A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize foreign agents, destroy it, and keep a record of it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
Contents
IntroductionWhat are vaccine?
History of vaccineIdeal properties of vaccine.
Mechanism of vaccine
Types of vaccineUptake of antigen
Single shot vaccine
Mucosal delivery vaccine
Transdermal delivery vaccineReferences
Contents
IntroductionWhat are vaccine?
History of vaccineIdeal properties of vaccine.
Mechanism of vaccine
Types of vaccineUptake of antigen
Single shot vaccine
Mucosal delivery vaccine
Transdermal delivery vaccineReferences
Vaccine- Biological preparation containing weakened or killed form of microbes that provides immunity against a particular disease.
Stimulates the body’s immune system which perceives the microbes as a threat and destroys them.
WHO report shows there are vaccines for 25 different infections.
Vaccination is responsible for the worldwide eradication of small pox and restriction of diseases as polio, measles and tetanus.
Barriers to Protein and peptide drug delivery system JaskiranKaur72
Protein and peptide DDS are novel systems of drug delivery.
The successful delivery of peptide and protein-based pharmaceuticals is primarily determined by its ability to cross the various barriers presented to it in the biological milieu. Various barriers encountered are-
1 Physiological Barrier
2 Intestinal Epithelial barriers
3 Capillary Endothelial Barrier
4 Blood-Brain barrier (BBB)
Description about a type of activation modulated drug delivery system, which a type of control drug delivery system.
Also, give a detailed description about each subclassification.
CrDDS is one which delivers the drug at a predetermined rate, for locally or systematically, for a prolong period of time.
A vaccine is an antigenic material that stimulates adaptive immunity to a disease.
Vaccines are generally considered to be the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.
The material administered can either be live but weakened forms of either bacteria or viruses, killed or inactivated forms of these pathogens, or purified material such as proteins.
Vaccine- Biological preparation containing weakened or killed form of microbes that provides immunity against a particular disease.
Stimulates the body’s immune system which perceives the microbes as a threat and destroys them.
WHO report shows there are vaccines for 25 different infections.
Vaccination is responsible for the worldwide eradication of small pox and restriction of diseases as polio, measles and tetanus.
Barriers to Protein and peptide drug delivery system JaskiranKaur72
Protein and peptide DDS are novel systems of drug delivery.
The successful delivery of peptide and protein-based pharmaceuticals is primarily determined by its ability to cross the various barriers presented to it in the biological milieu. Various barriers encountered are-
1 Physiological Barrier
2 Intestinal Epithelial barriers
3 Capillary Endothelial Barrier
4 Blood-Brain barrier (BBB)
Description about a type of activation modulated drug delivery system, which a type of control drug delivery system.
Also, give a detailed description about each subclassification.
CrDDS is one which delivers the drug at a predetermined rate, for locally or systematically, for a prolong period of time.
A vaccine is an antigenic material that stimulates adaptive immunity to a disease.
Vaccines are generally considered to be the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.
The material administered can either be live but weakened forms of either bacteria or viruses, killed or inactivated forms of these pathogens, or purified material such as proteins.
A vaccine is a biological agent that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine usually contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism. It is often made from killed or weakened forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its surface proteins. Body's immune system is stimulated to recognize the agent as a threat and destroy it, and any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.
A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that transfects a specific antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response.
DNA vaccines work by injecting genetically engineered plasmid containing the DNA sequence encoding the antigen(s) against which an immune response is sought, so the cells directly produce the antigen, thus causing a protective immunological response.
1. Contents: Introduction
History of vaccine
Mechanism of vaccine
Types of vaccines
Uptake of antigens
Single shot vaccines
Mucosal vaccine delivery system
Transdermal vaccine delivery system
Conclusion
References
2. Drug delivery systems describe technologies that carry drugs into or throughout the body. These technologies include the method of delivery, such as a pill that you swallow, syrups or a vaccine that is injected.
3. Vaccines are biological preparation which provide active acquired immunity against particular diseases.
Vaccine word is derived from Latin word “Variolae vaccinea” (cowpox).
It is made of disease causing microbes, which are killed or present in attenuated form or it’s toxins or one of it’s surface proteins.
It stimulates the body immune system against the microbe and destroy it.
The administration of vaccine is called vaccination.
4.Edward Jenner developed 1st vaccine against small pox at 1798 from cowpox.
Louis pasture developed live attenuated cholera vaccine and inactivated anthrax vaccine in 1897 and 1904 respectively.
In 1923, Alexander Glenny introduce a method to inactivate tetanus toxins, this method was used to developed diphtheria vaccine in 1926.
Viral tissue culture method was developed in 1950-1985, which helped in development of inactivated and live attenuated polio vaccines.
5. important terminilogies:-Antibody: A protein found in the blood that is produced in response to foreign substances (e.g. bacteria or viruses) invading the body. Antibodies protect the body from disease by binding to these organisms and destroying them.
Antigens: Foreign substances (e.g. bacteria or viruses) in the body that are capable of causing disease. The presence of antigens in the body triggers an immune response.
Antitoxin: A solution of antibodies against a toxin. Antitoxin can be derived from either human (e.g., tetanus immune globulin) or animal (usually equine) sources (e.g., diphtheria and botulism antitoxin). Antitoxins are used to confer passive immunity and for treatment.
6.Active immunity: The production of antibodies against a specific disease by the immune system. Active immunity can be acquired in two ways, either by contracting the disease or through vaccination. Active immunity is usually permanent, meaning an individual is protected from the disease for the duration of their lives.
Passive immunity: Protection against disease through antibodies produced by another human being or animal. Passive immunity is effective, but protection is generally limited and diminishes over time (usually a few weeks or months).
7.Live attenuated Vaccines
Live attenuated vaccines contain whole bacteria or viruses which have been “weakened”(attenuated) so that they create a protective immune response but do not cause disease in healthy people.
For most modern vaccines this “weakening” is achieved through genetic modification of the pathogens.
E.g. BCG vaccine, MMR vaccine, chickenpox vaccine.
The brain is a delicate organ with many vital functions and many formidable mechanisms, isolate and protect it from the outside world. Unfortunately, the same mechanisms that prevent environmental chemicals accessing the brain also prevent the access of therapeutic chemicals. The brain is segregated from the circulating blood by a unique membranous barrier i.e the blood brain barrier.
DRUG INTERACTIONS (MECHANISMS OF DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS)N Anusha
A Drug interaction is an interaction between a drug and some other substance, such as another drug or a certain type of food, which leads to interaction that could manifest as an increase or decrease in the effectiveness or an adverse reaction or a totally new side effect that is not seen with either drug alone that can be severe enough to alter the clinical outcome.
Every time a drug is administered with any other prescription medicine, OTC products, herbs or even food we expose ourselves to the risk of a potentially dangerous interaction.
FORMULATION FACTORS EFFECTING BIOAVAILABILITY OF DRUGSN Anusha
Bioavailability means the rate and extent to which the active ingredient is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action.
When the drug is given orally, only part of the administered dose appears in the plasma.
By plotting plasma concentrations of the drug versus time, one can measure the area under the curve (AUC).
This curve reflects the extent of absorption of the drug.
EFFECT OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL NATURE OF DRUG ON DISSOLUTIONN Anusha
pH - PARTITION THEORY, LIPID SOLUBILITY OF DRUGS, DRUG DISSOLUTION AND PH, SALTS, CRYSTAL FORM, DRUG STABILITY AND HYDROLYSIS IN GIT, COMPLEXATION, ADSORPTION
PHYSIOLOGIC FACTORS RELATED TO DRUG ABSORPTIONN Anusha
ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION
The route of administration (ROA) that is chosen has a large impact on how fast the drug is taken up and how much of it arrives at its destination in an active form.
MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY
The cell membrane also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment.
GSTERO-INTESTINAL PHYSIOLOGY
AGE
TRANSDERMAL THERAPEUTIC DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS N Anusha
Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) can be defined as self-contained discrete dosage forms which, when applied to the intact skin, delivers the drug(s) through the skin at a controlled rate to the systemic circulation.
For transdermal drug delivery, it is considered ideal if the drug penetrates through the skin to the underlying blood supply without drug buildup in the dermal layers.
They provide extended therapy with a single application, thereby improving patient compliance over other dosage forms requiring more frequent dose administration.
An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses.
Monoclonal antibodies are important reagents used in biomedical research, in diagnosis of diseases, and in treatment of such diseases as infections and cancer.
These antibodies are produced by cell lines or clones obtained from animals that have been immunized with the substance that is the subject of study.
United State Pharmacopoeia (USP)The establishment of a rational relationship between a biological property, or a parameter derived from a biological property produced by a dosage form, and a physicochemical property or characteristic of the same dosage form.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) definitionIVIVC is a predictive mathematical model describing the relationship between an in vitro property of a dosage form and a relevant in vivo response. Generally, the in vitro property is the rate or extent of drug dissolution or release while the in vivo response is the plasma drug concentration or amount of drug absorbed.
IMPURITY PROFILING (SOURCES OF IMPURITIES)N Anusha
The description, characterization and quantitation of identified and unidentified impurities present in the drug substances is known as impurity profile.
IMPURITIES in pharmaceuticals are unwanted chemicals, that even in small amounts may influence the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical products.
2 Aspects of compatibility tests are:
Identification of compatible excipients for a formulation.
Identification of stable storage conditions
2 Types:
Solid state reactions: much slower and difficult to interpret.
Liquid state reactions: easier to detect
According to Stability Guidelines by FDA following conditions should be evaluated for solutions or suspensions
1. Acidic or alkaline pH.
2. Presence of added substances
3. High oxygen and nitrogen atmospheres.
4. Effect of stress testing conditions.
CHRONOPHARMACOKINETICS AND TIME DEPENDENT PHARMACOKINETICSN Anusha
Chronopharmacokinetic studies have been demonstrating that time of administration is a possible factor of variation in the kinetics of the drug.
It entails the study of temporal changes in drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination.
It investigates the variation in drug plasma levels as a function of time of day and the mechanisms responsible for time dependant variations.
The term circadian coined by Franz Halberg, comes from Latin.
“Circa” means around &“diem” means day.
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways that is characterized by increased responsiveness of the tracheobranchial tree to a variety of stimuli resulting in widespread spasmodic narrowing of the air passages which may be relieved spontaneously or by therapy.
Cough is a protective reflex, its purpose being expulsion of respiratory secretions or foreign particles from air passages.
It occurs due to stimulation of mechano or chemoreceptors in throat,
respiratory passages or stretch receptors in the lungs.
Act peripherally in the respiratory tract to reduce tussal impulses.
They aim to control rather than eliminate cough.
Many H-1 anti histamines have been conventionally added to antitussive /expectorant formulations.
Antihistamines afford relief in cough due to their sedative and Anticholinergic actions but lack selectivity for cough centre.
Analeptics stimulate respiration and can have resuscitative value in
Coma or fainting.
They stimulate respiration in sub convulsive doses,
but margin of safety is narrow.
BIOPHARMACEUTIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DRUG PRODUCT DESIGNN Anusha
BIOPHARMACEUTICS studies the in vitro impact of physicochemical properties of drugs and drug products on delivery to body under normal or pathologic conditions.
Biopharmaceutics links the physical and chemical properties of drug and drug product to their performance, in vivo.
The aim of biopharmaceutics is to adjust the delivery of drug from drug products in such a manner as to provide: optimal therapeutic activity and safety for the patient.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
Follow us on: Pinterest
Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
2. CONTENTS
1. Vaccines introduction.
2. Cells of immune system.
3. Immunization.
4. Types of vaccines.
5. Evidence and mechanismof uptake and transport of antigens.
6. Deliverysystems used to promote uptake.
• Absorptionenhancers,
• Lipid carriers,
• Oral Immunization( oral polio vaccine),
• Controlled release microparticlesfor Vaccinedevelopment,
• Single dose Vaccine deliverysystemsusing Biodegradablepolymers.
3. Knowledgeof peptide based and nucleic acidbased vaccines.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
3. VACCINE
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves
immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically
contains an agent that resembles a disease causing
microorganism and is often made from weakened or
killed forms of the microbe, its toxins or one of its
surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's
immune system to recognize foreign agents, destroy it,
and keep a record of it, so that the immune system can
more easily recognize and destroy any of these
microorganisms that it later encounters.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
4. • The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived
from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term
devised by Edward Jennner to denote cowpox.
• Vaccines can be prophylactic (example: to prevent or
ameliorate the effects of a future infection by any natural or
"wild" pathogen),or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against
cancer are also being investigated; see cancer vaccine).
EFFECTIVENES
Vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a
disease. This is because the host's immune system simply
does not respond adequately. This may be due to a lowered
immunity in general or because the host's immune system
does not have a B cell capable of generating antibodies to
that antigen.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
7. LYMPHOCYTES
Small white blood cells
which are responsible
for much of the work
of the immune system.
Lymphocytes can be
divided I n to 3 classes
• B-cells
• T-cells
• Natural killer cells
(NKC)
Mcell
L
L
L
L
L
L
M. cell
Plasma
cell
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
8. B & T CELLS
• T cells play a central role in cell- mediated immunity
while, B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role
in humoral immune response.
• B cell is an essential component of the adaptive
immune system
• B cells spend their entire life in the bone marrow
while the T-cells leave the bone marrow at an early
age and travel to the thymus, where they mature.
• The principal function of B cells is to make
antibodies against antigens, perform the role of
antigen presenting cells (APC) and eventually
develop in to memory B cells after activation by
antigen interaction. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
9. • On the other hand, T-cells constitute 60 - 75% of
blood lymphocytes.
• They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes
by the presence of a T cell receptor (TCR) on the cell
surface.
• Another key feature of B cells and T cells, includes
the receptors it has in its surface.
• T cells recognize a linear sequence of amino acids
where as, B cells the spatial arrangement of proteins,
nucleic acids, polysaccharides or lipids.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
11. HELPER T CELLS
They assist other white blood cells in immunologic
processes, including maturation of B cells in to plasma cells
and memory B cells, and activation of cytotoxic T cells and
macrophages.
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
They destroy virally infected cells and tumor cells and are
also implicated in transplant rejection.
REGULATORY T CELLS
They are formally known as suppressor T cell and are
crucial for the maintenance of immunological tolerance.
MEMORY T CELLS
These are a subset of antigen specific T cells that resist
long term after an infection has resolved. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
12. NATURAL KILLER CELLS
• They comprise about 10-50% of the lymphocytes of
circulating blood.
• The role of NK cells is analogous to that of cytotoxic
T cells in the vertebrate adaptive immune system.
ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELL
• Cells which do not have antigen specific receptors.
Instead they capture and progress antigens, present
them to T-cell receptors.
• These cells include Macrophages, B-cells and
Dendritic cells.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
14. • Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which
an individual's immune system becomes fortified against
an agent (known as the immunogen).
• When this system is exposed to molecules that are
foreign to the body, called non-self, it will orchestrate an
immune response, and it will also develop the ability to
quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because
of immunological memory. This is a function of
the adaptive immune system.
• Therefore, by exposing an animal to an immunogen in a
controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself this is
called active immunization.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
15. • Active immunization/vaccination has been named one of
the “Ten Great Public Health Achievements” in the 20th
Century.
• Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or
parts of it, are injected into the person before they are
able to take it in naturally. If whole microbes are used,
they are pre-treated.
• Their effectiveness depends on ability to replicate and
elicits a response similar to natural infection. It is
usually effective with a single dose. Example : Polio
vaccine.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
17. • Passive immunization is when these elements are introduced
directly into the body, instead of when the body itself has to
make these elements.
• Currently, antibodies can be used for passive immunization.
This method of immunization begins to work very quickly,
but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally
broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more
antibodies, they will disappear.
• Passive immunization occurs physiologically, when
antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus
during pregnancy, to protect the fetus before and shortly
after birth.
• Artificial passive immunization is normally administered
by injection and is used if there has been a recent outbreak
of a particular disease or as an emergency treatment for
toxicity, as in for tetanus. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
18. • Immunization is done through various techniques, most
commonly vaccination.
• Vaccines against microorganisms that cause diseases can
prepare the body's immune system, thus helping to fight
or prevent an infection.
• Example in experimental vaccines against nicotine
(NicVAX) or the hormone ghrelin in experiments to
create an obesity vaccine.
• Before the introduction of vaccines, the only way people
became immune to an infectious disease was by actually
getting the disease and surviving it. Smallpox (variola)
was prevented in this way by inoculation, which
produced a milder effect than the natural disease.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
20. KILLED
Some vaccines contain killed, but previously virulent, micro-
organisms that have been destroyed with chemicals, heat,
radioactivity, or antibiotics. Examples
are influenza, cholera, bubonic plague, polio, hepatitis A,
and rabies.
ATTENUATED
Some vaccines contain live, attenuated microorganisms.
Many of these are active viruses that have been cultivated
under conditions that disable their virulent properties, or
that use closely related but less dangerous organisms to
produce a broad immune response.
Although most attenuated vaccines are viral, some are
bacterial in nature. Examples include the viral
diseases yellow fever, measles, rubella, and mumps, and the
bacterial disease typhoid. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
22. TOXOID
Toxoid vaccines are made from inactivated toxic compounds
that cause illness rather than the micro-organism.
Examples : Tetanus and diphtheria.
Not all toxoids are for micro-organisms; for
example, Crotalus atrox toxoid is used to vaccinate dogs
against rattlesnake bites.
SUBUNIT
Protein subunit – rather than introducing an inactivated
or attenuated micro-organism to an immune system
(which would constitute a "whole-agent" vaccine), a
fragment of it can create an immune response.
Examples include the subunit vaccine against
• Hepatitis B virus that is composed of only the surface
proteins of the virus, the virus-like particle (VLP)ANUSHA NADIKATLA
23. • vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV) that is
composed of the viral major capsid protein, and the
hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits of
the influenza virus.
• Subunit vaccine is being used for plague immunization.
CONJUGATE
Conjugate – certain bacteria have polysaccharide outer coats
that are poorly immunogenic. By linking these outer coats to
proteins (e.g., toxins), the immune system can be led to
recognize the polysaccharide as if it were a protein antigen.
This approach is used in the Haemophilus influenzae type B
vaccine.
RECOMBINANT VECTOR
By combining the physiology of one micro-organism and
the DNA of the other, immunity can be created against
diseases that have complex infection processes.ANUSHA NADIKATLA
24. DNA VACCINATION
In recent years a new type of vaccine called DNA vaccination,
created from an infectious agent's DNA, has been developed.
• It works by insertion of viral or bacterial DNA into human
or animal cells.
• Some cells of the immune system that recognize the proteins
expressed will mount an attack against these proteins and
cells expressing them.
• Because these cells live for a very long time, if the pathogen
that normally expresses these proteins is encountered at a
later time, they will be attacked instantly by the immune
system.
DENDRITIC CELL VACCINES
Combine dendritic cells with antigens in order to present the
antigens to the body's white blood cells, thus stimulating an
immune reaction.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
27. MECHANISMS OF ANTIGEN UPTAKE
There is growing evidence that different antigen-
presenting cells use specialized mechanisms for antigen
uptake. Macropinocytosis and the activity of the mannose
receptor have been identified as efficient mechanisms of
antigen capture in dendritic cells. The mechanism of
uptake determines the intracellular compartment to which
antigen is delivered and may determine the type of T-cell
epitopes generated. New pathways for presentation of
exogenous antigens on MHC class I and II molecules have
been identified. These findings provide new insights into
antigen presentation in vivo and will be instrumental in
designing better methods of vaccination.ANUSHA NADIKATLA
29. TRANSPORT OF ANTIGENS
• Transporter associated with antigen
processing (TAP) is a member of the ATP-binding-
cassette transporter family.It delivers cytosolic
peptides into the endoplasmic reticulum(ER), where
they bind to nascent MHC class I molecules.
• The TAP structure is formed of two proteins: TAP-
1 and TAP-2, which have one hydrophobic region
and one ATP-binding region each. They assemble
into a hetero dimer, which results in a four-domain
transporter.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
31. PEPTIDE TRANSPORT
• TAP-mediated peptide transport is a multistep process. The
peptide-binding pocket is formed by TAP-1 and TAP-2.
• Association with TAP is an ATP-independent event, ‘in a fast
bimolecular association step, peptide binds to TAP, followed by a
slow isomerisation of the TAP complex’. It is suggested that the
conformational change in structure triggers ATP hydrolysis and
so initiates peptide transport.
• Both nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) are required for peptide
translocation, as each NBD cannot hydrolyze ATP alone. The
exact mechanism of transport is not known; however, findings
indicate that ATP binding to TAP-1 is the initial step in the
transport process, and that ATP bound to TAP-1 induces ATP
binding in TAP-2.
• It has also been shown that unlocking of the loaded MHC class I
is linked to the transport cycle of TAP caused by signals from theANUSHA NADIKATLA
33. ABSORPTION ENHANCERS
• Absorption enhancement is the technology aimed at
enabling non-injection delivery of poorly membrane-
permeable compounds.
• The term absorption enhancer usually refers to an agent
whose function is to increase absorption by enhancing
membrane permeation, rather than increasing solubility,
so such agents are sometimes more specifically termed as
permeation enhancers.
• Absorption enhancers are functional excipients included
in formulations to improve the absorption of a
pharmacologically active drug.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
34. LIPOSOMAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS
• Liposomes are composed of phospholipid bilayers capable of
entrapping hydrophilic moieties in the aqueous
compartment and hydrophobic moieties in the lipid bilayers
with cholesterol imparting rigidity to the bilayer.
• Viruses, proteins, glycoproteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids can be entrapped and targeted at
cellular and subcellular level for evoking immune responses.
• As vaccine adjuvants these systems exert
immunomodulatory effects by virtue of their particulate
nature and their ability to bind with cell surface lipid
receptors such as CD1a .
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
35. • There are many methods of preparation of liposome
liposome vaccine formulations for entrapment of
antigenic peptides and antigen encoding plasmid
DNAs.
• Liposomes are versatile and robust delivery systems for
systems for induction of antibody and T lymphocyte
lymphocyte responses to associated subunit antigens.
antigens.
• Liposomal vaccines based on viral membrane proteins
(virosomes) have been approved as products in Europe for
hepatitis A and influenza
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
37. • Poliomyelitis (polio) is a serious infectious disease caused
by a virus.
• Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is a live-attenuated vaccine,
produced by the passage of the virus through non-
human cells at a sub-physiological temperature, which
produces spontaneous mutations in the viral genome.
• In 1961, type 1 and 2 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine
(MOPV) was licensed
• In 1962, type 3 MOPV was licensed.
• In 1963, trivalent OPV (TOPV) was licensed, and
became the vaccine of choice in the United States and
most other countries of the world, largely replacing the
inactivated polio vaccine.
• OPV is usually provided in vials containing 10-20 doses
of vaccine. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
38. • A single dose of oral polio vaccine (usually two drops)
contains 1,000,000 infectious units of Sabin 1 (effective
against PV1), 100,000 infectious units of the Sabin 2
strain, and 600,000 infectious units of Sabin 3.
• The vaccine contains small traces of antibiotics-
neomycin and streptomycin—but does not
contain preservatives.
• One dose of OPV produces immunity to all three
poliovirus serotypes in approximately 50% of recipients.
• Three doses of live-attenuated OPV produce protective
antibody to all three poliovirus types in more than 95%
of recipients
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
39. CONTROLLED RELEASE MICRO PARTICLES
FOR VACCINE DELIVERY
• PLGA(polylactide co-glycolic acid) is used as a
Biodegradable Microparticle for Vaccine Delivery due to
the abundance of data and information on its properties,
uses, and role in ongoing studies.
• A particularly interesting area is the use of
biodegradable microparticles to deliver DNA vaccines.
• DNA vaccines, or so called third generation vaccines,
“involve the deliberate introduction into tissues of a
DNA plasmid carrying an antigen-coding gene that
transfers cells in vivo and results in an immune
response”.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
40. • Biodegradble microparticles, in particular, PLGA and
PLA, are good devices for DNA vaccine delivery
because the DNA is protected from enzymatic
degradation.
• Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by a
parasite. People with malaria often experience fever,
chills, and flu-like illness. Left untreated, the disease
can be lethal.
• Annually, 350-500 million cases of malaria occur
worldwide.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
41. • Rosas et al. effectively encapsulated a subunit malaria
antigen, SPf66, in PLGA-mixture microspheres and
demonstrated high antibody levels in mice and
monkeys.
• The purpose of their work was to provide a minimal
dose vaccine with a clinically relevant antigen, SPf66
(Phase III Trials), and the data propose that PLGA is a
promising vehicle for delivery.
• The microparticles (1.3 um average diameters) appear
smooth and spherical under electron microscopy .
Scanning electron microscopy of PLGA formulation.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
42. SINGLE DOSE VACCINE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
USING BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
• Biodegradable polymers are defined as polymers
comprised of monomers linked to one another through
functional groups and have unstable links in the
backbone. Broken down into biologically acceptable
molecules that are metabolized and removed from the
body via normal metabolic pathways
• There are two types of biodegradable polymers.They
are : Natural biodegradable polymers eg : Albumin,
Collagen, Gelatin etc., Synthetic biodegradable
polymers eg : Aliphatic poly(esters), Polyanhydride ,
Polyphosphazene , Pseudo poly aminoacid , Poly(
orthoesters )etc.,
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
43. SINGLE DOSE VACCINE DELIVERY SYSTEMS
USING BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
44. BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AS ADJUVANTS
• we need adjuvants to increase the therapeutic efficiency
They form depot of antigen at the site of inoculation
with slow release of antigens. It can improves the
performance of vaccines by targeting the antigen to APC
.
• Biodegradable polymers such as poly( lactide -co-
glycolic acids) is most commonly used for vaccine
delivery. This polymers is mainly required for controlled
release of the drug from polymer matrix.
• Targeting to appropriate cell types to generate optimum
response. Development of formulation that can be used
as non-invasive.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
45. SINGLE DOSE VACCINE DELIVERY USING
PREFILLED SYRINGES
• There are over 20 pharmaceutical companies
manufacturing prefilled syringes for at least 50
injectables drugs and vaccines.
Examples :
Heat stable vaccines,
Seasonal Influenza vaccine,
Polio vaccine etc.
• A prefilled syringe is a single dose packet of parenteral
drug to which a needle has been fixed.
• Prefilled syringes are ready to use disposable syringes
contains premeasured dosage, reduce dosing errors and
increase patient compliance.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
48. • A peptide vaccine is a
type of subunit vaccine
in which a peptide of
the original pathogen is
used to immunize an
organism.
• These types of vaccines
are usually rapidly
degraded once injected
into the body, unless
they are bound to a
carrier molecule such
as a fusion protein.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
49. The role of a therapeutic cancer vaccine essentially
involves activating the soldiers, namely
• Dendritic cells,
• Macrophages,
• Cytotoxic T cells and
• Natural killer cells to act against the tumor cells.
Dendritic cells and macrophages are the professional
antigen presenting cells (APCs) of the immune system.
In simple terms, they eat any foreign substance
encountered by them, and display antigens derived from it
onto their surface.
Such APCs then interact with and activate the helper and
cytotoxic T cells, as well as educate them to recognize the
cancerous cells.
ROLE OF A CANCER VACCINE
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
50. • The vast majority of published pre-clinical studies have
demonstrated the requirement of T-lymphocytes for the
eradication of solid tumors.
• Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) or CD8 + T cells,
represent the primary effector cells involved in tumor-
specific immune-mediated destruction of cancer cells.
Peptides are efficient tools for stimulation of antigen-
specific CD8 T cell.
• A variety of cancer associated antigens have been
identified, and are being studied for immune system
activation.
• They may be peptides present on the surface of cancer
cells, certain enzymes that aid a vital cancer-promoting
process, receptors for certain growth factors, etc.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
51. • These antigens are classified as
Tumor-associated antigens (TAA) and
Tumor-specific antigens (TSA).
• The peptide vaccine thus prepared is injected into the
patient.
• The APCs(antigen-presenting cells) of the patient's
immune system engulf these peptides, and present them
on the surface in order to educate the other immune
cells.
• The educated immune cells, when encounter the same
antigen on a cancerous cell, bring about the destruction
of that cell.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
52. KNOWLEDGE OF NUCLEIC ACID BASED VACCINES
• Effective use of ‘naked’ nucleic acids as vaccines would
undoubtedly be one of the most important advances in
the history of vaccinology. While nucleic acids show
much promise for use as vaccine vectors in experimental
animals, not a single naked nucleic acid vector has been
approved for use in humans.
• Nucleic acid vaccines have not been clearly
demonstrated to have any convincing efficacy in the
prevention or treatment of infectious diseases or cancer.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
53. HOW DO NUCLEIC ACID VACCINES WORK?
• It has been a decade since workers found that injection
of ‘naked’ plasmid DNA, that is DNA without any
associated lipid, protein or carbohydrate, could elicit an
immune response.
• While the earliest studies were done using DNA, some
subsequent studies have explored the use of RNA
vaccines. Hence they are collectively referred as nucleic
acid vaccine.
• They are relatively simple to generate and safe to
administer. In contrast to vaccines that employ
recombinant bacteria or viruses, genetic vaccines consist
only of DNA or RNA, which is taken up and translated
into protein by host cells . ANUSHA NADIKATLA
55. • Unfortunately, immunization with naked nucleic acid is
relatively inefficient and virus vectors generally induce
far greater immune responses than DNA vaccines.
• A most recent improvement upon plasmid nucleic acid
vectors was the incorporation of alpha virus replicons.
‘Self-replicating’ or replicon-based genetic vaccines were
designed to overcome the poor efficacy of some current
DNA-based and RNA-based genetic vaccines.
• There are many DNA vaccines in clinical and pre-
clinical trials, including vaccines for HIV, herpes,
hepatitis and influenza .
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
56. • The DNA vaccine is composed of a plasmid DNA that
contains the genetic code for a TSA or TAA.
• When this DNA plasmid is injected into the skin or
muscle, it is engulfed and internalized by the
surrounding cells as well as APCs.
• Here, the genetic information is decoded, the peptide
antigen is synthesized and displayed onto the surface,
and cross-presented to the APCs.
• The APCs then educate other cells, and initiate an
immune response against the tumor cells.
• The efficiency of DNA vaccine can be increased by
addition of certain pathogenic sequences adjacent to the
antigen sequence or by use of modern delivery systems
like nanoparticles. ANUSHA NADIKATLA
57. HOW DNA VACCINE IS MADE
Viral gene
Expression
plasmid
Plasmid with foreign gene
Recombinant DNA
Technology
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
61. ADVANTAGES OF DNA VACCINES
• Elicit both humoral and cell mediated immunity.
• Focused on antigen of intrest.
• Long term immunity.
• Refrigeration is not required.
• Stable for storage.
DISADVANTAGES OF DNA VACCINES
• Limited to protein immunogen only.
• Extended immunostimmulation leads to chronic
inflamation.
• Some antigen require processing which some times
does not occur.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
62. RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH VACCINES
Vaccines also have some sort of risks.
• The primary risk associated with vaccines,
especially vaccines that utilize live organisms, is
that the vaccine it self causesillness.
• Another risk is that the vaccine may behave as a
super antigen and over stimmulate the immune
system.
• Yet a third risk is that some individuals may have
an allergic reaction to the vaccine, especially
vaccines produced in embryonated chicken eggs
and in transgenic plants.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
63. RECENT RESEARCH
• Approaches for designing a preventive HIV
vaccine.
• Vaccine against dengue.
• Liver cancer vaccine effective in mice.
• Vaccine for malignant brain tumors.
• Combined MMRV ( measles-mumps-rubella-
varicella ) vaccine : Rise in febrile seizures?
• Spanish Flu-Like virus with pandemic potential
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
64. CONCLUSION
• Vaccines are one of the most effective health interventions
ever developed.
• Although various vaccines have been succesfully developed
for several diseases, research is still in progress to develop
vaccines for life threatening diseases like cancer, AIDS etc.
• Understanding the mechanism of absorption enhancement
may be very useful toward registration. However, it seems
reasonable that once a delivery technology is proven to be
successful for one particular drug, that technology might be
readily adapted to improving the delivery of other poorly
absorbed drugs.
• As the vaccines have a lot of benefits, they do carry some
harmful effects too.
ANUSHA NADIKATLA
65. REFERENCES
1. Aungst BJ. Intestinal permeation enhancers. J Pharm
Sci. 2000;89:429–442. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-
6017(200004)89:4<429::AID-JPS1>3.0.CO;2-J. [PubMed]
2. Swenson ES, Curatolo WJ. Intestinal permeability enhancement for
proteins, peptides and other polar drugs: mechanisms and potential
toxicity. Adv Drug Del Rev. 1992;8:39–92. doi: 10.1016/0169-
409X(92)90015-I
3. Hochman J, Artursson P. Mechanisms of absorption enhancement
and tight junction regulation. J Contr Rel.1994;29:253–267. doi:
10.1016/0168-3659(94)90072-8.
4. Fix JA. Strategies for delivery of peptides using absorption-
enhancing agents. J Pharm Sci. 1996;85:1282–1285. doi:
10.1021/js960158a. [PubMed]
5. Arbit E, Kidron M. Oral insulin: The rationale for this approach and
current developments. J Diabet Sci Technol. 2009;3:562–
567. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
ANUSHA NADIKATLA