastapada’s work are Udayana’sKiranavali and Sridhara’sNyayakandali. The most remarkable concept of this system is the introduction of a special category of reality known as Uniqueness (visesa). Thus this system is also known VA.It basically views the world as cosmologically atomistic and ontologically pluralistic.. Thus its standpoint is more scientific than speculative, and more analytic than synthetic. The Vaisesika basically uses the bottom-up approach in the study of physical reality through its constituents (building blocks) and their characteristics.Since the Vaisesika preceded the Nyaya system, the Nyaya literatures (e.g. Sutra of Gautama and the Bhasya of Vatsayana etc.) are considerably influenced by it. The atomic theory as well as the classification of substances and the acceptance of the two means of knowledge strongly suggests that the Vaisesika is at least as old as the time of Buddha and Mahavira (sixth-fifth century B.C.).
#4 4. The Atomic TheoryAtomic theory represents the conceptual scheme adopted to explain the facts of nature. In the annals of human thought, it is a step forward from animism. It can be traced to the Vedas and Upanisads. The latter generally regarded all material things as made up of the four elements of light, water, air and earth. Akasa is left out, since it has a peculiar character of its own and does not enter into combination with the other elements. But the four elements of light, water, air and earth are themselves changeable and divisible, while the real, comprising them, may be regarded as unchangeable and eternal. Thus the atomic theory tries to investigate the unchangeable, indivisible and eternal constituent particles.All the materials and the compounds (even those containing the elements of light, water, air and earth) are non-eternal, while the component particles which are not produced are eternal. The invisible eternal atoms are incapable of division into parts. The atom marks the limit of division in the Vaisesika. The changes in the volumes of the bodies are determined by the accession and withdrawal of the atoms composing them. The atoms are the material causes of effects. Though they are supersensible, they can be classified, though not from the standpoint of size, shape, weight and density. The qualities, which they produce in the different forms of sensible things, help in the classification of atoms. Leaving aside the general properties of sensible things, such as impenetrability, which are perceived by more senses than one, the special qualities are odor, flavor, luminosity and temperature. These differ in kind and not merely in degree. It is assumed that there are four classes of paramanus (basic particles), answering to the four great classes of material objects, earth, water, light and air. These four classes of paramanus are said to produce the four senses of touch, taste, sight and smell, and that is why each special sense reveals a single quality, however excited. Though the qualities of earthly things -- as color, taste, smell and tangibility -- vanish on the destruction of the thing itself, they are always found in their respective atoms, though in earth and atoms of earth some qualities may be produced by heat. Water, light and air do not suffer a similar change.The qualities of all products are due to the atoms of which they are composed. These atoms possess the five general qualities of all substances, as also those of priority and posterity. In addition to these, earth has the special quality of odor and the other qualities of taste, color, touch or temperature, heaviness, velocity and fluidity. Water has the special quality of viscosity and the other qualities of earth except smell. Light has the usual seven, and temperature, color, fluidity and velocity, while air has only touch and velocity in addition to the seven common qualities. These qualities are eternal in the atoms but transient in the products.The individual atoms combine with others to form a product. They may continue in that co-operative existence for some time and again disintegrate into their original solitary being to form new combinations. This process of grouping and separation goes on endlessly. According to the Vaisesika, atoms do not exist in an uncombined state in creation. During creation they are said to possess a vibratory motion (parispanda). Singly the atoms are not productive. Moreover, as the atoms are different than their products, so the building blocks for things should comprise dyads (composed of two primary atoms). Similarly, as some of the things may be dyadic in composition, which indicates that the basic building unit is dyad itself and not even a triad (containing three atoms). Both single atoms and dyads are minute and invisible. The magnitude of the product depends on the magnitude of the parts or their number or arrangement. As the number of dyads increases, there is a corresponding increase in the dimension of the product. The things produced by the union of atoms are not mere aggregates but wholes. Even though the atoms by themselves are imperceptible, their collection is perceptible. In this, the whole and the parts are related by way of inherence.The atoms, which are the material causes of the dyads, are eternal and cannot be destroyed. The dyads are destroyed, not by the destruction of the primary atoms, but by the destruction of the conjunction of the primary atoms. The Vaisesika conceives two kinds of destruction, an avamtarapralaya (or intermediate dissolution), where only tangible products are destroyed, and amahapralaya (or universal destruction), where all things material and immaterial, are resolved into atoms. Srsti (creation) and pralaya (destruction) are the phases of potentiality and explication of the eternal substances.Thus, according to the Vaisesika, atom is the imperceptible unit. Atoms, generally at rest, are different in kind, each possessing its own distinct individuality (visesa). They are also qualitatively different, and possess one, two, three or four of the ordinary qualities according as they are atoms of air, fire, water, and earth; and they have no connection with sound. The qualitative differences of objects depend upon the qualities of their constituting atoms. It follows that the Vaisesikas believe in the secondary qualities being inherent in the atoms, and distinguish souls from atoms and regard them as co-eternal existences. The souls and the atoms (or their products) may however be brought together by adrsta. Vaisesikas make the principle of the adrsta (moral law or dharma) central to their whole system. Their atomistic view thus seems to be influenced by a spiritual tendency.Although the passage of time and the evolution in science brought drastic changes in succeeding cultures to the basic Vaisesika concepts of atoms (building blocks) and the atomic theory, the initial contribution of this system in analyzing the world through its components and their intermediary relations cannot be overlooked. Moreover, the ideas and methods of the Vaisesika, developed long time ago, still are applicable for solving, through the pluralistic approach, a variety of present problems involving individuals and the societies.
#5 VA is allied to the Nyaya system of philosophy. Both systems accept the liberation of the individual self as the end goal, both view ignorance as the root cause of all pain and misery, and both believe that liberation is attained only through right knowledge of reality. Both the systems agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the self and the atomic theory of the universe
#6 The Vaisesika system takes its name from visesa, or particularity. The philosophies of Vaisesika (or Atomism) and Nyaya (or Logicism) deal with the analysis of the world of experience, with the former (older of the two systems) concentrating on the particulars while the latter looking at the reality in more general sense. While Nyaya centered around logic and epistemology, Vaisesika was primarily a metaphysical system of thought that classifies all beings into seven categories, and postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. The exact periods of the origin of Vaisesika have not been established; it is thought to be more ancient than Nyāya, and may have preceded, but was at least contemporary with, Buddhism and Jainism. The founder of Vaisesika is considered to be Kanāda, author of the Vaishesika Sutra, written sometime after 300 B.C.E... Both the systems agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the self and the atomic theory of the universe, yet the classification and characterization of the categories and the development of the atomic theory give to the Vaisesika its distinct interest and valueThere are however, two differences between VA and the Nyaya system. First, Nyaya philosophy accepts four independent sources of knowledge – perception, inference, comparison and testimony but VA accepts only two – perception and inference. Second Nyaya maintains that all of reality is comprehended by 16 categories (padarthas) whereas VA recognizes only seven categories
#7 The first systematic exposition of the Vaisesika philosophy (known also as AulukyaDarsana) is found in the Vaisesika Sutra of Kanada. This work is divided into ten books. Book I discusses the five categories of substance, quality, action, generality and particularity. Book II deals with the different substances, excepting soul and mind, which, along with the objects of the senses and the nature of inference, are treated in Book III. The atomic structure of the universe is the central topic of Book IV. Book V is devoted to a discussion of the nature and kinds of action, while ethical problems are considered in Book VI. Book VII discusses the questions of quality, self and inherence. Books VIII, IX and X are mainly logical, and treat the problems of perception, inference and causality. In addition to Kanada, contributors to the Vaisesika also include Prasastapada, Candra and Sridhara et al.
#9 2. Theory of KnowledgeThe logic of the Vaisesika differs only slightly from the Nyaya logic. Knowledge, which is the problem of logic, assumes various forms, since its objects are endless. Four kinds of valid knowledge are admitted, which are perception (pratyaksa), inference (laingika), remembrance (smrti), and intuitive knowledge (arsajnana). Perception enables a person to apprehend substances, qualities and actions. Gross substances, which are made up of parts, are within the reach of perception, while atoms and dyads are not. The Vaisesika admits yogic perception, by which the perpetual cognition of the soul (atma-pratyaksa) arises.The Vaisesika brings comparison (upamana), tradition (aitihya), and verbal Knowledge (sabda) under inference. The validity of scriptural statements is an inference from the authoritative character of the speakers. While the Nyaya bases the validity of the Vedas on the ground of the direct communication from seers who had realized the eternal truths and laws, the Vaisesika infers it from the unimpeachable veracity of the inspired seers. The scriptures give real knowledge and not mere speculation. It is the knowledge of things as they are, and in this sense has no beginning, though it is always directly known and realized by some beings in its entirety and by others in part. Abler minds realized the truths and communicated them to later generations. The Vedas, as the collection of the sentences, presuppose intelligent authors. The authoritativeness of the Veda follows from its being the source of knowledge (from intelligent authors) which is eternal (Sanatana) or as having stood the test of time. Thus the Vedas are also eternal (or Sanatana) and as inspired by God or as the word of God. The meanings of the words and sentences must be understood before a person gains knowledge from them. Since the understanding of meanings depends on the recognition of universal concomitance, verbal knowledge is therefore a case of inference. Cesta (gesture), arthapatti (implication), sambhava (inclusion), and abhava (negation) are all brought under inference. Smrti (remembrance) is given an independent place. Arsajnana is the insight of seers. If remembrance is ignored, since it only reproduces what has already been experienced, and if intuitive wisdom (of seers and others) is brought under perception, then, according to the Vaisesika, there are only two sources of knowledge -- intuition (perception) and inference.
#10 Four varieties of invalid knowledge are mentioned, which are samsaya (doubt), viparyaya (misconception), anadhyavasaya (indefinite cognition), and svapna (dream). Sivaditya reduces these four to two, doubt and error, and brings under the former (i.e. doubt) conjecture, indeterminate knowledge and indirect reasoning. Sridhara justifies the separate mention of dreams on the ground that "it occurs only in a particular condition of the body."
#11 Padartha and its CategoriesThe Vaisesika presupposes the deliverance of the empirical consciousness, which deals first and last with real and separate things. The simplest and the widest spread of the characters of reality is that of things and relations between them. As soon as one looks outside, he sees before him a material world with its different things and arrangements, on which thought can exercise itself; and when he looks within he finds a non-material one with its terms and relations. Sound philosophy requires a person to confine his attention to the things of experience, the objects of knowledge, and accept only such hypotheses as are found to be indispensable for the explanation of the order of experience. In deriving towards an accurate philosophy, the results of the Vaisesika analysis are found set forth in the doctrine of the padarthas.
#12 Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. A padartha is an object which can be thought (artha) and named (pada). All things which exist, which can be cognized and named, in short, all objects of experience, and not merely the things of the physical world, are padarthas. The Vaisesikapadarthas (categories) include not only things predicable of another, but also subjects capable of having things predicated of them. The intimate relationship between name and thing is recognized in the Vaisesika. The Vaisesika originally had adopted a sixfold classification of padarthas into substance (dravya), quality (guna), activity (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa), and inherence (samavaya), to which a seventh non-existence (abhava) was added later. The inclusion of non-existence under padarthas suggests the transformation of an ontological into an epistemological scheme. A belief is positive or negative, and not a thing which exists.
#13 Seven categories of Reality are dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (generality), visesa (uniqueness), samavaya (inherence) and abhava (non existence). The term padartha means ‘the object denoted by the word and according to VA philosophy all objects denoted by the word can be broadly classified into two main classes – that which exists and that which does not exists. Six of the seven padarthas are in the first class, that which exists. In the second class, that which does not exists, there is only one padartha, abhava, which stands for all negative facts such as the nonexistence of things. The first two categories of reality – substance and quality are treated in greater detail than the remaining five.In its initial stages, the Vaisesika endeavored to determine the general characteristics which apply to existence as a whole, but soon turned its attention to the nature of beliefs and inquired what sort of beliefs were true and what not. That something is, that something exists, is the first proposition of the Vaisesika philosophy. But nothing can simply be. So one must push ahead and assert that a thing is because it possesses certain properties besides mere existence. Whatever exists does so because it has certain qualities. Substances exist and have qualities. There are two kinds of qualities, those which reside in a plurality of objects and those which are confined to individuals. The former are general qualities (samanya), while the latter are distinguished as permanent (guna) and transitory (karma). Inherence is a special kind of relation.The first three categories of substance, quality and action possess a real objective existence. They are called artha and it is possible to have an intuition of them, even such as during the yogic insight. The others, generality, particularity and inherence, at least, are products of intellectual discrimination. They are logical categories possessing timelessness and non-causal character. Though they are products of abstraction, they are regarded as more real than the things from which they are abstracted.Every substance has its unique essence (visesa), its qualities (guna), and its modes of behavior (karma). Everything real is either a substance or attribute of it. The attributes are dependent aspects of reality incapable of existing on their own account, and they imply a more ultimate form of living substance, to which they belong.
#14 3.1 SubstanceFor the Vaisesika, the category of substance is the most important against the idealistic systems. Substance denotes the feature of the self-subsistence of things. What is vaguely called being is nothing more than a series of things variously conditioned in time and space and distinguished from one another by different properties. Reality presents us with substances marked by the possession of qualities and parts. In other words, a substance is the basis of qualities, actual or potential, present or future. Similarly, the qualities of a substance are to be predicated and not qualities of qualities. Nor can it be said that one quality be predicated of a group of qualities.The Category of Substance - Nine DravyasDravyas, substance, is that in which a quality or an action can exist but which in itself is different from both quality and action. Without substance, there cannot be quality or an action because substance is the substratum of quality and action, and it is also the material cause of the composite things produced from it. A cloth for example, is formed by the combination of a number of threads of certain colors. The threads are the material or constitutive causes of the cloth because it is made of the threads that subsist in the cloth.
#15 A distinction is made between eternal and non-eternal substances. Whatever depends on something is not eternal. Compound substances are dependent and transitory. Simple substances have the characteristics of eternity, independence and ultimate individuality. They are neither caused nor destroyed. Non-eternal substances are caused and destroyed not by themselves but by something different from themselves.A distinction is made between corporeal (murta) and elemental (bhuta) substances. The formers have definite dimensions, and they act and move. Elemental substances, singly or in combination, become the material causes and products of the world. Manas, though atomic, does not produce anything else, while akasa, though all-pervading, produces sound. Earth, water, light and air are both corporeal and productive.
#16 There are nine kinds of substances, earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, direction, soul and mind. The first five of these are called physical elements because each of them possesses a specific quality that can be perceived by the external sense faculty. Each of the senses is composed of these elements, whose distinguishing qualities are registered by specific sensory receptors. For example, smell is the particular property of the earth and is apprehended by the nostrils or Taste is the particular property of water, which is perceived by the tongue. Earth, water, light, air, akasa (ether), time, space, soul and manas (mind) are the nine substances intended to comprise all corporeal and incorporeal things. The Vaisesika is not a materialism, though a realistic scheme, since it admits non-material substances like souls, and regards as real not the gross material substances but their minima. Of the nine substances, earth, water, light, air, soul and manas have many individuals. These, with the exception of soul, are extended, have relations of distance and proximity, are capable of action and possess speed. Akasa, time and space are all-pervading, have the largest dimensions and are common receptacles of all corporeal things. Soul and manas, akasa, time and space, air and ultimate atoms are not ordinarily perceptible. The Vaisesika theory of the soul is practically identical with that of the Nyaya, though a direct perception of the self where the self is both the perceiver and the perceived is not admitted. Comparison in this case does not help. Agama (revelation) and inference are helpful sources of knowledge regarding this. The existence of the self is inferred from the fact that consciousness cannot be a property of the body, sense-organs or the manas. In addition to the qualities of pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition and knowledge, evidence for the existence of the self includes the facts of expiration and inspiration, the closing and opening of the eyelids, the healing of bodily injuries, the movement of the mind and the affections of the senses. In its natural state the self is devoid of intelligence, as in pralaya (dissolution). It has cognitions of things when it is connected with the body. Consciousness is sustained by the atman, though it is not an essential or inalienable characteristic of it. By means of manas the soul knows not only external things but also its own qualities. Though the soul is all-pervading, its life of knowing, feeling and activity resides only where the body is.Plurality of souls is inferred from the differences in status and the variety of conditions. Each soul undergoes the consequences of its own deeds. It remains one throughout the series of its experiences. The freed souls are conceived as eternally existing with specific differences. Though each soul is supposed to be distinguished by a peculiarity (visesa), it is impossible for people to know what it is. The differences among souls are due to their connections with bodies. Individuality of a soul is also derived due to its connection with manas. A distinction is made between the individual soul and the supreme soul, jiva and Isvara. The two are similar but not identical.Akasa, space and time have no lower species and reflect the names of individuals. To account for the variety of experience, their single entities are assumed. All phenomena take place in them. Space and time are the instrumental causes of all produced things. Reality is a process or a passage, and exists spatially and temporally. Space leads to the sense of direction (east and west, etc.) and maintains things in their relative positions.The form of time is essential to the concrete changes of nature, such as production, destruction and persistence of things. It is the force which brings about changes in non-eternal substances. It is not the cosmic power which causes the movements, but is the condition of all movement. All perceptible things are perceived as moving, changing, coming into existence and as passing out of it. Discrete things have no power of self-origination and self-movement. If they had, there would not be that mutual relation of things, which persists in spite of all change. The movement is ordered, which means that there must be a reality which has a general relation to all changes. Time is regarded as the independent real pervading the whole universe and making the ordered movement of things possible. It is the basis of the relations of priority and posterity, simultaneity and non-simultaneity, and the notion of soon and late. There is only one time which is omnipresent in dimension, individual in character, and has the qualities of conjunction and disjunction. In Vaisesika, time is an eternal substance and the basis of all experience. It is not known what time is as itself, but various experiences are cast in the form of time. It is the formal cause of the relations of priority and posterity, while their material cause is the nature of objects, as jar, cloth, and the like. Time, which is one, appears as many on account of its association with the changes that are related to it. Conventional notions, as moment, minute, hour, year, etc., are derived by abstraction from concrete time. Note that space deals with coexistence, time with successions, or more accurately, space deals with visible objects, while time deals with things produced and destroyed. Things move by virtue of time and hold together by virtue of space.Akasa (ether) is a simple, continuous, infinite substance, and is the substratum of sound. The qualities of color, taste, smell and tangibility do not belong to it. Sound is considered as the distinguishing quality of akasa. It is inactive. All corporeal objects are found conjoined with it. The atoms, which are infinitely small, cannot make up a magnitude by coming together or touching each other. If they stand apart from one another and yet are joined somehow so as to constitute a system, it can only be through the medium of akasa. The atoms unite, but not continuously. That which binds together the atoms, though not itself atomic, is the akasa. Akasa is eternal, omnipresent, supersensible, and has the qualities of individuality, conjunction and disjunction. Akasa fills the space, though it is not space itself. Akasa is regarded as the material cause of the special quality of sound, space is the general cause of all effects.Matter, commonly occurring, is a mixture of five elements or substances (earth, water, light, air and akasa), containing one or the other in a predominant degree. The five phenomenal products (bhutas) are the five states of matter, solid (earth), liquid (water), gaseous (air), luminous (light), etheric (akasa). The earth possesses the four qualities of smell, taste, color and tangibility; water the three qualities of taste, color and tangibility; light the two of color and tangibility; and while air has the quality of tangibility, akasa has the quality of sound. The predominant quality of earth is smell even though it has other qualities as well. Similarly, the special qualities of water, light and air, respectively, are taste, luminosity and temperature. Things made of earth are of three kinds: bodies, sense-organs and objects of perception. The ultimate constituents of the concrete things of earth, air, light and water are called atoms.
#17 Paramanu– the smallest particle of earth, water, fire and air - In VA, the smallest part is called paramanu or atom. This is not to be confused with the modern scientific word atom because an atom as described in nuclear physics is itself composed in many parts. The VA usage refers to the most indivisible state of matter. The atoms of water, earth, fire and air are eternal because an atom is part less and cannot be produced or destroyed. The common elements of air, water, fire and air are noneternal because they are produced by a combination of atoms and therefore can disintegrate and change. The existence of atoms is proved by inference not by perception. All composite parts of the world can be broken into smaller parts. But when one comes to the part which cannot be broken further that minutest part in VA is called atom. Atoms can neither be produced nor destroyed they are eternal.
#18 Akasa– etherThere are types of atoms ie atoms of water, fire, air and earth each having their own peculiar qualities. Akasa, the fifth substance, is the substratum of the quality of sound, is not made up of atoms. Sound can be perceived, but akasa cannot be perceived because it lacks two conditions for the perception of an object i.e. perceptible dimension and manifest color. Therefore, Akasa cannot be perceived but can be inferred from the perception of the quality of the sound that it contains. Akasa is the one and eternal because it is not made up of parts and does not depend on any other substance for its existence. It is all pervading in the sense that it has an unlimited dimension and that its quality (sound) is perceived everywhere.
#19 Direction and Timeare also imperceptible substances and they are likewise single, eternal, and all pervading. Direction is inferred on the basis of such concepts such as here, there and so on. Time is inferred from the concepts now, today, tomorrow and so forth. Although all pervading space, direction and time are spoken of as many due to certain limiting conditions known as Upadhis. E.g. when the indivisible space is limited by a jar, that space is known as the space of the jar. In the same way time is referred to as one hour, two hours and direction as east, west, north etc.
#20 SoulAtman is also considered to be eternal and all pervading. According to VA philosophy there are two kinds of souls, individual and supreme. The former is known as jivatman and the latter as Iswara. The Supreme Soul is inferred to be the creator of the world in the same manner as has been explained in Nyaya. Conversely the individual soul is perceived to possess mental qualities like I am happy.
#21 MindThe mind is considered to be the ninth kind of substance. It is the eternal sense faculty of the individual soul. Like the soul, the mind is indivisible. Its existence is not perceived from inferred from the following propositions. First, like an external sense facility is required to perceive the outer world, an internal sense facility is required to perceive the inner objects like soul, pleasure and pain. Second it is apparent that the five external senses may all be in contact with their respective objects simultaneously but not all perceptions are received at the same time. Attention is focused on one object, which means that there is a coordination of the mind with the senses. We must thus admit the existence of the mind as an internal sense facility
#22 3.2 QualityWhile substance is capable of existing independently by itself, quality or guna cannot so exist. It abides in substance and has itself no qualities. The Vaisesika recognizes the following twenty-four qualities (including both mental and material properties): color (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparsa), number (samkhya), size (parimana), individuality (prthaktva), conjunction (samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), priority (paratva), posterity (aparatva), knowledge (buddhi), pleasure (sukha), pain (dukha), desire (iccha), aversion (dvesa), effort (prayatna), heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscidity (sneha), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), sound (sabda), and faculty (samskara). The last seven (heaviness through faculty) belong mainly to atomic substances.The qualities that belong to eternal substances are called eternal, and those of transient ones non-eternal. Those that subsist in two or more substances are said to be general, while those residing only in one substance are said to be specific. Thus color, taste, smell, touch, viscidity, natural fluidity, knowledge, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, effort, merit, demerit, faculty and sound are special qualities which help to distinguish objects possessing them from others. Qualities like number, dimension, individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posterity, heaviness, caused fluidity, and velocity are general qualities belonging to substances in general, and are notional in their character. They are not as objective as other qualities. Number, for example, is regarded as subjective. The same object may be viewed as either one or many. Number, dimension, individuality, conjunction and disjunction belong to all substances. While time and space possess no other qualities, akasa has sound also. Manas has seven qualities of the atomic substances along with velocity. God has knowledge, desire and effort in addition to five general qualities. Pleasure, pain, desire, hatred and effort, as well as knowledge, are qualities of soul. Dharma and adharma are also qualities of the soul by virtue of which it enjoys happiness or suffers misery. Adrsta is the unseen power produced by souls and things, which brings about the cosmic order and enables the selves to reap the harvest of their past experiences. Sometimes adrsta is viewed as the vehicle through which God's will operates in creation etc. Faculty (Samskara) is of three kinds: velocity (vega), which keeps a thing in motion; mental impressibility (bhavana), by which the soul is able to remember and recognize things already experienced; and elasticity (sthti-sthapaka), by virtue of which a thing reverts to its original state even when it is disturbed. Velocity is produced in the corporeal substances by action or motion, and is counteracted by the conjunction of tangible solid substances. Elasticity subsists in substances which contract and expand2. The Category of Quality - Twenty-four GunasGuna, quality the second of the seven categories of reality cannot exist by itself but exists only in a substance. It cannot, thus, be the constituent or material cause of anything’s existence. It differs from substance and action in the sense that it is an unmoving property. The 24 gunas are rupa - color, rasa – taste, gandha – smell, sparasa – touch, sabda – sound, samkhya – number, parimana – magnitude, prthaktva – distinctiveness, samyoga – conjunction or nearness, buddhi – cognition, saukha – pleasure, dukha – pain, iccha – desire, dvesa – aversion, prayatna – effort, gurutva – heaviness, dravatva – fluidity, sneha – viscidity, samskara – tendency, dharma – merit or virtue, and adharma – demerit or nonvirtue. A brief description follows – According to VA there are six colors – white, black, red, blue, yellow and green and there are also six tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, pungent, astringent and salty. Smell is divided into 2 categories – good and bad and touch is divided into three – hot, cold and neither hot or cold. There are two kinds of sound, dhvani (unarticulated) and varna (articulated). Number is that quality by which virtue of a thing can be counted. Magnitude is the quality by which things are distinguished as big or small. Distinctness is the quality by which one knows that one thing is different from another. Conjunction is the quality by which one knows the existence of one or more things at one place or in one time. Disjunction is that quality by which a substance is perceived as being either remote or near in time or space. Buddhi means knowledge and should not be confused with buddhi of Samskhya philosophy explained as intellect. Pleasure is a favorable experience of mind and pain is the opposite. Effort is the quality by virtue of which a substance is capable of changing its position. There are three kinds of effort – striving towards something – against something and vital functioning. Heaviness is that quality by virtue of which a substance is capable of falling, while fluidity is the quality by virtue of which it flows. Viscidity is the quality – belonging exclusively to the element of water. Samskaras are innate tendencies; they can be of anything, not just the mind. There are three kinds of samskaras in a substance, activity – which keeps a thing in motion, elasticity – which makes a thing tend towards equilibrium when it is disturbed and mental impressions which enables one to remember and recognize a thing. Dharma and Adharma means that which is accordance with the conscience and its opposite. The remaining five categories are –
#23 3.3 Karma or ActivityKarma, or movement, is regarded as an irreducible element of the universe. It is neither substance nor quality, but an independent category itself. All movements belong to the substances as much as their qualities. Unlike a quality of substance, its activity is a transitory one. Thus the heaviness of the body is a quality, while its falling is an accident. Qualities which continue to exist are called guna, while those that cease to exist are called karma. Karma in all its forms is transient, and comes to an end either by a subsequent conjunction or destruction of its basic substance. Akasa, time, space, soul -- though substances -- are devoid of action, since they are incorporeal.
#24 The Category of Generality – SamanyaGenerality relates to abstract characteristics that is singular and eternal and yet pervades many. Like leadership is a single characteristic, but it resides in many individuals. Leadership is also eternal because it was already in existence before the first leader emerged and will continue to exists even if there are no more leaders. Samanya is the essence of the common characteristics that unites different entities into one class. The idea of samanya is motivated by the desire to distinguish the unchanging from the changing. A property residing in many things is called samanya (or general). If the property is regarded as distinguishing those things from others, it is called visesa (or particular). Generality is regarded as the eternal, one, and residing in many things belonging to the group of substance, quality or action. Kanada suggests that generality and particularity are relative to thought, intellectual devices by which the variety of phenomena are classified. Thus jarness is samanya (or generality) when it is regarded as residing in many objects, and visesa (or particularity) when used to distinguish jars from other things. Similarly, conjunction and duality are intimately related to many things, but are not eternal, and therefore cannot be regarded as samanya. Akasa, though eternal, is not related to many things. Likewise particularity is not samanya, since then it would lose its nature and become confused with the latter.
#25 There are two kinds of generality, higher and lower. Note that although satta or being (existence) is a different object from substance, quality and action, it possesses the highest generality. It covers the largest number of things. It includes all and is not included in anything. It is not a species of any higher genus. While being is the only true universal, the true particulars are the individuals themselves and between the two there are universal-particulars. This extension determines the grade of generality. The universal is eternal and one, while the individuals come and go. Men are born and die, but man remains. Universals, individuals and relations do not exist in the sense in which substances, qualities and actions do. The distinction between the universal and the particular is real, since the relation is said to be one of intimate union (samavaya).
#26 5. Visesa or ParticularityBy means of visesa (or particularity) one is able to perceive things as different from one another. Everything in the world regardless of whether it is existent or nonexistent is accompanied by uniqueness. Generality and uniqueness are opposite concepts.Itis the basis of exclusion. Whatever is individual is unique and single. Kanada makes particularity as much dependent on thought as generality. Prasastapada makes it an independent reality residing in eternal substances distinguishing them from one another. Empirical objects are distinguished by means of the parts of which they are composed. And if is seen, in reality or during analysis, that a group of simple substances have no parts to help in their distinguishing from one another, then it must be assumed that each simple substance has a quality, which makes it distinct from all others. Atoms, time, space, akasa, souls and manas all have their particularities, which are not qualities of classes but only of individuals. These distinctive particularities are the final facts beyond which there is no more information available. Note also that if the things are fundamentally different, then it is impossible to find a common character in them.
#27 6. Samavaya or InherenceKanadameans by inherence the relation between cause and effect. Prasastapada defines it as the relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea, "This is in that." Thus virtue and pleasure are not related by inherence, though they reside in the self, since they have no relation like that between the container and the contained. Similarly, the relation between the word and the thing signified is not one of inherence, since one is not contained in the other. The fruit may be on the ground, but as the two are not inseparable, they cannot be said to be related by way of inherence. Generally the relation which binds a substance and its qualities, a whole and its parts, motion and the object in motion, individual and universe, cause and effect, is that of samavaya (inherence). The members related are so unified as to represent one whole or one identical real.
#28 There are two kinds of relationships between things: nearness – samyoga and inherence – samavaya. Nearness is one of the 24 gunas of VA but inherence is one of the seven categories of reality described in this system. Nearness is temporary, allows two more things to exist together without being affected by each other. This nearness is an external relationship existing as an accidental quality of the substances related to it. Inherence, on the other hand, is a permanent relation between two entities, one of whom inheres in the other. Here one of the entities depends for its existence on the other. Further terms within an inherent relationship cannot be reversed as those that are related by nearness. Inherence is said to be eternal. Samavaya, or necessary connection, is distinguished from samyoga, or accidental conjunction, which is quality of things. While objects conjoined have a separate existence prior to conjunction, the members related to samavaya are inseparably connected. The relationship of samavaya is not caused by the action of one of the members related. Conjunction terminates as soon as there is a disjunction of the members conjoined, while the connection is indestructible. Again, the conjunction takes place between two independent substances, while the members related by way of inherence stand in the relation of the container and the contained. Two things in relation of samavaya cannot be separated without at least one of them being destroyed. Samavaya is thus eternal in the sense that it cannot be produced or destroyed without producing or destroying the product. Its eternity is thus relative. The relation of samavaya is not perceptible, but only inferential from the inseparable connection of things.
#29 7. Abhava-Abhava is different from the first six categories in the sense that it is negative. Nonexistence is not found in any of the six positive categories, and yet according to VA philosophy nonexistence exists, just as, for instance, space and direction do. E.g., how does not one know that there is no chair in the room? Answer by looking at the room. Thus nonexistence also exists as such.The concept of negation (abhava) is necessary for the dialectical representation of the universe (Rig Veda: 10/72/2-3; 10/129/1). To give a coherent account of experience, the abhava is helpful. Thus, when the jar is on the ground, its existence is perceived, and its non-existence is perceived when it is removed from the ground. Note that the non-existence was there all the time, though it was hidden when the jar was on the ground. Thus the absolute non-existence of everything is at all times present everywhere, though it is hidden for the time and in the place the thing happens to be.
#30 There are three types of nonexistence: the absence of something in something else and mutual nonexistence. The former is of three kinds: antecedent nonexistence, the nonexistence of a thing after its destruction and absolute nonexistence. Kind one refers to the nonexistence of a thing prior to its creation for e.g. in the sentence ‘A book will be written using this paper’ the book is nonexistent in the paper. But when a book is written its previous nonexistence comes to an end. Kind two assumes that there is something in existence, which shall cease to exist after its destruction for e.g. when a jar is broken into pieces, and then there is nonexistence of that jar. Kind three is the type of nonexistence that does not belong to time and space is called absolute nonexistence.
#33 The Concept of the Creation and Annihilation of the WorldVA holds on to the atomic theory of existence, according to which the entire universe is composed of eternal atoms. But at the same time, VA does not ignore the moral and spiritual laws that govern the process of union and separation of atoms. In this way the atomic theory of VA is different from the atomic theory of modern science. Modern science’s theory proposes a materialistic philosophy; it explains the law of universe as mechanical, as being the result of the motions of atoms in infinite time, space and direction. According to this view, mechanical laws govern the operation but according to VA the functioning of atoms is guided by the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being. This will of the Supreme Being directs the operation of atoms according to the past Samskaras of individual beings. VA states that the universe has two aspects, one eternal and one noneternal. The eternal constituents of the universe are four kinds of atoms – earth, water, fire, and air and the five substances – space, time, direction, mind and self. These are not subject to change and cannot be created or destroyed. Another part of the universe is non-eternal, that is, subject to creation and destruction in a particular time and space. In the beginning of creation two atoms are united into a dyad, which is noneternal because it can be divided again into two. The dyads and atoms cannot be perceived but are known through inference. The combination of three dyads is called a triad that is the smallest perceptible object. It is from these triads that other larger compounds develop. Thus the common elements comprised of two eternal atoms are noneternal because they can be broken down into smaller units. Thus, according to VA philosophy, the word is a moral stage on which the life and destiny of all beings is governed, not only by the physical laws of time and space but also by the moral law of karma. In the performance of present karma, an individual is free and is thus the creator of his own destiny, but the starting and ending point of the universe depends on the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being.The universal law (adrsta) of the process of creation and annihilation influences the individual selves to function or to be active in the direction of the creative will. Directed by this unknown force of adrsta, the soul makes contact with an atom of air, thus the primeval motion comes into being. That primeval activity in air atoms creates dyads, triads and all the rest of the gross physical manifestations of air elements (mahabhutas). In a similar manner, there arises motion in the atoms of fire, water and earth, which then compose the gross elements of fire, water and earth. In this way the vast physical world comes into existence. The Supreme Lord is endowed with perfect wisdom, detachment and excellence. He releases the adrsta related to individual human beings, which guides the individuals in their flow through the currents of life. At the end of life, the process of dissolution and annihilation also depends on the will of God. He inspires the adrsta corresponding to the individuals or the universe, and then a destructive motion in the atoms of the body and senses or in the cosmos starts vibrating. On account of this destructive motion, then arises the process of disjunction and disintegration of the body and senses or of the universe. Compound things break down into simpler and simpler components, finally devolving into the state of triads and dyads and ultimately into atoms. In this manner the physical elements of earth, water, fire and air and the related sense organs are disintegrated. After the dissolution of the manifest universe, there remain the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air as well as the eternal substances of space, time, direction, mind and soul with their attendant meritous and nonmeritioussamskaras. Thus, according to the VA system of philosophy, there is no creation or annihilation but rather than orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of Adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of the Supreme Being, which back to the self with interest. The VA concepts of God, liberation of soul, and of the path to liberation are all basically the same as the Nyaya concepts that have been discussed in the earlier chapter.
#34 VA states that the universe has two aspects, one eternal and one noneternal. The eternal constituents of the universe are four kinds of atoms – earth, water, fire, and air and the five substances – space, time, direction, mind and self. These are not subject to change and cannot be created or destroyed. Another part of the universe is non-eternal, that is, subject to creation and destruction in a particular time and space. In the beginning of creation two atoms are united into a dyad, which is noneternal because it can be divided again into two. The dyads and atoms cannot be perceived but are known through inference. The combination of three dyads is called a triad that is the smallest perceptible object. It is from these triads that other larger compounds develop. Thus the common elements comprised of two eternal atoms are noneternal because they can be broken down into smaller units. Thus, according to VA philosophy, the word is a moral stage on which the life and destiny of all beings is governed, not only by the physical laws of time and space but also by the moral law of karma. In the performance of present karma, an individual is free and is thus the creator of his own destiny, but the starting and ending point of the universe depends on the creative or destructive will of the Supreme Being.The universal law (adrsta) of the process of creation and annihilation influences the individual selves to function or to be active in the direction of the creative will. Directed by this unknown force of adrsta, the soul makes contact with an atom of air, thus the primeval motion comes into being. That primeval activity in air atoms creates dyads, triads and all the rest of the gross physical manifestations of air elements (mahabhutas). In a similar manner, there arises motion in the atoms of fire, water and earth, which then compose the gross elements of fire, water and earth. In this way the vast physical world comes into existence. The Supreme Lord is endowed with perfect wisdom, detachment and excellence. He releases the adrsta related to individual human beings, which guides the individuals in their flow through the currents of life. At the end of life, the process of dissolution and annihilation also depends on the will of God. He inspires the adrsta corresponding to the individuals or the universe, and then a destructive motion in the atoms of the body and senses or in the cosmos starts vibrating. On account of this destructive motion, then arises the process of disjunction and disintegration of the body and senses or of the universe. Compound things break down into simpler and simpler components, finally devolving into the state of triads and dyads and ultimately into atoms. In this manner the physical elements of earth, water, fire and air and the related sense organs are disintegrated. After the dissolution of the manifest universe, there remain the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air as well as the eternal substances of space, time, direction, mind and soul with their attendant meritous and nonmeritioussamskaras. Thus, according to the VA system of philosophy, there is no creation or annihilation but rather than orderly and morally systematized composition and decomposition of compounds. An individual self or soul is involved in the universe because of Adrsta. The karma of each soul is its own earnings, deposited in the safe of the Supreme Being, which back to the self with interest. The VA concepts of God, liberation of soul, and of the path to liberation are all basically the same as the Nyaya concepts that have been discussed in the earlier chapter.
#35 6. GodIn the Vaisesika God (Isvara) is the efficient cause of the world, while the atoms are the material cause. The Vaisesika believes in the eternal and uncreated nature of souls and atoms, and accounts for their varying states by the principle of adrsta (under God's will). Vedas are authored by intelligent beings, under the guidance of an eternal omniscient, all-holy spirit. There is only one God and his intelligence, desire and effort are eternal. God is distinguished from souls by his omniscience and omnipotence, which qualify him for governing the universe. He is never entangled in the cycle of existence. He sets the world under certain laws, lets it go, and does not interfere with its course.http://seva.sulekha.com/blog/post/2008/03/vaisesika-or-the-philosophy-of-atomistic-pluralism.htm
#36 5. EthicsThe Vaisesika makes a distinction between voluntary and involuntary activities, and holds that moral distinctions apply only to the former. Acts due to organic life are involuntary, while those which spring from desire and aversion are voluntary. The former have organic ends in view, while the latter aim at realization of human values. Dharma, according to the Vaisesika, treats of the attainment of worldly prosperity as well as spiritual good. While the former is the product of ceremonial piety, the latter is the result of spiritual insight. The highest kind of pleasure is the pleasure of the wise, which is independent of all such agencies as the remembrance of the object, desire, reflection, and is due to their knowledge, peacefulness of mind, contentment, and the peculiar character of their virtue.
#37 Thirteen universal duties according to the Vaisesika include: faith (sraddha), non-violence (ahimsa), kindly feeling for all beings (bhutahitatva), truthfulness (satyavacana), integrity (asteya), sexual purity (brahmacarya), purity of mind (anupadha-bhavasuddhi), renunciation of anger (krodhavarjana), personal cleanliness through bathing (abhisecana), the use of purifying substances (sucidravyasevana), devotion to the deity (visistadevatabhakti), fasting (upavasa), and non-neglect of duties (apramada).
#38 It is also admitted that sannyasin (hermit or swami) is not one who gives up the world to itself, but one who takes the vow of universal benevolence. The observance of above duties results in virtue (dharma) when they are done, without a desire for gaining thereby any visible results (as wealth, etc.), and with the utmost purity of motive. Spiritual growth requires suppression of self. It is said: "to the unrestrained (ayatsya), exaltation (or abhyudaya) does not accrue from eating what is pure, since there is no self-restraint." Yoga as a means of self-control is allowed. It is not mechanical conformity to the rules but inner goodness that counts.
#39 Dharma is not only the content of morality to the Vaisesika, but also the power or quality which resides in the human being and not in the action performed. A selfless insight into the truth of things can secure the final release (moksa). So long as a person is dominated by desire and aversion, he stores up dharma and adharma or adrsta, and the results of his deeds force on him an embodied existence. The body is the seat of enjoyment (bhogayatanam). Union with adrsta and its effect of body is samsara; separation from it is moksa. According to the Vaisesika, the soul in the state of liberation is absolutely free from all connection with qualities, and subsists like the sky free from all conditions and attributes, while according to the Nyaya, the state of freedom is one of bliss and wisdom.
#41 Activity motivated by the feeling of separate self-existence is based on ignorance of the truth of things. When it is realized that the objects which look so attractive and repulsive are only temporary compounds of atoms, they cease to be significant and having power over the person. Similarly, when he realizes the true nature of the atman, which is distinct from this or that form of its existence, he shall know that all souls are alike. When the true knowledge dispels the motive of self-interest, self-activities cease, no potential worth is produced, and there will be no more birth. The bliss of deliverance is regarded as the result of divine grace, and the rules of dharma as the expression of the will of God.All the time the soul is in samsara, it is incarnate in some body or other, which is subtle in pralaya (dissolution) and gross in creation, and there is never a state when the atman is devoid of adrsta, since there is no beginning for the series of incarnations. The time, place, and circumstances of birth, etc., are determined by the adrsta. Each soul is allowed the chance to reap the harvest of its past deeds. Note, like other Hindu systems, the Vaisesika admits that it is possible for a person to rise to a superior order of existence through good effort or fall into a subhuman one through neglect.

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