The document discusses the different stages of the Linux boot process:
1. BIOS performs initial hardware checks and loads the bootloader like GRUB from the MBR.
2. The bootloader loads the Linux kernel and initrd files.
3. The kernel mounts the root filesystem and launches the init process.
4. Init reads the /etc/inittab file to spawn other processes and complete the system startup.
The document appears to be a case study describing a Cisco CCNA configuration involving an ISP router connecting to other routers that make up a WAN. It includes configurations for the ISP router, Sidney router, Tokyo router, and Auckland router, with each connecting to the others to allow connectivity between LANs. The goal seems to be providing WAN access and connectivity between the different networks.
This document discusses static route configurations using four different router platforms covered in the CCNA exam. It provides configuration steps to create a topology with four subnets and configure static routes on each router to establish connectivity between all networks. Static routes are manually configured on each router with the IP address of the next hop router for each subnet.
This document compares common troubleshooting commands between Cisco IOS and Juniper JUNOS. It lists the equivalent commands for tasks like viewing interface, routing table, BGP, ISIS, and MPLS information. Administrative distances and route preferences for key routing protocols like OSPF, ISIS, and BGP are also shown.
The document discusses various Linux network configuration and troubleshooting commands, including ifconfig for configuring network interfaces and viewing network settings, ping for testing network connectivity, traceroute for tracing the network route to a destination, and commands like netstat, dig, nslookup, route, host, arp, ethtool, iwconfig, and hostname for additional network tasks and information retrieval. It provides examples and brief explanations of how to use each command.
Access lists allow routers to filter packets and are supported for several protocols like IP, Ethernet, and IPX. Access lists contain rules that either permit or deny traffic from and to particular sources and destinations. These lists are applied to router interfaces to filter traffic as it passes through. Extended access lists offer more granular control than standard lists by allowing filtering based on transport protocol, port, and source/destination addresses.
01 ip oc180 e1_1 zxr10 m6000_t8000 basic operation (v1.00.20)legasu zemene
The document discusses the basic configuration and operation of the ZXR10 M6000/T8000 router, including setting the system name and password, configuring interfaces and IP addresses, upgrading firmware, and using commands like show ip interface to view interface status and show version to view system information. Different configuration modes like global, interface, and VLAN configuration are covered, as well as logical interfaces like loopback. Version upgrades can be done via network, hard disk, or patch depending on the scope of changes needed.
The document appears to be a case study describing a Cisco CCNA configuration involving an ISP router connecting to other routers that make up a WAN. It includes configurations for the ISP router, Sidney router, Tokyo router, and Auckland router, with each connecting to the others to allow connectivity between LANs. The goal seems to be providing WAN access and connectivity between the different networks.
This document discusses static route configurations using four different router platforms covered in the CCNA exam. It provides configuration steps to create a topology with four subnets and configure static routes on each router to establish connectivity between all networks. Static routes are manually configured on each router with the IP address of the next hop router for each subnet.
This document compares common troubleshooting commands between Cisco IOS and Juniper JUNOS. It lists the equivalent commands for tasks like viewing interface, routing table, BGP, ISIS, and MPLS information. Administrative distances and route preferences for key routing protocols like OSPF, ISIS, and BGP are also shown.
The document discusses various Linux network configuration and troubleshooting commands, including ifconfig for configuring network interfaces and viewing network settings, ping for testing network connectivity, traceroute for tracing the network route to a destination, and commands like netstat, dig, nslookup, route, host, arp, ethtool, iwconfig, and hostname for additional network tasks and information retrieval. It provides examples and brief explanations of how to use each command.
Access lists allow routers to filter packets and are supported for several protocols like IP, Ethernet, and IPX. Access lists contain rules that either permit or deny traffic from and to particular sources and destinations. These lists are applied to router interfaces to filter traffic as it passes through. Extended access lists offer more granular control than standard lists by allowing filtering based on transport protocol, port, and source/destination addresses.
01 ip oc180 e1_1 zxr10 m6000_t8000 basic operation (v1.00.20)legasu zemene
The document discusses the basic configuration and operation of the ZXR10 M6000/T8000 router, including setting the system name and password, configuring interfaces and IP addresses, upgrading firmware, and using commands like show ip interface to view interface status and show version to view system information. Different configuration modes like global, interface, and VLAN configuration are covered, as well as logical interfaces like loopback. Version upgrades can be done via network, hard disk, or patch depending on the scope of changes needed.
This document provides instructions for configuring and testing the Alcatel-Lucent virtualized Simulator (vSim) on GNS3. It includes:
1) Installation and setup requirements for the vSim virtual machine and GNS3.
2) Steps to connect the vSim ports to Linux core hosts in GNS3 and configure network connectivity between the ports.
3) A procedure for testing OSPF authentication between the vSim and a Cisco CSR1000v router configured in GNS3, including the OSPF configurations on each device.
In this workshop we will make a brief introduction to the basics of networking: IP addresses, MAC addresses, DNS, DHCP. Concepts as a router, gateway and firewall are explained. Then we will see in practice how to share files on a local network (NFS, Samba), establish a FTP connection, or log on to another (Linux) machine remotely (SSH, VNC, RDP). Finally, we review some useful networking tools like ping, netstat, lookup, port scan, traceroute, whois.
1. Connect the MMDVM host board to a PC using an RJ45 cable and USB power cable.
2. Access the MMDVM host web interface at 192.168.85.1 and configure the WiFi and radio settings.
3. Edit the MMDVM.ini file to configure the callsign, DMR ID, duplex settings, and radio frequencies as needed. Set the DMR and P25 enable settings and configure the DMR network.
This document contains configuration files for setting up a site-to-site VPN between 4 routers to connect two private networks. The VPN uses pre-shared keys and IKE policy to establish encrypted tunnels between routers using IPsec. Verification shows the private networks can now communicate securely through the VPN tunnels, while remaining isolated from public networks and invisible to each other without the VPN.
25 most frequently used linux ip tables rules examplesTeja Bheemanapally
This document provides 25 examples of iptables firewall rules that can be used or modified for specific needs. Some examples include allowing incoming SSH, HTTP, HTTPS, and other protocols from certain IP addresses or networks while blocking others. Load balancing incoming web traffic and allowing internal networks to access external networks are also demonstrated through iptables rules.
The document describes the instruction set of the Scott CPU. The Scott CPU uses instructions stored in RAM to perform operations like loading numbers into the CPU from RAM, adding numbers, storing numbers back in RAM, comparing numbers, jumping to other instructions based on conditions, and outputting/inputting to devices. The instructions have numeric codes and the CPU executes them in sequence by accessing RAM through an address bus, loading/storing data through a data bus.
This document provides instructions for capturing packet traces from funkwerk devices in a format readable by Wireshark or Ethereal. It describes how to install the necessary software on Windows or Linux systems and use the Brickware or bricktrace-linux tools to connect to the device, select an interface to trace, and save the output as a pcap file or pipe it directly to Wireshark for analysis. Filtering options are also explained to limit the trace to specific protocols, ports, or IP addresses.
This document provides instructions for basic router operations and commands on a Cisco router including:
- How to access user and privileged modes, exit the router, and use keyboard shortcuts.
- Commands for viewing router information like the IOS version, configurations, interfaces, neighbors, and protocols.
- How to manage configuration files by backing up, restoring, and editing configurations.
- Instructions for configuring passwords, router identification, and auto-install.
- An overview of commands for configuring TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, serial interfaces, and basic routing protocols.
- Details on access lists, frame relay, and PPP configuration.
The document provides instructions and examples for configuring various routing protocols like RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF on Cisco routers and switches. It also includes commands for configuring basic device settings like IP addresses, passwords, VLANs, trunk ports and CDP. Examples are given for initial configurations of Cisco 1900 and 2950 switches.
This document provides a CCNA command cheat sheet covering Cisco IOS commands for both ICND parts 1 & 2 and the current CCNA exam. It includes summaries of Cisco modes and keyboard shortcuts, commands for device configuration, interface configuration, and protocols. Privileged commands are also covered such as show commands for viewing configurations, interfaces, routing tables, and more.
This document provides a summary of common Linux network tools including ifconfig, netstat, route, ping, traceroute, iptables, netcat, rinetd, tcpdump, and tcpreplay. It describes what each tool is used for at a high level, such as configuring network interfaces, displaying network status, manipulating network routes, testing network connectivity, implementing firewalls, and capturing/replaying network traffic. The document also provides basic introductions to IPv4 and IPv6 addressing and routing concepts.
The document provides instructions for various Cisco router and switch configuration commands. It covers topics like IP routing, static and default routing, routing protocols (RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF), VLAN configuration, trunking, inter-VLAN routing, VTP, backing up configurations, CDP, telnet, access lists, and more. Examples are given for many commands to illustrate their usage in different scenarios.
This document provides basic configuration commands for Cisco routers, including how to name a device by using the hostname command in configuration mode, remove the device name with no hostname, and set a password for console access using the line console and password commands along with enabling login.
This document provides instructions for configuring DHCP on a Cisco ASA 5505 firewall. It describes setting the inside interface IP address, assigning network ports, configuring the DHCP address pool and range for the inside interface, specifying DNS servers, and enabling DHCP. Running "shdhcpd binding" displays devices receiving DHCP addresses from the firewall.
This document provides an overview of managing Cisco IOS, including the router boot sequence, locating the IOS software, configuration register settings, recovering passwords, backing up and restoring the IOS, backing up and restoring router configurations, and Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). The router boot sequence involves POST, loading the IOS software from flash, and loading the startup-config from NVRAM. The configuration register controls how the router boots. Passwords can be recovered by changing this register. The IOS and configurations can be backed up to FTP/TFTP and restored. CDP is used to gather hardware and protocol info about neighboring devices.
The document discusses Linux network configuration files and how to configure network interfaces. It describes key configuration files such as /etc/resolv.conf for DNS resolution, /etc/hosts for local host name resolution, and /etc/nsswitch.conf for the name service switch. It also covers how to configure static and dynamic IP addresses via command line, configuration files, and GUI tools for different Linux distributions like Red Hat, Fedora, Ubuntu and Debian.
Sexual assault and dating violence are crimes. A victim is someone who has been hurt by another person through unwanted sexual contact, kissing, grabbing or rape. It is never the victim's fault for being assaulted and consent cannot be given if the person is drunk, threatened or being abused by a family member. Friends should listen and believe anyone who tells them they have been abused. It is important to report assault to the police and seek help from victim services.
The document provides an overview of basic Linux commands organized into categories such as file handling, text processing, system administration, process management, archival, network, file systems, and advanced commands. It describes the purpose and usage of common commands like ls, cd, cp, grep, kill, tar, ssh, mount, and more. It also lists resources for learning Linux commands like man pages, books, and the internet.
This document provides instructions for configuring and testing the Alcatel-Lucent virtualized Simulator (vSim) on GNS3. It includes:
1) Installation and setup requirements for the vSim virtual machine and GNS3.
2) Steps to connect the vSim ports to Linux core hosts in GNS3 and configure network connectivity between the ports.
3) A procedure for testing OSPF authentication between the vSim and a Cisco CSR1000v router configured in GNS3, including the OSPF configurations on each device.
In this workshop we will make a brief introduction to the basics of networking: IP addresses, MAC addresses, DNS, DHCP. Concepts as a router, gateway and firewall are explained. Then we will see in practice how to share files on a local network (NFS, Samba), establish a FTP connection, or log on to another (Linux) machine remotely (SSH, VNC, RDP). Finally, we review some useful networking tools like ping, netstat, lookup, port scan, traceroute, whois.
1. Connect the MMDVM host board to a PC using an RJ45 cable and USB power cable.
2. Access the MMDVM host web interface at 192.168.85.1 and configure the WiFi and radio settings.
3. Edit the MMDVM.ini file to configure the callsign, DMR ID, duplex settings, and radio frequencies as needed. Set the DMR and P25 enable settings and configure the DMR network.
This document contains configuration files for setting up a site-to-site VPN between 4 routers to connect two private networks. The VPN uses pre-shared keys and IKE policy to establish encrypted tunnels between routers using IPsec. Verification shows the private networks can now communicate securely through the VPN tunnels, while remaining isolated from public networks and invisible to each other without the VPN.
25 most frequently used linux ip tables rules examplesTeja Bheemanapally
This document provides 25 examples of iptables firewall rules that can be used or modified for specific needs. Some examples include allowing incoming SSH, HTTP, HTTPS, and other protocols from certain IP addresses or networks while blocking others. Load balancing incoming web traffic and allowing internal networks to access external networks are also demonstrated through iptables rules.
The document describes the instruction set of the Scott CPU. The Scott CPU uses instructions stored in RAM to perform operations like loading numbers into the CPU from RAM, adding numbers, storing numbers back in RAM, comparing numbers, jumping to other instructions based on conditions, and outputting/inputting to devices. The instructions have numeric codes and the CPU executes them in sequence by accessing RAM through an address bus, loading/storing data through a data bus.
This document provides instructions for capturing packet traces from funkwerk devices in a format readable by Wireshark or Ethereal. It describes how to install the necessary software on Windows or Linux systems and use the Brickware or bricktrace-linux tools to connect to the device, select an interface to trace, and save the output as a pcap file or pipe it directly to Wireshark for analysis. Filtering options are also explained to limit the trace to specific protocols, ports, or IP addresses.
This document provides instructions for basic router operations and commands on a Cisco router including:
- How to access user and privileged modes, exit the router, and use keyboard shortcuts.
- Commands for viewing router information like the IOS version, configurations, interfaces, neighbors, and protocols.
- How to manage configuration files by backing up, restoring, and editing configurations.
- Instructions for configuring passwords, router identification, and auto-install.
- An overview of commands for configuring TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, serial interfaces, and basic routing protocols.
- Details on access lists, frame relay, and PPP configuration.
The document provides instructions and examples for configuring various routing protocols like RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF on Cisco routers and switches. It also includes commands for configuring basic device settings like IP addresses, passwords, VLANs, trunk ports and CDP. Examples are given for initial configurations of Cisco 1900 and 2950 switches.
This document provides a CCNA command cheat sheet covering Cisco IOS commands for both ICND parts 1 & 2 and the current CCNA exam. It includes summaries of Cisco modes and keyboard shortcuts, commands for device configuration, interface configuration, and protocols. Privileged commands are also covered such as show commands for viewing configurations, interfaces, routing tables, and more.
This document provides a summary of common Linux network tools including ifconfig, netstat, route, ping, traceroute, iptables, netcat, rinetd, tcpdump, and tcpreplay. It describes what each tool is used for at a high level, such as configuring network interfaces, displaying network status, manipulating network routes, testing network connectivity, implementing firewalls, and capturing/replaying network traffic. The document also provides basic introductions to IPv4 and IPv6 addressing and routing concepts.
The document provides instructions for various Cisco router and switch configuration commands. It covers topics like IP routing, static and default routing, routing protocols (RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF), VLAN configuration, trunking, inter-VLAN routing, VTP, backing up configurations, CDP, telnet, access lists, and more. Examples are given for many commands to illustrate their usage in different scenarios.
This document provides basic configuration commands for Cisco routers, including how to name a device by using the hostname command in configuration mode, remove the device name with no hostname, and set a password for console access using the line console and password commands along with enabling login.
This document provides instructions for configuring DHCP on a Cisco ASA 5505 firewall. It describes setting the inside interface IP address, assigning network ports, configuring the DHCP address pool and range for the inside interface, specifying DNS servers, and enabling DHCP. Running "shdhcpd binding" displays devices receiving DHCP addresses from the firewall.
This document provides an overview of managing Cisco IOS, including the router boot sequence, locating the IOS software, configuration register settings, recovering passwords, backing up and restoring the IOS, backing up and restoring router configurations, and Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). The router boot sequence involves POST, loading the IOS software from flash, and loading the startup-config from NVRAM. The configuration register controls how the router boots. Passwords can be recovered by changing this register. The IOS and configurations can be backed up to FTP/TFTP and restored. CDP is used to gather hardware and protocol info about neighboring devices.
The document discusses Linux network configuration files and how to configure network interfaces. It describes key configuration files such as /etc/resolv.conf for DNS resolution, /etc/hosts for local host name resolution, and /etc/nsswitch.conf for the name service switch. It also covers how to configure static and dynamic IP addresses via command line, configuration files, and GUI tools for different Linux distributions like Red Hat, Fedora, Ubuntu and Debian.
Sexual assault and dating violence are crimes. A victim is someone who has been hurt by another person through unwanted sexual contact, kissing, grabbing or rape. It is never the victim's fault for being assaulted and consent cannot be given if the person is drunk, threatened or being abused by a family member. Friends should listen and believe anyone who tells them they have been abused. It is important to report assault to the police and seek help from victim services.
The document provides an overview of basic Linux commands organized into categories such as file handling, text processing, system administration, process management, archival, network, file systems, and advanced commands. It describes the purpose and usage of common commands like ls, cd, cp, grep, kill, tar, ssh, mount, and more. It also lists resources for learning Linux commands like man pages, books, and the internet.
The impact of innovation on travel and tourism industries (World Travel Marke...Brian Solis
From the impact of Pokemon Go on Silicon Valley to artificial intelligence, futurist Brian Solis talks to Mathew Parsons of World Travel Market about the future of travel, tourism and hospitality.
Reuters: Pictures of the Year 2016 (Part 2)maditabalnco
This document contains 20 photos from news events around the world between January and November 2016. The photos show international events like the US presidential election, the conflict in Ukraine, the migrant crisis in Europe, the Rio Olympics, and more. They also depict human interest stories and natural phenomena from various countries.
The Six Highest Performing B2B Blog Post FormatsBarry Feldman
If your B2B blogging goals include earning social media shares and backlinks to boost your search rankings, this infographic lists the size best approaches.
1) The document discusses the opportunity for technology to improve organizational efficiency and transition economies into a "smart and clean world."
2) It argues that aggregate efficiency has stalled at around 22% for 30 years due to limitations of the Second Industrial Revolution, but that digitizing transport, energy, and communication through technologies like blockchain can help manage resources and increase efficiency.
3) Technologies like precision agriculture, cloud computing, robotics, and autonomous vehicles may allow for "dematerialization" and do more with fewer physical resources through effects like reduced waste and need for transportation/logistics infrastructure.
The document describes how to configure a Linux machine as a router to connect two subnets. It provides instructions to enable IP forwarding and configure the network interfaces using temporary and permanent methods.
The summary is:
- Enable IP forwarding and configure the network interfaces of two Ethernet cards using ifconfig to set up routing temporarily
- Use netconf to configure the interfaces and routing permanently by editing settings, accepting changes, and rebooting to confirm the configuration persists
- Install traffic generator programs on end stations to test routing of UDP and TCP packets between subnets going through the router
This document provides an overview of common Linux networking commands such as ifconfig, route, traceroute, nslookup, arp, dig, and netstat that are used to configure network interfaces, display routing tables, trace network routes, lookup domain names, manage address resolution, query DNS servers, and view network statistics. It also discusses how to use ifconfig to assign IP addresses to interfaces, route to view routing tables, arp to manage the address resolution cache, and dig for more powerful DNS lookups than nslookup.
The document discusses various networking commands used in Linux systems. It provides descriptions and examples of commands like ping, traceroute, mtr, host, whois, ifconfig, dhclient, netstat and more. These commands are used to test and monitor network connectivity, view routing tables, lookup domain information, configure network interfaces and more. Maintaining system and network uptime is a key task for system and network administrators.
ifconfig is a command used to configure network interfaces in Linux, BSD, Solaris, and Mac OSX. It displays the status of interfaces, including the IP address, subnet mask, hardware address, and packet transmission/reception statistics. It is used at boot to configure interfaces and can also be used to view interface information or manually configure addresses, change interfaces between up/down states, and set other parameters.
The document discusses important show commands for Cisco routers and switches. It provides a cheat sheet of the most useful show commands including show running-config, show version, show ip route, show interfaces, show cdp neighbors, and show clock. Each command is briefly described in terms of the key information it displays about the device, interfaces, configurations, or network.
CMIT 350 FINAL EXAM CCNA CERTIFICATION PRACTICE EXAMHamesKellor
The document provides sample questions that may appear on a CCNA certification practice exam. It includes questions about OSPF, router commands, frame relay, VLANs, routing protocols, and more. The questions cover a wide range of Cisco networking topics that are important for the CCNA exam.
Switches direct and control much of the data flowing across computer networks.
Conventional network security often focuses more on routers and blocking traffic from the outside.
Switches are internal to the organization and designed to allow ease of connectivity, therefore only
limited or no security measures are applied.
This document provides information on various networking tools and concepts in Linux. It discusses network basics like hosts, servers, clients and protocols. It then summarizes tools for remote access (Telnet), file transfer (FTP), downloading files (Wget, Curl), secure connections (SSH), network configuration (ifconfig, route), viewing connections (netstat), and network tracing (tcpdump).
Detailed explanation of Basic router configurationsamreenghauri786
This document provides instructions on configuring basic settings on a Cisco router, including:
1) Configuring initial settings such as the device name, passwords, and banner.
2) Configuring two router interfaces including IP addresses, descriptions, and activating the interfaces.
3) Verifying the interface configurations using commands like show ip interface brief and show interfaces.
The document discusses securing Cisco routers by hardening configurations based on the NSA Router Security Configuration Guide. It covers topics such as physical security of routers, defining loopback interfaces, banner configuration, blocking SYN flooding attacks using TCP intercept, tuning IP stack parameters like limiting embryonic connections and enabling TCP selective acknowledgment. It also discusses access control measures like basic authentication, AAA authentication using RADIUS/TACACS+, privilege levels, and disabling unused ports and protocols like CDP.
NETMAX TECHNOLOGIES provides network training, software training, and embedded systems support and consultancy. Courses include CCNA, CCNP, Red Hat Linux, Windows, C, C++, Java, .NET, and microcontroller training. It uses NAT to allow private networks to connect to the internet using a limited number of public IP addresses. Static NAT maps a private IP to a public IP in a 1:1 ratio. Dynamic NAT maps private IPs to public IPs from a pool. Overloading NAT maps multiple private IPs to one public IP using port addressing.
This document contains instructions and configuration steps for configuring Cisco routers and switches. It discusses configuring global settings like hostname and MOTD banners on routers. It also provides steps for configuring router passwords, interfaces with IP addresses, and saving configurations. The document contains tasks for configuring a switch interface description and saving the RAM configuration to NVRAM.
The document provides an overview of networking concepts for Linux, including TCP/IP models, ports, IP addressing, and configuring both wired and wireless network interfaces. It discusses OSI vs TCP/IP models, connection types, ports, IP, gateways, switches vs hubs, and main network services. It then details how to configure wired NICs using ifconfig, ifup/ifdown, and configuration files for Red Hat, Debian, and Ubuntu. Finally, it covers configuring wireless networks by scanning, setting encryption, and obtaining IP addresses.
Cisco Internetworking Operating System (ios)Netwax Lab
Cisco IOS (originally Internetwork Operating
System) is software used on most Cisco Systems
routers and current Cisco network switches.
(Earlier switches ran CatOS.) IOS is a package of
routing, switching, internetworking and
telecommunications functions integrated into a
multitasking operating system.
Konfigurasi Server Gateway dengan fitur PROXY, WEBSERVER dan DHCPWalid Umar
This document provides instructions for completing a competency test on networking skills. It details how to:
1) Plan a network topology with a server, gateway, and client devices.
2) Perform subnetting calculations to divide IP addresses into public and private networks.
3) Assemble and install a Debian server, configure networking and services like DHCP, Apache, and Squid proxy server.
4) Configure the router and firewall rules for network address translation and proxy access.
Components of computer systems often have dependencies--other co.pdfalamodeindia1
Components of computer systems often have dependencies
--
other components that must be
installed before they will function properly. These dependencies are frequently shared by
multiple components. For example, both the TELNET client program and the FTP cli
ent
program require that the TCP/IP networking software be installed before they can operate. If you
install TCP/IP and the TELNET client program, and later decide to add the FTP client program,
you do not need to reinstall TCP/IP.
For some components it
would not be a problem if the components on which they depended were
reinstalled; it would just waste some resources. But for others, like TCP/IP, some component
configuration may be destroyed if the component was reinstalled.
It is useful to be able to r
emove components that are no longer needed. When this is done,
components that only support the removed component may also be removed, freeing up disk
space, memory, and other resources. But a supporting component, not explicitly installed, may
be removed
only if all components which depend on it are also removed. For example, removing
the FTP client program and TCP/IP would mean the TELNET client program, which was not
removed, would no longer operate. Likewise, removing TCP/IP by itself would cause the fa
ilure
of both the TELNET and the FTP client programs. Also if we installed TCP/IP to support our
own development, then installed the TELNET client (which depends on TCP/IP) and then still
later removed the TELNET client, we would not want TCP/IP to be remo
ved.
We want a program to automate the process of adding and removing components. To do this we
will maintain a record of installed components and component dependencies. A component can
be installed explicitly in response to a command (unless it is alrea
dy installed), or implicitly if it
is needed for some other component being installed. Likewise, a component, not explicitly
installed, can be explicitly removed in response to a command (if it is not needed to support
other components) or implicitly remov
ed if it is no longer needed to support another component.
Input
The input will contain a sequence of commands (as described below), each on a separate line
containing no more than eighty characters. Item names are case sensitive, and each is no longer
th
an ten characters. The command names (
DEPEND
,
INSTALL
,
REMOVE
and
LIST
) always
appear in uppercase starting in column one, and item names are separated from the command
name and each other by one or more spaces. All appropriate
DEPEND
commands will appear
before the occurrence of any
INSTALL
dependencies. The end of the input is marked by a line
containing only the word
END
.
Command Syntax
Interpretation/Response
DEPEND item1 item2 [item3 ...]
item1
depends on
item2
(and
item3
...)
INSTALL item1
install
item1
and those on which it depends
REMOVE item1
remove
item1
, and those on whch it depends, if possible
LIST
list the names of all currently
-
installed components
Output
.
The document discusses Cisco CCNA topics including the OSI and TCP/IP models, Cisco IOS, IPv4 addressing, subnetting, and password recovery procedures.
It provides details on each layer of the OSI and TCP/IP models, components of a Cisco router like ROM, RAM, NVRAM, and flash memory. It also covers Cisco IOS boot commands, router modes, and cursor commands.
The document also explains IPv4 addressing fundamentals like address classes, private addressing, subnet masks, CIDR notation, and provides examples of converting between binary and decimal.
Finally, it discusses subnetting concepts and provides examples of determining subnet masks and number of subnets based on given host or subnet requirements
Computers are connected in a network to exchange information or resources with each other. Two or more computer are connected through network media called computer media.
There are a number of network devices or media that are involved to form computer network.
Computer loaded with Linux Operation System can also be a part of network whether it is a small or large network by multitasking and multi user natures.
Maintaining of system and network up and running is a task of System / Network Administrator’s job. In this article we are going to review frequently used network configuration and troubleshoot commands in Linux.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) Curriculum
Useful Linux commands
1. 15 Useful “ifconfig” Commands to Configure Network Interface in Linux
ifconfig in short “interface configuration” utility for system/network administration in
Unix/Linux operating systems to configure, manage and query network interface parameters via
command line interface or in a system configuration scripts.
The “ifconfig” command is used for displaying current network configuration information, setting
up an is address, netmask or broadcast address to an network interface, creating an alias for network
interface, setting up hardware address and enable or disable network interfaces.
This article covers “15 Useful “ifconfig” Commands” with their practical examples, that might be
very helpful to you in managing and configuring network interfaces in Linux systems.
Update: The networking command ifconfig is deprecated by IP Command in most Linux
distributions.
1. View All Network Setting
The “ifconfig” command with no arguments will display all the active interfaces details. The
ifconfig command also used to check the assigned IP address of an server.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig
eth0
Link encap:Ethernet
HWaddr 00:0B:CD:1C:18:5A
inet addr:172.16.25.126
Bcast:172.16.25.63
Mask:255.255.255.224
inet6 addr: fe80::20b:cdff:fe1c:185a/64 Scope:Link
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:2341604 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:2217673 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:293460932 (279.8 MiB)
TX bytes:1042006549 (993.7 MiB)
Interrupt:185 Memory:f7fe0000-f7ff0000
lo
Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1
Mask:255.0.0.0
inet6 addr: ::1/128 Scope:Host
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING
MTU:16436
Metric:1
RX packets:5019066 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:5019066 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:2174522634 (2.0 GiB)
TX bytes:2174522634 (2.0 GiB)
2. tun0
Link encap:UNSPEC
inet addr:10.1.1.1
HWaddr 00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00
P-t-P:10.1.1.2
Mask:255.255.255.255
UP POINTOPOINT RUNNING NOARP MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:100
RX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
TX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
2. Display Information of All Network Interfaces
The following ifconfig command with -a argument will display information of all active or inactive
network interfaces on server. It displays the results for eth0, lo, sit0 and tun0.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig -a
eth0
Link encap:Ethernet
HWaddr 00:0B:CD:1C:18:5A
inet addr:172.16.25.126
Bcast:172.16.25.63
Mask:255.255.255.224
inet6 addr: fe80::20b:cdff:fe1c:185a/64 Scope:Link
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:2344927 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:2220777 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:293839516 (280.2 MiB)
TX bytes:1043722206 (995.3 MiB)
Interrupt:185 Memory:f7fe0000-f7ff0000
lo
Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1
Mask:255.0.0.0
inet6 addr: ::1/128 Scope:Host
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING
MTU:16436
Metric:1
RX packets:5022927 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:5022927 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:2175739488 (2.0 GiB)
TX bytes:2175739488 (2.0 GiB)
3. sit0
Link encap:IPv6-in-IPv4
NOARP
MTU:1480
Metric:1
RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
tun0
Link encap:UNSPEC
inet addr:10.1.1.1
TX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
HWaddr 00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00-00
P-t-P:10.1.1.2
Mask:255.255.255.255
UP POINTOPOINT RUNNING NOARP MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:0 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:100
RX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
TX bytes:0 (0.0 b)
3. View Network Settings of Specific Interface
Using interface name (eth0) as an argument with “ifconfig” command will display details of
specific network interface.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0
eth0
Link encap:Ethernet
HWaddr 00:0B:CD:1C:18:5A
inet addr:172.16.25.126
Bcast:172.16.25.63
Mask:255.255.255.224
inet6 addr: fe80::20b:cdff:fe1c:185a/64 Scope:Link
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Metric:1
RX packets:2345583 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:2221421 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:293912265 (280.2 MiB)
TX bytes:1044100408 (995.7 MiB)
Interrupt:185 Memory:f7fe0000-f7ff0000
4. How to Enable a Network Interface
4. The “up” or “ifup” flag with interface name (eth0) activates an network interface, if it is not in
active state and allowing to send and receive information. For example, “ifconfig eth0 up” or “ifup
eth0” will activate the eth0 interface.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 up
OR
[root@tecmint ~]# ifup eth0
5. How to Disable an Network Interface
The “down” or “ifdown” flag with interface name (eth0) deactivates the specified network
interface. For example, “ifconfig eth0 down” or “ifdown eth0” command deactivates
theeth0 interface, if it is in active state.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 down
OR
[root@tecmint ~]# ifdown eth0
6. How to Assign a IP Address to Network Interface
To assign an IP address to an specific interface, use the following command with an interface name
(eth0) and ip address that you want to set. For example, “ifconfig eth0 172.16.25.125” will set the
IP address to interface eth0.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 172.16.25.125
7. How to Assign a Netmask to Network Interface
Using the “ifconfig” command with “netmask” argument and interface name as (eth0) allows you
to define an netmask to an given interface. For example, “ifconfig eth0 netmask
255.255.255.224” will set the network mask to an given interface eth0.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 netmask 255.255.255.224
8. How to Assign a Broadcast to Network Interface
Using the “broadcast” argument with an interface name will set the broadcast address for the given
interface. For example, “ifconfig eth0 broadcast 172.16.25.63” command sets the broadcast
address to an interface eth0.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 broadcast 172.16.25.63
9. How to Assign a IP, Netmask and Broadcast to Network Interface
To assign an IP address, Netmask address and Broadcast address all at once using “ifconfig”
command with all arguments as given below.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 172.16.25.125 netmask 255.255.255.224 broadcast
172.16.25.63
5. 10. How to Change MTU for an Network Interface
The “mtu” argument set the maximum transmission unit to an interface. The MTU allows you to set
the limit size of packets that are transmitted on an interface. The MTU able to handle maximum
number of octets to an interface in one single transaction. For example, “ifconfig eth0 mtu 1000”
will set the maximum transmission unit to given set (i.e. 1000). Not all network interfaces
supports MTU settings.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 mtu 1000
11. How to Enable Promiscuous Mode
What happens in normal mode, when a packet received by a network card, it verifies that the packet
belongs to itself. If not, it drops the packet normally, but in the promiscuous mode is used to accept
all the packets that flows through the network card.
Most of the today‟s network tools uses the promiscuous mode to capture and analyze the packets that
flows through the network interface. To set the promiscuous mode, use the following command.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 promisc
12. How to Disable Promiscuous Mode
To disable promiscuous mode, use the “-promisc” switch that drops back the network interface in
normal mode.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 -promisc
13. How to Add New Alias to Network Interface
The ifconfig utility allows you to configure additional network interfaces using alias feature. To add
alias network interface of eth0, use the following command. Please note that alias network address
in same sub-net mask. For example, if your eth0 network ip address is 172.16.25.125, then alias ip
address must be 172.16.25.127.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0:0 172.16.25.127
Next, verify the newly created alias network interface address, by using “ifconfig eth0:0”
command.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0:0
eth0:0
Link encap:Ethernet
HWaddr 00:01:6C:99:14:68
inet addr:172.16.25.123
Bcast:172.16.25.63
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST
MTU:1500
Mask:255.255.255.240
Metric:1
Interrupt:17
14. How to Remove Alias to Network Interface
If you no longer required an alias network interface or you incorrectly configured it, you can remove
it by using the following command.
6. [root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0:0 down
15. How to Change the MAC address of Network Interface
To change the MAC (Media Access Control) address of an eth0 network interface, use the
following command with argument “hw ether“. For example, see below.
[root@tecmint ~]# ifconfig eth0 hw ether AA:BB:CC:DD:EE:FF
These are the most useful commands for configuring network interfaces in Linux, for more
information and usage of ifconfig command use the manpages like “man ifconfig” at the terminal.
Check out some other networking utilities below.
A Basic Guide to Different Stages of Linux Boot Process
As promised in our earlier post, in this post we are going to review boot process in Linux
Operating System. How Operating system passes through different stage of booting states. This
article is written for those readers who has just steps in Linux world. Understanding how Linux boots
up is very important in terms of effectively troubleshooting in case of system failure. When a system
switched on and after few moment we get a login prompt. Have we try to find out what all stage of
booting sequence has crossed and what happened behind the scene during system boots up.
In Linux world, there are 6 stages of booting. Lets discuss one by one in details:
Linux Boot Loader Process
1. BIOS (Basic Input Out System)
o
o
o
o
System power on, hardware transfer control to BIOS.
BIOS is the first program to run and it‟s OS independent.
BIOS resides on ROM (Read only Memory).
First step of BIOS (Basic Input Out System) is the Power on self test (POST) which scan
hardware information and checks for bootloader.
7. o
o
Scans for boot devices (Floppy, CD and/or DVD drive). During that period we can press
keys (F2, F12) depends on your system to change boot sequence.
BIOS reads very first sector of hard drive. That is called boot sector where Bootloader
resides. Once bootloader is detected and BIOS loads and provide control to bootloader and
start processing next level of booting sequence.
2. MBR (Master Boot Record)
o
o
o
o
Master Boot Record (MBR) is located in the First Sector of bootable disk.
Bootloader may resides in the MBR or may elsewhere.
MBR which has 512 bytes in size which has three components.
A. The first 446 bytes are for primary boot loader which contains executable code.
B. Next 64 bytes are for partitiontable information.
C. Last 2 bytes is used for Magic number (validation check of MBR).
MBR contains GRUB/LILO information then execute GRUB/LILO bootloader.
3. GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader)
o
o
GRUB Stands for (GRand Unified Bootloader). GRUB has its own menu interface and has
ability to navigate filesystem.
Displays a list of available kernels defined in /etc/grub.conf. Provide options to choose if
multiple kernel image is installed. Below is CentOS grub.conf file where we can
seekernel and initrd image.
#boot=/dev/sda
default=0
timeout=5
password --md5 $1$19oD/1$NklcucLPshZVoo5LvUYEp1
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
hiddenmenu
title CentOS (2.6.32-279.el6.i686)
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.32-279.el6.i686 ro root=/dev/mapper/vg_tecmint-lv_root
rd_NO_LUKS rd_LVM_LV=vg_tecmint/lv_swap LANG=en_US.UTF-8 rd_NO_MD SYSFONT=latarcyrhebsun16
crashkernel=auto rd_LVM_LV=vg_tecmint/lv_root KEYBOARDTYPE=pc KEYTABLE=us rd_NO_DM
rhgb
quiet
initrd /initramfs-2.6.32-279.el6.i686.img
o
o
GRUB display splash screen and wait for few seconds to intervene, if not it will loads
default kernel image.
GRUB Bootloader starts Kernel and loads initrd images.
8. 4. Kernel
o
o
o
Mount root file system.
Kernel starts INIT process. Since it‟s first process to start by kernel which has
Process ID (PID) of 1.
Loads initrd module. initrd (initial RAM disk) is a temporary root file system loaded in
RAM until root file system mounted.
5. INIT
o
o
o
o
INIT (father of all processes).
INIT (short for initialization) deamon spawn all other processes
INIT looks for file /etc/inittab for instructions to proceed.
Here‟s the inittab from CentOS.
# inittab is only used by upstart for the default runlevel.
#
# ADDING OTHER CONFIGURATION HERE WILL HAVE NO EFFECT ON YOUR SYSTEM.
#
# System initialization is started by /etc/init/rcS.conf
#
# Individual runlevels are started by /etc/init/rc.conf
#
# Ctrl-Alt-Delete is handled by /etc/init/control-alt-delete.conf
#
# Terminal gettys are handled by /etc/init/tty.conf and /etc/init/serial.conf,
# with configuration in /etc/sysconfig/init.
#
# For information on how to write upstart event handlers, or how
# upstart works, see init(5), init(8), and initctl(8).
#
# Default runlevel. The runlevels used are:
#
0 - halt (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
#
1 - Single user mode
9. #
2 - Multiuser, without NFS (The same as 3, if you do not have networking)
#
3 - Full multiuser mode
#
4 - unused
#
5 - X11
#
6 - reboot (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
#
id:3:initdefault:
o
Runs scripts /etc/rc.d/*
6. Runlevel Programs
There are seven runlevels and it has its own significant in Linux Operating system. The
different run levels are as follows:
o Run Level 0 – Halt
o Run Level 1 – Single user mode
o Run Level 2 – Multiuser but without NFS
o Run Level 3 – Full multiuser mode
o Run Level 4 – unused / User-definable
o Run Level 5 – X11
o Run Level 6 – reboot
As per default runlevel settings, system will reads and execute the programs from
following directories.
o Run Level 0 – /etc/rc.d/rc0.d/
o Run Level 1 – /etc/rc.d/rc1.d/
o Run Level 2 – /etc/rc.d/rc2.d/
o Run Level 3 – /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/
o Run Level 4 – /etc/rc.d/rc4.d/
o Run Level 5 – /etc/rc.d/rc5.d/
o Run Level 6 – /etc/rc.d/rc6.d/
/etc/rc0.d/ is linked to /etc/rc.d/rc0.d/ directory. Under /etc/rc.d/rc0.d/ directory we could
see programs starting with S and K which means startup and kill respectively. Also there are
sequence number next to S and K. Those sequence number in which the programs should
be started or killed during boot up.
10. 10 fdisk Commands to Manage Linux Disk Partitions
fdisk stands (for “fixed disk or format disk“) is an most commonly used command-line based
disk manipulation utility for a Linux/Unix systems. With the help of fdisk command you can view,
create, resize, delete, change, copy and move partitions on a hard drive using its own user friendly
text based menu driven interface.
This tool is very useful in terms of creating space for new partitions, organising space for new drives,
re-organising an old drives and copying or moving data to new disks. It allows you to create a
maximum of four new primary partition and number of logical (extended) partitions, based on
size of the hard disk you have in your system.
1. View all Disk Partitions in Linux
The following basic command list all existing disk partition on your system. The „-l„ argument stand
for (listing all partitions) is used with fdisk command to view all available partitions on Linux. The
partitions are displayed by their device‟s names. For example: /dev/sda, /dev/sdbor /dev/sdc.
[root@tecmint.com ~]# fdisk -l
Disk /dev/sda: 637.8 GB, 637802643456 bytes
255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 77541 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Device Boot
Start
End
Blocks
Id
System
1
13
104391
83
Linux
/dev/sda2
14
2624
20972857+
83
Linux
/dev/sda3
2625
4582
15727635
83
Linux
/dev/sda4
4583
77541
586043167+
5
/dev/sda5
4583
5887
10482381
83
Linux
/dev/sda6
5888
7192
10482381
83
Linux
/dev/sda7
7193
7845
5245191
83
Linux
/dev/sda8
7846
8367
4192933+
82
Linux swap / Solaris
/dev/sda9
8368
77541
555640123+
8e
Linux LVM
/dev/sda1
*
Extended
11. 2. View Specific Disk Partition in Linux
To view all partitions of specific hard disk use the option „-l„ with device name. For example, the
following command will display all disk partitions of device /dev/sda. If you‟ve different device
names, simple write device name as /dev/sdb or /dev/sdc.
[root@tecmint.com ~]# fdisk -l /dev/sda
Disk /dev/sda: 637.8 GB, 637802643456 bytes
255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 77541 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Device Boot
Start
End
Blocks
Id
System
1
13
104391
83
Linux
/dev/sda2
14
2624
20972857+
83
Linux
/dev/sda3
2625
4582
15727635
83
Linux
/dev/sda4
4583
77541
586043167+
5
/dev/sda5
4583
5887
10482381
83
Linux
/dev/sda6
5888
7192
10482381
83
Linux
/dev/sda7
7193
7845
5245191
83
Linux
/dev/sda8
7846
8367
4192933+
82
Linux swap / Solaris
/dev/sda9
8368
77541
555640123+
8e
Linux LVM
/dev/sda1
*
Extended
3. Check all Available fdisk Commands
If you would like to view all commands which are available for fdisk. Simply use the following
command by mentioning the hard disk name such as /dev/sda as shown below. The following
command will give you output similar to below.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help):
12. Type „m„ to see the list of all available commands of fdisk which can be operated on /dev/sdahard
disk. After, I enter „m„ on the screen, you will see the all available options for fdisk that you can be
used on the /dev/sda device.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help): m
Command action
a
toggle a bootable flag
b
edit bsd disklabel
c
toggle the dos compatibility flag
d
delete a partition
l
list known partition types
m
print this menu
n
add a new partition
o
create a new empty DOS partition table
p
print the partition table
q
quit without saving changes
s
create a new empty Sun disklabel
t
change a partition's system id
u
change display/entry units
v
verify the partition table
w
write table to disk and exit
x
extra functionality (experts only)
Command (m for help):
4. Print all Partition Table in Linux
To print all partition table of hard disk, you must be on command mode of specific hard disk
say/dev/sda.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
From the command mode, enter „p„ instead of „m„ as we did earlier. As I enter „p„, it will print the
specific /dev/sda partition table.
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/sda: 637.8 GB, 637802643456 bytes
255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 77541 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Device Boot
/dev/sda1
*
/dev/sda2
/dev/sda3
/dev/sda4
/dev/sda5
/dev/sda6
/dev/sda7
/dev/sda8
/dev/sda9
Start
1
14
2625
4583
4583
5888
7193
7846
8368
Command (m for help):
End
13
2624
4582
77541
5887
7192
7845
8367
77541
Blocks
104391
20972857+
15727635
586043167+
10482381
10482381
5245191
4192933+
555640123+
Id
83
83
83
5
83
83
83
82
8e
System
Linux
Linux
Linux
Extended
Linux
Linux
Linux
Linux swap / Solaris
Linux LVM
13. 5. How to Delete a Partition in Linux
If you would like to delete a specific partition (i.e /dev/sda9) from the specific hard disk such
as/dev/sda. You must be in fdisk command mode to do this.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
Next, enter „d„ to delete any given partition name from the system. As I enter „d„, it will prompt me to
enter partition number that I want to delete from /dev/sda hard disk. Suppose I enter number „4„
here, then it will delete partition number „4„ (i.e. /dev/sda4) disk and shows free space in partition
table. Enter „w„ to write table to disk and exit after making new alterations to partition table. The
new changes would only take place after next reboot of system. This can be easily understood from
the below output.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help): d
Partition number (1-4): 4
Command (m for help): w
The partition table has been altered!
Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table.
WARNING: Re-reading the partition table failed with error 16: Device or resource busy.
The kernel still uses the old table. The new table will be used at
the next reboot or after you run partprobe(8) or kpartx(8)
Syncing disks.
You have new mail in /var/spool/mail/root
Warning : Be careful, while performing this step, because using option „d„ will completely delete
partition from system and may lost all data in partition.
6. How to Create a New Partition in Linux
If you‟ve free space left on one of your device say /dev/sda and would like to create a new partition
under it. Then you must be in fdisk command mode of /dev/sda. Type the following command to
enter into command mode of specific hard disk.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
After entering in command mode, now press “n” command to create a new partition
under/dev/sda with specific size. This can be demonstrated with the help of following given output.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk
/dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
14. switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help): n
Command action
e
extended
p
primary partition (1-4)
e
While creating a new partition, it will ask you two options „extended„ or „primary„ partition
creation. Press „e„ for extended partition and „p„ for primary partition. Then it will ask you to enter
following two inputs.
o First cylinder number of the partition to be create.
o Last cylinder number of the partition to be created (Last cylinder, +cylinders or +size).
You can enter the size of cylinder by adding “+5000M” in last cylinder. Here, „+„ means addition
and 5000M means size of new partition (i.e 5000MB). Please keep in mind that after creating a
new partition, you should run „w„ command to alter and save new changes to partition table and
finally reboot your system to verify newly created partition.
Command (m for help): w
The partition table has been altered!
Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table.
WARNING: Re-reading the partition table failed with error 16: Device or resource busy.
The kernel still uses the old table. The new table will be used at
the next reboot or after you run partprobe(8) or kpartx(8)
Syncing disks.
7. How to Formatting a Partition in Linux
After the new partition is created, don‟t skip to format the newly created partition using „mkfs„
command. Type the following command in the terminal to format a partition. Here /dev/sda4is my
newly created partition.
[root@tecmint ~]# mkfs.ext4 /dev/sda4
8. How to Check Size of a Partition in Linux
After formatting new partition, check the size of that partition using flag „s„ (displays size in blocks)
with fdisk command. This way you can check size of any specific device.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk -s /dev/sda2
5194304
9. How to Fix Partition Table Order
If you‟ve deleted a logical partition and again recreated it, you might notice „partition out of
order„ problem or error message like „Partition table entries are not in disk order„.
For example, when three logical partitions such as (sda4, sda5 and sda6) are deleted, and new
partition created, you might expect the new partition name would be sda4. But, the system would
15. create it as sda5. This happens because of, after the partition are deleted, sda7 partition had been
moved as sda4 and free space shift to the end.
To fix such partition order problems, and assign sda4 to the newly created partition, issue the „x„ to
enter an extra functionality section and then enter „f„ expert command to fix the order of partition
table as shown below.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk
/dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help): x
Expert command (m for help): f
Done.
Expert command (m for help): w
The partition table has been altered!
Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table.
WARNING: Re-reading the partition table failed with error 16: Device or resource busy.
The kernel still uses the old table. The new table will be used at
the next reboot or after you run partprobe(8) or kpartx(8)
Syncing disks.
After, running „f„ command, don‟t forget to run „w„ command to save and exit from fdisk command
mode. Once it fixed partition table order, you will no longer get error messages.
10. How to Disable Boot Flag (*) of a Partition
By default, fdisk command shows the boot flag (i.e. „*„) symbol on each partition. If you want to
enable or disable boot flag on a specific partition, do the following steps.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk
/dev/sda
Press „p„ command to view the current partition table, you see there is a boot flag (asterisk (*) symbol
in orange color) on /dev/sda1 disk as shown below.
[root@tecmint ~]# fdisk /dev/sda
WARNING: DOS-compatible mode is deprecated. It's strongly recommended to
switch off the mode (command 'c') and change display units to
sectors (command 'u').
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/sda: 637.8 GB, 637802643456 bytes
16. 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 77541 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Device Boot
/dev/sda1
/dev/sda2
/dev/sda3
/dev/sda4
/dev/sda5
/dev/sda6
/dev/sda7
/dev/sda8
/dev/sda9
Start
End
1
14
2625
4583
4583
5888
7193
7846
8368
13
2624
4582
77541
5887
7192
7845
8367
77541
*
Blocks
104391
20972857+
15727635
586043167+
10482381
10482381
5245191
4192933+
555640123+
Id
System
83
83
83
5
83
83
83
82
8e
Linux
Linux
Linux
Extended
Linux
Linux
Linux
Linux swap / Solaris
Linux LVM
Next enter command „a„ to disable boot flag, then enter partition number „1„ as (i.e. /dev/sda1) in
my case. This will disable boot flag on the partition /dev/sda1. This will remove the asterisk (*) flag.
Command (m for help): a
Partition number (1-9): 1
Command (m for help): p
Disk /dev/sda: 637.8 GB, 637802643456 bytes
255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 77541 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes
Device Boot
/dev/sda1
/dev/sda2
/dev/sda3
/dev/sda4
/dev/sda5
/dev/sda6
/dev/sda7
/dev/sda8
/dev/sda9
Start
1
14
2625
4583
4583
5888
7193
7846
8368
End
13
2624
4582
77541
5887
7192
7845
8367
77541
Blocks
104391
20972857+
15727635
586043167+
10482381
10482381
5245191
4192933+
555640123+
Id
83
83
83
5
83
83
83
82
8e
System
Linux
Linux
Linux
Extended
Linux
Linux
Linux
Linux swap / Solaris
Linux LVM
Command (m for help):
I‟ve tried my best to include almost all basic commands of fdisk commands, but still fdisk contains a
variety of other expert commands you can use them by entering „x„. For more detailed information,
check out „man fdisk„ command from the terminal. If I‟ve missed any important command, please
do share with me via comment section.
12 TOP Command Examples in Linux
This is the part of our on-going series of commands in Linux. We have covered basic ls
command and cat command. In this article, we are trying to explore top command which is one
of the most frequently used commands in our daily system administrative jobs. topcommand
displays processor activity of your Linux box and also displays tasks managed by kernel in real-time.
It‟ll show processor and memory are being used and other information like running processes. This
may help you to take correct action. top command found in UNIX-like operating systems.
1. Display of Top Command
In this example, it will show information like tasks, memory, cpu and swap. Press „q„ to quit
window.
# top
17. Linux Top Command
2. Sorting with -O (Uppercase Letter „O‟).
Press (Shift+O) to Sort field via field letter, for example press „a„ letter to sort process with PID
(Process ID).
Sorting Process ID‟s with Top
Type any key to return to main top window with sorted PID order as shown in below screen. Press
„q„ to quit exit the window.
18. Sorting Process ID‟s
3. Display Specific User Process
Use top command with „u„ option will display specific User process details.
# top -u tecmint
Top with Specific User Processes
4. Highlight Running Process in Top
Press „z„ option in running top command will display running process in color which may help you to
identified running process easily.
19. Top Process with Colorful
5. Shows Absolute Path of Processes
Press „c„ option in running top command, it will display absolute path of running process.
Top with Specific Process Path
6. Change Delay or Set „Screen Refresh Interval‟ in Top
By default screen refresh interval is 3.0 seconds, same can be change pressing „d„ option in running
top command and change it as desired as shown below.
20. Top – Set Refresh Time
7. Kill running process with argument „k‟
You can kill a process after finding PID of process by pressing „k„ option in running top command
without exiting from top window as shown below.
Top – Kill Process ID
8. Sort by CPU Utilisation
Press (Shift+P) to sort processes as per CPU utilization. See screenshot below.
21. Top – High CPU Utilization
9. Renice a Process
You can use „r„ option to change the priority of the process also called Renice.
Top – Renice Process
10. Save Top Command Results
Press (Shift+W) to save the running top command results under /root/.toprc.
22. Top Command Save Results
11. Getting Top Command Help
Press „h„ option to obtain the top command help.
Top Command Help
12. Exit Top Command After Specific repetition
Top output keep refreshing until you press „q„. With below command top command will
automatically exit after 10 number of repetition.
23. # top -n 10
There are number of arguments to know more about top command you may refer man page
oftop command. Please share it if you find this article useful through our comment box below.
12 Useful “df” Commands to Check Disk Space in Linux
On the internet you will find plenty of tools for checking disk space utilization in Linux. However,
Linux has a strong built in utility called „df„. The „df„command stand for “disk filesystem“, it is
used to get full summary of available and used disk space usage of file system on Linux system.
Using „-h„parameter with (df -h) will shows the file system disk space statistics in “human
readable” format, means it gives the details in bytes, mega bytes and gigabyte.
1. Check File System Disk Space Usage
The “df” command displays the information of device name, total blocks, total disk space, used disk
space, available disk space and mount points on a file system.
[root@tecmint ~]# df
Filesystem
1K-blocks
Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
78361192
23185840
51130588
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24797380
22273432
1243972
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29753588
25503792
2713984
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
295561
21531
258770
8% /boot
tmpfs
257476
0
257476
0% /dev/shm
2. Display Information of all File System Disk Space Usage
The same as above, but it also displays information of dummy file systems along with all the file
system disk usage and their memory utilization.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -a
Filesystem
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
1K-blocks
Used Available Use% Mounted on
78361192
23186116
51130312
32% /
proc
0
0
0
-
/proc
sysfs
0
0
0
-
/sys
devpts
0
0
0
-
/dev/pts
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24797380
22273432
1243972
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29753588
25503792
2713984
91% /data
24. /dev/cciss/c0d0p1
295561
21531
258770
8% /boot
tmpfs
257476
0
257476
0% /dev/shm
none
0
0
0
-
/proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc
sunrpc
0
0
0
-
/var/lib/nfs/rpc_pipefs
3. Show Disk Space Usage in Human Readable Format
Have you noticed that above commands displays information in bytes, which is not readable yet all,
because we are in a habit of reading the sizes in megabytes, gigabytes etc. as it makes very easy to
understand and remember.
The df command provides an option to display sizes in Human Readable formats by using „-h‟
(prints the results in human readable format (e.g., 1K 2M 3G)).
[root@tecmint ~]# df -h
Filesystem
Size
Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
75G
23G
49G
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24G
22G
1.2G
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29G
25G
2.6G
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
289M
22M
253M
8% /boot
tmpfs
252M
0
252M
0% /dev/shm
4. Display Information of /home File System
To see the information of only device /home file system in human readable format use the following
command.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -hT /home
Filesystem
Type
Size
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
ext3
24G
Used Avail Use% Mounted on
22G
1.2G
95% /home
5. Display Information of File System in Bytes
To display all file system information and usage in 1024-byte blocks, use the option „-k„ (e.g. –
block-size=1K) as follows.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -k
Filesystem
1K-blocks
Used Available Use% Mounted on
25. /dev/cciss/c0d0p2
78361192
23187212
51129216
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24797380
22273432
1243972
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29753588
25503792
2713984
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
295561
21531
258770
8% /boot
tmpfs
257476
0
257476
0% /dev/shm
6. Display Information of File System in MB
To display information of all file system usage in MB (Mega Byte) use the option as „-m„.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -m
Filesystem
1M-blocks
Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
76525
22644
49931
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24217
21752
1215
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29057
24907
2651
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
289
22
253
8% /boot
tmpfs
252
0
252
0% /dev/shm
7. Display Information of File System in GB
To display information of all file system statistics in GB (Gigabyte) use the option as „df -h„.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -h
Filesystem
Size
Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
75G
23G
49G
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24G
22G
1.2G
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29G
25G
2.6G
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
289M
22M
253M
8% /boot
tmpfs
252M
0
252M
0% /dev/shm
8. Display File System Inodes
Using „-i„ switch will display the information of number of used inodes and their percentage for the
file system.
26. [root@tecmint ~]# df -i
Filesystem
Inodes
IUsed
IFree IUse% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
20230848
133143 20097705
1% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
6403712
798613 5605099
13% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
7685440 1388241 6297199
19% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
76304
40
76264
1% /boot
tmpfs
64369
1
64368
1% /dev/shm
9. Display File System Type
If you notice all the above commands output, you will see there is no file system type mentioned in
the results. To check the file system type of your system use the option „T„. It will display file system
type along with other information.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -T
Filesystem
Type
1K-blocks
Used
Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
ext3
78361192
23188812
51127616
32%
/
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
ext3
24797380
22273432
1243972
95%
/home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
ext3
29753588
25503792
2713984
91%
/data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
ext3
295561
21531
258770
8%
/boot
tmpfs
tmpfs
257476
0
257476
0%
/dev/shm
10. Include Certain File System Type
If you want to display certain file system type use the „-t„ option. For example, the following
command will only display ext3 file system.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -t ext3
Filesystem
1K-blocks
Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/cciss/c0d0p2
78361192
23190072
51126356
32% /
/dev/cciss/c0d0p5
24797380
22273432
1243972
95% /home
/dev/cciss/c0d0p3
29753588
25503792
2713984
91% /data
/dev/cciss/c0d0p1
295561
21531
258770
8% /boot
27. 11. Exclude Certain File System Type
If you want to display file system type that doesn‟t belongs to ext3 type use the option as „-x„. For
example, the following command will only display other file systems types other than ext3.
[root@tecmint ~]# df -x ext3
Filesystem
1K-blocks
tmpfs
257476
Used Available Use% Mounted on
0
257476
0% /dev/shm
12. Display Information of df Command.
Using „–help„ switch will display a list of available option that are used with df command.
[root@tecmint ~]# df --help
Usage: df [OPTION]... [FILE]...
Show information about the file system on which each FILE resides,
or all file systems by default.
Mandatory arguments to long options are mandatory for short options too.
-a, --all
include dummy file systems
-B, --block-size=SIZE use SIZE-byte blocks
-h, --human-readable
print sizes in human readable format (e.g., 1K 234M 2G)
-H, --si
likewise, but use powers of 1000 not 1024
-i, --inodes
list inode information instead of block usage
-k
like --block-size=1K
-l, --local
limit listing to local file systems
--no-sync
-P, --portability
--sync
do not invoke sync before getting usage info (default)
use the POSIX output format
invoke sync before getting usage info
-t, --type=TYPE
limit listing to file systems of type TYPE
-T, --print-type
print file system type
-x, --exclude-type=TYPE
-v
limit listing to file systems not of type TYPE
(ignored)
28. --help
display this help and exit
--version
output version information and exit
SIZE may be (or may be an integer optionally followed by) one of following:
kB 1000, K 1024, MB 1000*1000, M 1024*1024, and so on for G, T, P, E, Z, Y.
Report bugs to <bug-coreutils@gnu.org>.
How Do I Access or Mount Windows/USB NTFS Partition in
RHEL/CentOS/Fedora
Sometimes it may happens in some stage, you may have to access data on
a Windows partition,USB device or any similar device. Today most of the modern Linux systems
automatically recognize and mount any disks.
However, in some occasions where you may required to configure your system manually to mount
ntfs partitions on your Linux system. Specially when you are using dual boot operating environment.
Fortunately, this process is not so complicated task its just very fairly straight forward.
How to Mount Windows NTFS Partition in Linux
First you need to enable EPEL (Extra Packages for Enterprise Linux) Repository. You may
refer the article on how to enable EPEL Repository under RHEL, CentOS and Fedorasystems.
To mount any NTFS based filesystem, you need to install a tool called NTFS3G. Before heading up
for installation let‟s understand NTGS3G.
What is NTFS3G
NTFS3G is an open source cross-platform, stable, GPL licensed, POSIX, NTFS R/W driver used
in Linux. It provides safe handling of Windows NTFS file systems viz create, remove, rename,
move files, directories, hard links, etc.
Once EPEL is installed and enabled, let‟s install ntfs-3g package using the below command with
root user.
# yum -y install ntfs-3g
Fuse Install
Next, install and load FUSE driver to mount detected devices with below command. FUSE module is
included in the kernel itself in version 2.6.18-164 or newer.
# yum install fuse
# modprobe fuse
Identify NTFS Partition
Once fuse module is loaded, type below command to find out NTFS Partitions in Linux.
# fdisk -l
29. Device Boot
Start
/dev/sdb1
End
1
Blocks
21270
7816688
Id
System
b
W95 FAT32
Mount NTFS partition
First create a mount point to mount the NTFS partition.
# mkdir /mnt/nts
Simply run the following command to mount the partition. Replace sda1 with your actual partition
found.
# mount -t ntfs-3g /dev/sda1 /mnt/nts
Once it‟s mounted on /mnt/ntfs, you may use regular Linux ls -l command to list the content of
mounted filesystem.
[root@tecmint ntfs]# ls -l
total 27328
drwx------.
2 root root
16384 Sep
2 19:37 Cert
drwx------. 20 root root
16384 Aug 24
2011 club_application
drwx------.
6 root root
16384 Aug 11 15:37 docs
drwx------.
7 root root
16384 Jul 31
drwx------.
2 root root
16384 Dec 10 20:28 images
-rwxr-xr-x.
1 root root
31744 Jan 18 00:29 Material List.doc
2012 Downloads
If you want to make mount point permanent at the boot time, then simple add the following line at
the end of /etc/fstab file. This will remain as permanent.
/dev/sda1
/mnt/usb
ntfs-3g
defaults
0
0
Umount NTFS Partition
Simply, use the following command to unmount the mounted partition.
# umount /mnt/usb