Urban Geography ch-4.pdf

L/O/G/O
4. City Development: Theory and Practice
BY : Adola Sh.
June,2022
Haramaya University

Presentation Framework
➢ The Circular and Cumulative Causation Model
➢ The Economic-Base Concepts
➢ Inclusive Urban Growth
➢ Green Infrastructure (GI) Development

Brainstorming
➢ What is the Circular and Cumulative Causation
Model
➢ What is the Economic-Base Concepts
➢ Inclusive Urban Growth
➢ Green Infrastructure (GI) Development

The Circular and Cumulative Causation Model
❖ Cumulative causation refers to a self-reinforcing process
during which an impulse to a system triggers further
changes in the same direction as the original impulse, thus
taking the system further away from its initial position in
virtuous or vicious circles of change that may result in a
continuing increase in advantages (to some people or
activities) and disadvantages (to others).

❖ Circular cumulative causation is a theory developed by
Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal who applied it
systematically for the first time in 1944 (Myrdal, G. (1944),
❖ The idea behind it is that a change in one form of an
institution will lead to successive changes in other
institutions.

❖ These changes are circular in that they continue in a cycle,
many times in a negative way, in which there is no end, and
cumulative in that they persist in each round.
❖ The change does not occur all at once as that would lead to
chaos, rather the changes occur gradually.

✓ The movement of capital, labor, goods and services
throughout the economy is the circular effect.
✓ This model is spiral buildup of advantages that occurs in a
specific geographic setting as a result of the development
of external economies, agglomeration effects and
localization economies
✓ Agglomeration economies are the benefits that come
when firms and people locate near one another
together in cities and industrial clusters.
✓ localization economies—benefits which derive from being
located close to other firms in the same industry

Myrdal’s Cumulative causative theory in its final phase
consists of four theses as follows.
1. The basic thesis: the thesis of “backwash effects”
Myrdal’s CC theory has emphasized a divergent process.
Such a process is well known as a typical logic of CC theory in
general. Myrdal (1957) proposed a concept of “backwash
effects” in order to explain the increasing economic inequality
between developed countries and underdeveloped countries.
2. The opposite or exceptional thesis: the thesis of “spread
effects”

✓ Contrary to the first thesis, the second one is the logic of
convergence. Although CC theory has its importance in
emphasizing a divergent process and it is admitted that the
poor region would benefit the spread effects of
development from the prosperous region.
✓ Myrdal didn’t emphasize this thesis as much as the first
one; this thesis should be a crucial thought because this
characterizes his CC theory.
✓ Myrdal’s CC theory doesn’t deny the potential possibility of
a convergent process.

3. The thesis relating to the scope of the analysis: the thesis of
the importance of institutional factors Myrdal asserts that if so-
called “non-economic” factors are excluded from the analysis,
it will result in distorting the recognition of the facts.
4. The thesis of political implications Although Myrdal’s CC
theory admitted the potential possibility of convergence in the
second thesis; he was too pessimistic to think such possibility
would come true naturally.

✓ He rather believed in policies to turn over the economic
forces composing the “vicious” circle.
✓ He showed the “equality” as his most important value
premise and insisted the policies based on the “equality”
will induce higher economic growth.

summary of cumulative causation theory

The Economic-Base Concepts
✓ The theory was developed by Robert Murray Haig in his
work on the Regional Plan of New York in 1928.
✓ Economic base analysis is a theory that postulates that
activities in an area divide into two categories: basic and
non basic.
✓ Basic industries are those exporting from the region and
bringing wealth from outside,
✓ while non-basic (or service) industries support basic
industries.
✓ the concepts of basic and non basic are operationalized
using employment data.

✓ .Basic sector is made up of local businesses (firms) that are
entirely dependent upon external factors. Local resource-
oriented firms (like logging or mining) and agriculture,
manufacturing, and tourism .
✓ Non- Basic sector depend largely upon local business
conditions Local grocery store sells its goods to local
households, businesses, and individuals.

✓ Economic-base concepts originated with the need to predict
the effects of new economic activity on cities and regions.
✓ For example, a new plant is located in our city, it directly
employs a certain number of people
✓ Economic-base models focus on the demand side of the
economy. They ignore the supply side, or the productive
nature of investment, and are thus short run in approach.

✓ It postulates that local economy is strongest when it
develops those economic sectors that are not closely tied to
the local economy.(non basic sector)
✓ By developing industries that rely primarily on export
markets, the local economy can better withstand economic
downturns because, it is hoped, these external markets will
remain strong even if the local economy experiences
problems.
✓ In contrast, a local economy wholly dependent upon local
factors will have great trouble responding to economic
downturns

Inclusive Urban Growth
❖ An inclusive city has been defined by UN-Habitat as the one
that promotes growth with equity.
❖ It was defined as a place where everyone, regardless of their
economic means, gender, race, ethnicity, or religion, is
enabled and empowered to fully participate in the social,
economic, and political opportunities that cities have to offer

Inclusive Urban Growth
❖ According to Asian Development Bank expanded the
definition of an inclusive city to bring an operational focus
“Inclusive” urban infrastructure development is defined as an
integrated approach encompassing sustainable, resilient,
accessible, and affordable solutions to the challenges faced
by the urban poor and vulnerable groups by enhancing their
access to urban services and infrastructure through targeted
investments.
❖ Participatory planning and decision making are at the heart
of the inclusive city

Inclusive Urban Growth(elements)
Accessibility: It is defined as the opportunities for safe, secure
housing and reliable basic services for all individuals and
communities structured within projects and programs that
include credit and technical support required for their operation,
maintenance, and expansion.
Affordability: It is viewed in its broadest sense to include not
only the affordability of families to benefit from the shelter,
services, and transport solutions offered to them, but also the
affordability of local and national governments to benefit from
and have the capacity to support the systematic delivery of
shelter, services, and transport to their communities

❑ Resilience: a proactive approach to strengthen the ability to
resist, absorb, recover from, and reorganize in response to
natural hazards without risking sustained socioeconomic
advancement and development.
❑ Resilience comes from the awareness of the context in
which investments are to be made, of the affordability of the
product provided, of the vulnerabilities based on historical
record and projections of climate change, and of the
planning and project development innovations and
technologies that support resilience

Sustainability:
❑ Sustainability also calls for access to the technical, financial,
and human support required for shelter and service delivery
through ongoing systems and programs.
❑ Sustainable cities aim to change the way they operate for
the benefit of future generations, ensuring that they do not
put a strain on resources which will cause such resources to
vanish before future generations have an opportunity to
benefit from them.

Inclusive Urban Growth(Elements)
Sustainability:
❑ On a city-wide level, sustainability encompasses a wide
variety of changes, all of which are intended to reduce the
environmental impact of the city as a whole.
❑ These changes can include individual lifestyle changes
made by citizens as well as city-wide shifts in policy.

Sustainability:
❑ On a city-wide level, sustainability encompasses a wide
variety of changes, all of which are intended to reduce the
environmental impact of the city as a whole.
❑ These changes can include individual lifestyle changes
made by citizens as well as city-wide shifts in policy.
❑ Reduction of reliance on surrounding areas includes growing
food in a city, reducing water needs and reusing water as
much as possible, and generating energy inside the city.
❑ The city may become independent of the surrounding area,
reducing strain on outlying communities

Sustainability:
❑ Some examples of things a sustainable city might implement
include: green roofs, , solar panels, bike lanes, better public
transit, water recycling, centralized recycling facilities,
energy efficient heating and cooling systems for large
buildings, reuse of building materials, changes to the
workweek which reduce congestion, harder air quality
controls, permeable pavement, wind energy, and community
service programs

Green Infrastructure (GI) Development
➢ Green infrastructure describes all elements of an
interconnected network of green spaces that conserves
natural ecosystem values and functions and provides
associated benefits to human populations
➢ It consists of natural and man -made elements, such as
reforestation zones, green bridges, green urban areas,
green roofs and green walls, high nature value farmlands or
forest areas.

❑ Green infrastructure can maintain and create landscape
features which guarantee that ecosystems continue to
deliver services such as clean water, productive soils and
attractive recreational areas
❑ Green infrastructure (UNDP) define the range of measures
that use plant or soil systems, permeable pavement or other
permeable surfaces or substrates, storm water harvest and
reuse, or landscaping to store, infiltrate, or
evapotranspiration storm water and reduce flows to sewer
systems or to surface waters

Green Infrastructure (GI)

Green Infrastructure (GI) Haramaya university

✓ Green infrastructure planning involves inventorying green
assets, ensuring habitats are connected, and identifying
opportunities for their protection and/or restoration, and
developing a coordinated strategy to channel development
and redevelopment to the most appropriate locations.

Six steps for community green infrastructure planning
Step 1: Set Goals – What does the community value?
✓ Forests for wildlife and timber?
✓ Recharge areas to protecting drinking water supplies?
✓ Conserving historic landscapes?
✓ Protecting and promoting working farms?

Six steps for community green infrastructure planning
Step 2: Data Review – What do we know and what do we
need to know?
✓ Research existing studies – what are the findings and are
they relevant? (e.g. watershed plans, wildlife plans, open
space plans, ecological inventories, groundwater studies,
air studies etc.)
✓ What data are needed? (If using Geographic Information
Systems you may need digital layers – data arranged
spatially that can be overlain and compared.)

✓ Examples of data types include streams and watersheds,
key agricultural soils, recreation routes, forested areas,
wetlands, etc.

Step 3: Asset Mapping – Map the community’s ecological,
cultural and economic assets.
✓ What is mapped is based on goals established in Step 1.
Following are examples.
✓ Large complete forests or native meadows
✓ Large farms and farm communities
✓ Streams, rivers, wetlands and groundwater recharge areas
✓ Recreational areas (fishing, boating, hiking, biking, birding)
✓ Historic and cultural features (battlefields, historic
landscapes)
✓ In urban areas, street trees, tree canopy and local parks,
streams

Step 4: Risk Assessment – Find out what’s at risk and what
could be lost.
✓ Which areas are zoned for development and do they
overlap key assets?
✓ Are there forests which have been fragmented by roads or
subdivisions?
✓ Which steams are impaired (or might be in the future)?
Where are new roads planned – do they fragment key assets?
✓ Are there areas that are now impaired or lacking habitat that
could be restored?

Step 5: Opportunities – Based on assets and risks, assess
what can or should be saved?
✓ What could be restored? What will be developed?
✓ Engage the community in ranking key areas of importance.
Map these opportunities and draft strategies to conserve
them.
✓ Where will future parks or recreational areas be located?
Which forests can be conserved for forestry, recreation or
wildlife habitats?
Identify locations and routes for agri tourism (local fruit, wines,
honey, meat, vegetables, crafts).

✓ Identify areas where scenic views or routes for historic or
cultural assets should be protected.
✓ Explore the extent to which current zoning adequately
addresses the county’s or region’s land assets.
✓ Where should towns or developments be located in the
future?

Step 6: Include strategies in local plans for parks, zoning,
comprehensive planning, tourism development or recreational
strategies.

Step 6:

potential components of green infrastructure

Case study(Harar city)goal of the project :to create
environmental friendly neighborhood

Case study

Case study( proposal/plan )

The future cities
Watch the video City of the Future_ Singapore – Full Episode
_ National Geographic.mp4

Urban Geography ch-4.pdf

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