Cancer is a disease caused by changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and the formation of tumors. If left untreated, tumors can grow and spread through the body. There are many known causes of cancer including carcinogens, genetics, age, lifestyle factors like smoking, diet, and infections. Some signs of cancer include lumps, changes in bowel or bladder habits, unexplained weight loss, and fatigue. Globally, cancer rates are rising due to factors like aging populations and increases in risk factors. Prevention through reducing risk factors and early detection are important to reducing the cancer burden worldwide.
Presentation for the cytology (cell biology) course on cancer/tumour. A document with more information can be found for better presenting and understanding of the material.
Presentation for the cytology (cell biology) course on cancer/tumour. A document with more information can be found for better presenting and understanding of the material.
Neoplasia
Overview
Characteristics of neoplasms compared to normal tissues
Types of neoplasms
Benign vs malignant
Cellular differentiation
Genetic basis for neoplasia
What is a “neoplasm”?
Lay term of “tumor” conveys usual connotations – ie a new growth or mass
Definition revolves around these features:
Monoclonal proliferation of cells with specific mutations
Excessive and unregulated growth of these cells, often at the expense of surrounding normal tissue
Terms to know about when discussing neoplasia
Metastasis - spread of a malignant tumor from one site to another via blood or lymph
Benign – typically refers to those tumors incapable of metastasis and having a good clinical outcome (prognosis)
Malignant – those tumors capable of invasive growth and/or metastasis, often fatal if not treated effectively
Parenchyma – these are the tumor cells themselves, usually referring to epithelial cells in organs.
Stroma – connective tissue cells that support the parenchymal cells – not actually tumor cells, but are stimulated to grow by the tumor via growth factors, eg angiogenesis
Cellular differentiation
Tumors are often “graded” as to how closely they resemble the normal parent tissue that they are derived from.
Well-differentiated means the cells are very similar in appearance and architectural arrangement to normal tissue of that organ
Differentiation
“Poorly-differentiated” refers to tumors that show only minimal resemblance to the normal parent tissue they are derived from.
“Anaplastic” means the tumor shows no obvious similarity to it’s parent tissue, usually associated with aggressive behavior
So what??????
Differentiation often provides clues as to the clinical aggressiveness of the tumor
Tumors often lose differentiation features over time as they become more “malignant” and as they acquire more cumulative genetic mutations
Differentiation often predicts responsiveness to certain therapies, eg estrogen receptors and Tamoxifen in breast cancers
Benign
– circumscribed, often encapsulated, pushes normal tissue aside
Malignant
– infiltrative growth, no capsule, destructive of normal tissues
Classification of neoplasms
Epithelial tumors
Benign forms – adenoma , papilloma
Malignant forms – carcinoma, eg adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma
Mesenchymal tumors
Benign forms – fibroma, leiomyoma,
Malignant forms – sarcoma, eg fibrosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma
Classification continued
Tumors of lymphocytes are always malignant – called lymphoma
Tumors of melanocytes
Benign – nevus
Malignant - melanoma
Precursors of neoplasia
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Chronic inflammation
dysplasia
Metaplasia, dysplasia, neoplasia
Neoplasia: Is the abnormal growth and proliferation of abnormal cells or abnormal amounts of cells due to a benign or malignant process. There can be benign tumors, or neoplasms, and malignant ones.
Neoplasia
Overview
Characteristics of neoplasms compared to normal tissues
Types of neoplasms
Benign vs malignant
Cellular differentiation
Genetic basis for neoplasia
What is a “neoplasm”?
Lay term of “tumor” conveys usual connotations – ie a new growth or mass
Definition revolves around these features:
Monoclonal proliferation of cells with specific mutations
Excessive and unregulated growth of these cells, often at the expense of surrounding normal tissue
Terms to know about when discussing neoplasia
Metastasis - spread of a malignant tumor from one site to another via blood or lymph
Benign – typically refers to those tumors incapable of metastasis and having a good clinical outcome (prognosis)
Malignant – those tumors capable of invasive growth and/or metastasis, often fatal if not treated effectively
Parenchyma – these are the tumor cells themselves, usually referring to epithelial cells in organs.
Stroma – connective tissue cells that support the parenchymal cells – not actually tumor cells, but are stimulated to grow by the tumor via growth factors, eg angiogenesis
Cellular differentiation
Tumors are often “graded” as to how closely they resemble the normal parent tissue that they are derived from.
Well-differentiated means the cells are very similar in appearance and architectural arrangement to normal tissue of that organ
Differentiation
“Poorly-differentiated” refers to tumors that show only minimal resemblance to the normal parent tissue they are derived from.
“Anaplastic” means the tumor shows no obvious similarity to it’s parent tissue, usually associated with aggressive behavior
So what??????
Differentiation often provides clues as to the clinical aggressiveness of the tumor
Tumors often lose differentiation features over time as they become more “malignant” and as they acquire more cumulative genetic mutations
Differentiation often predicts responsiveness to certain therapies, eg estrogen receptors and Tamoxifen in breast cancers
Benign
– circumscribed, often encapsulated, pushes normal tissue aside
Malignant
– infiltrative growth, no capsule, destructive of normal tissues
Classification of neoplasms
Epithelial tumors
Benign forms – adenoma , papilloma
Malignant forms – carcinoma, eg adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma
Mesenchymal tumors
Benign forms – fibroma, leiomyoma,
Malignant forms – sarcoma, eg fibrosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma
Classification continued
Tumors of lymphocytes are always malignant – called lymphoma
Tumors of melanocytes
Benign – nevus
Malignant - melanoma
Precursors of neoplasia
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
Chronic inflammation
dysplasia
Metaplasia, dysplasia, neoplasia
Neoplasia: Is the abnormal growth and proliferation of abnormal cells or abnormal amounts of cells due to a benign or malignant process. There can be benign tumors, or neoplasms, and malignant ones.
Just regarded to those who trying to learn somethings.. . thanks to those who read this slide... Just pray for me , for my parents and for my teachers...
Various Forms Of Cancer Of Which You Should Be Aware.pdfPrudentRx Program
The various forms of cancer should be on your radar. Until a later stage of development, many cancers show no symptoms. If you notice any symptoms, you should schedule an appointment with your doctor right away.
11Cancer is the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cellsBenitoSumpter862
1
1
Cancer is the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells in the human body. It is defined by a malfunction in cellular mechanisms that control cell growth. Cells evade checkpoint controls and begin growing uncontrollably which resulting in an increase in abnormal cells, cancer cells. These cancer cells form a mass tissue known as a tumor. In the United States of America, cancer has been determined to be among the leading causes of mortality rates after cardiovascular conditions, where one in every four deaths is caused by cancer. The most common types of cancer include prostate cancer, lung cancer, and breast cancer. Risk factors for cancer include excess smoking, radiation exposure, genetics, and environmental pollution. Colon cancer, or colorectal cancer, affects the distal third of the large intestine, the colon, as well as the rectum, chamber in which feces is stored for elimination. Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of death in cancer-related issues in the United States in both males and females (Beadnell et al., 2018). This essay explores the physiology and pathophysiology of colon cancer.
Polyps are tissue growths that generally look like small, flat bumps and are generally less than half an inch wide. They are generally non-cancerous growths that can develop with age on the inner wall of the colon or rectum. There are several types of polyps, such as hyperplastic. They are common and have a low risk of turning cancerous. Hyperplastic polyps found in the colon will be removed and biopsied. Pseudo polyps also referred to as inflammatory polyps, usually occur in people suffering from inflammatory bowel disease and are unlike other polyps. This type of polyp occurs due to chronic inflammation as seen in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. However, a polyp cells which can turn out to be malignant. Villous adenoma or tubulovillous adenoma polyps carry a high risk of turning cancerous. They are sessile and develop flat on the tissue lining the organs. They might blend within the organ, making polyps not easily identifiable and difficult to locate for treatment. Adenomatous or tubular adenoma polyps have a high chance of being cancerous. When a polyp is found, it must be biopsied, and then will regular screenings and polyp removal will follow.
An adenocarcinoma is a cancer formed in a gland that lines an organ. This cancer impacts the epithelial cells, which are spread throughout the human body. Adenocarcinomas of the colon and rectum make up ninety-five percent of all colon cancers (Chang, 2020). Colon adenocarcinomas usually begin in the mucous lining the spread to different layers. Two subtypes of adenocarcinomas are mucinous adenocarcinoma and signet ring cells. Mucinous adenocarcinomas contain about sixty percent mucus which can cause cancer cells to spread faster and become more hostile than typical adenocarcinomas. Signet ring cell adenocarcinoma is responsible for less than one percent of all colon cancer. It is g ...
11Cancer is the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cellsSantosConleyha
1
1
Cancer is the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells in the human body. It is defined by a malfunction in cellular mechanisms that control cell growth. Cells evade checkpoint controls and begin growing uncontrollably which resulting in an increase in abnormal cells, cancer cells. These cancer cells form a mass tissue known as a tumor. In the United States of America, cancer has been determined to be among the leading causes of mortality rates after cardiovascular conditions, where one in every four deaths is caused by cancer. The most common types of cancer include prostate cancer, lung cancer, and breast cancer. Risk factors for cancer include excess smoking, radiation exposure, genetics, and environmental pollution. Colon cancer, or colorectal cancer, affects the distal third of the large intestine, the colon, as well as the rectum, chamber in which feces is stored for elimination. Colorectal cancer is the third leading cause of death in cancer-related issues in the United States in both males and females (Beadnell et al., 2018). This essay explores the physiology and pathophysiology of colon cancer.
Polyps are tissue growths that generally look like small, flat bumps and are generally less than half an inch wide. They are generally non-cancerous growths that can develop with age on the inner wall of the colon or rectum. There are several types of polyps, such as hyperplastic. They are common and have a low risk of turning cancerous. Hyperplastic polyps found in the colon will be removed and biopsied. Pseudo polyps also referred to as inflammatory polyps, usually occur in people suffering from inflammatory bowel disease and are unlike other polyps. This type of polyp occurs due to chronic inflammation as seen in Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. However, a polyp cells which can turn out to be malignant. Villous adenoma or tubulovillous adenoma polyps carry a high risk of turning cancerous. They are sessile and develop flat on the tissue lining the organs. They might blend within the organ, making polyps not easily identifiable and difficult to locate for treatment. Adenomatous or tubular adenoma polyps have a high chance of being cancerous. When a polyp is found, it must be biopsied, and then will regular screenings and polyp removal will follow.
An adenocarcinoma is a cancer formed in a gland that lines an organ. This cancer impacts the epithelial cells, which are spread throughout the human body. Adenocarcinomas of the colon and rectum make up ninety-five percent of all colon cancers (Chang, 2020). Colon adenocarcinomas usually begin in the mucous lining the spread to different layers. Two subtypes of adenocarcinomas are mucinous adenocarcinoma and signet ring cells. Mucinous adenocarcinomas contain about sixty percent mucus which can cause cancer cells to spread faster and become more hostile than typical adenocarcinomas. Signet ring cell adenocarcinoma is responsible for less than one percent of all colon cancer. It is g ...
Gallbladder Cancer - Risks and Treatment.pdfMeghaSingh194
Gallbladder cancer is uncommon and can be challenging to diagnose and cure. Even though it is not as common as other types of cancer, it is still crucial to know the risks and symptoms connected with it. Let's explore more: https://www.southlakegeneralsurgery.com/gallbladder-cancer-risks-and-treatment/
Understanding Cancer: How Genetics Plays a Rolekinsleyaniston
Genetic testing looks at your DNA to identify changes that cause or may put you at risk for certain diseases or disorders. The results from genetic tests provide information that may help you and your doctor recognize and manage these health conditions. Visit: https://www.genomesmart.com/geno-blog/understanding-cancer--how-genetics-plays-a-role
Food hygiene is more than cleanliness ......
Protecting food from risk of contamination, including harmful bacteria, poison and other foreign bodies.
Preventing any bacteria present multiplying to an extent which would result in the illness of consumers or the early spoilage of the food.
Destroying any harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking
or processing.
Discarding unfit or contaminated food.
T-Cell Activation
• Concept of immune response
• T cell-mediated immune response
• B cell-mediated immune response
I. Concept of immune response
• A collective and coordinated response to the introduction of foreign substances in an individual mediated by the cells and molecules in the immune system.
II. T cell-mediated immune response
• Cell-mediated immunity is the arm of the adaptive immune response whose role is to combat infection of intracellular pathogens, such as intracellular bacteria (mycobacteria, listeria monocytogens), viruses, protozoa, etc.
Major Histocompatibility Complex
MHC:
• Major Histocompatibility Complex
– Cluster of genes found in all mammals
– Its products play role in discriminating self/non-self
– Participant in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity
• MHC Act As Antigen Presenting Structures
• In Human MHC Is Found On Chromosome 6
– Referred to as HLA complex
• In Mice MHC Is Found On Chromosome 17
– Referred to as H-2 complex
• Genes Of MHC Organized In 3 Classes
– Class I MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on all nucleated cells
• Major function to present processed Ags to TC
– Class II MHC genes
• Glycoproteins expressed on macrophages, B-cells, DCs
• Major function to present processed Ags to TH
– Class III MHC genes
• Products that include secreted proteins that have immune functions. Ex. Complement system, inflammatory molecules
Antigen Processing and Presentation MID
Antigens and “foreignness”
• Antigens (or, more properly, immunogens) have a series of features which confer immunogenicity.
• One of these features is “foreignness.”
• So, we can infer that – most often – antigens – ultimately – originate externally.
• (There are exceptions, of course. Some cells become transformed by disease [e. g., cancer] or by aging. In such instances, the antigens have an internal origin.)
Extinction of a particular animal or plant species occurs when there are no more individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world - the species has died out. This is a natural part of evolution. But sometimes extinctions happen at a much faster rate than usual. Natural Causes of Extinction.
Difference between In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation
Conservation of biodiversity and genetic resources helps protect, maintain and recover endangered animal and plant species. There are mainly two strategies for the conservation of wildlife: In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation. Although, both the strategies aim to maintain and recover endangered species, they are different from each other. Let us see how they differ from each other!
Evolution Of Bacteria
Bacteria have existed from very early in the history of life on Earth. Bacteria fossils discovered in rocks date from at least the Devonian Period (419.2 million to 358.9 million years ago), and there are convincing arguments that bacteria have been present since early Precambrian time, about 3.5 billion years ago. Bacteria were widespread on Earth at least since the latter part of the Paleoproterozoic, roughly 1.8 billion years ago, when oxygen appeared in the atmosphere as a result of the action of the cyanobacteria. Bacteria have thus had plenty of time to adapt to their environments and to have given rise to numerous descendant forms.
Impact of Environment on Loss of Genetic Diversity and Speciation
Genetic variation describes naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same species. This variation permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing environmental circumstances. Consequently, genetic variation is often considered an advantage, as it is a form of preparation for the unexpected. But how does genetic variation increase or decrease? And what effect do fluctuations in genetic variation have on populations over time?
GENE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Subtle differences in one person’s genes can cause them to respond differently to the same environmental exposure as another person. As a result, some people may develop a disease after being exposed to something in the environment while others may not.
As scientists learn more about the connection between genes and the environment, they pursue new approaches for preventing and treating disease that consider individual genetic codes.
How to store food in hot
The Good News
To maximize benefit of preservation, keep your food as fresh as possible for as long as possible. You can do this, even in the heat, by creating a “cooler” made from two basic terra cotta pots, one larger than the other. Put the smaller pot in the larger one, fill the gap with sand, and saturate the sand with water. Then cover it with a cloth. To add additional insulation from the heat, bury the pot up to its rim. The evaporation of moisture from the wet sand will cool the air around the food and help keep it fresh.
What is IUPAC naming?
In order to give compounds a name, certain rules must be followed. When naming organic compounds, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) nomenclature (naming scheme) is used. This is to give consistency to the names. It also enables every compound to have a unique name, which is not possible with the common names used (for example in industry). We will first look at some of the steps that need to be followed when naming a compound, and then try to apply these rules to some specific examples.
IUPAC Nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature uses the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms to determine the basic root name of the compound. The root name is then modified due to the presence of different functional groups which replace hydrogen or carbon atoms in the parent structure.
Hybridization describes the bonding atoms from an atom's point of view. For a tetrahedral coordinated carbon (e.g. methane CH4), the carbon should have 4 orbitals with the correct symmetry to bond to the 4 hydrogen atoms.
INTRODUCTION:
Hybrid Orbitals
Developed by Linus Pauling, the concept of hybrid orbitals was a theory created to explain the structures of molecules in space. The theory consists of combining atomic orbitals (ex: s,p,d,f) into new hybrid orbitals (ex: sp, sp2, sp3).
1. Why Firefly give light during night?
2. Why atomic mass and Atomic numbers are given to elements ?
3. Why elements have been characterized and classified into different groups?
4. What is the transition of elements and what they play their role in elements stability?
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
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types of Cancer
1. CANCER EXPLAINED
What is cancer?
Cancer isa disease whichoccurswhenchangesinagroup of normal cellswithinthe bodyleadto
uncontrolledgrowthcausingalumpcalledatumour;thisis true of all cancers exceptleukaemia(cancer
of the blood).If leftuntreated,tumourscangrow and spreadintothe surroundingnormal tissue,orto
otherparts of the bodyviathe bloodstreamandlymphaticsystems,andcanaffectthe digestive,
nervousandcirculatorysystems.
Tumours (lumps) can be benignor malignant
Benigntumours are notcancerousand rarelythreatenlife.2Theytendtogrow quite slowly,donot
spreadto otherparts of the bodyandare usuallymade upof cellsquite similartonormal /healthy
cells.3Theywill onlycause aproblemif theygrow verylarge,becominguncomfortableorpressonother
organs - for example abraintumourinside the skull .
Malignant tumours are fastergrowingthanbenigntumoursandhave the abilitytospreadand
destroyneighbouringtissue.Cellsof malignanttumourscanbreakoff fromthe main (primary) tumour
and spreadto otherparts of the bodythrough a processknownas metastasis.Uponinvadinghealthy
tissue atthe newsite theycontinue todivideandgrow.These secondarysitesare knownasmetastases
and the conditionisreferredtoasmetastaticcancer.
Cancer can be classifiedaccordingto the followingcategories:
Carcinoma – A cancer that arisesfromthe epithelial cells(the lining of cellsthathelpsprotector
enclose organs).Carcinomasmayinvade the surroundingtissuesandorgansandmetastasise tothe
lymphnodesandotherareasof the body.The most commonformsof cancer inthisgroup are breast,
prostate,lungandcoloncancer •
Sarcoma – A type of malignanttumourof the bone or softtissue (fat,muscle,bloodvessels,nerves
and otherconnective tissuesthatsupportandsurroundorgans).The mostcommonformsof sarcoma
are leiomyosarcoma,liposarcomaandosteosarcoma•
Lymphoma – Lymphomaisa cancer of the lymphaticsystem, whichrunsall throughthe body,and
can therefore occuranywhere.The twomainformsare non-Hodgkin’swhichbeginswithuncontrolled
growthof the - white bloodcells -lymphocytes - of the immune system) andHodgkin’slymphomain
whichcellsof the lymphnodesbecome cancerous•
Leukaemia- Leukaemiaisacancer of the white bloodcellsandbone marrow,the tissue thatforms
bloodcells.There are several subtypes;commonare lymphocyticleukaemiaandchroniclymphocytic
leukaemia.
2. Causes
There are about200 knowntypesof cancer.As withmostillnessescancerismultifactorial,meaning
there isno single cause foranyone type of cancer.
A. Cancer-causingsubstances(carcinogens) - Genesare codedmessagesinsideacell thattell it
howto behave (i.e.whichproteinstomake).Mutationorchangestothe gene,suchas damage
or loss,can alterhowthat cell behaves.Forexample,amutationmaymeanthattoo much
proteinismade,or thatproteinisnot made at all.Significantly,thereneedstobe a numberof
geneticmutations3withinacell before itbecomescancerous.Somethingthatdamagesacell,
changingitsbehaviourandmakesitmore likelytobe cancerousiscalleda 'carcinogen'•
B. Age – Many typesof cancerbecome more prevalentwithage.The longerpeople live,the more
exposure there istocarcinogensandthe more time there isforgeneticchangesormutationsto
occur withintheircells•
C. Genetics– Some people are unfortunatelybornwithageneticallyinheritedhighriskfora
specificcancer('geneticpredisposition).Thisdoesnotmeandevelopingcancerisguaranteed,
but a geneticpredispositionmakesthe disease more likely.
o For example, womenthatcarry the BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 breastcancer geneshave a higher
predispositiontodevelopingthisformof cancerthan womenwitha normal breastcancer
risk.2However,lessthan5%of all breastcancer isknownto be due to genes.Soalthough
womenwithone of these genesare individuallymore likelytodevelopbreastcancer,most
casesare not causedbya highriskinheritedgenefault.Thisistrue of othercommon
cancers where some people have ageneticpredisposition - forexample,colon(large bowel)
cancer
D. The immune system- People whohave weakenedimmune systemsare more atriskof
developingsome typesof cancer.Thisincludespeople whohave hadorgantransplantsandtake
drugsto suppresstheirimmune systemstostoporganrejection,pluspeople whohave HIV or
AIDS, or othermedical conditionswhichreduce theirimmunitytodisease.
Certainlifestylesandenvironmental factorsare alsoknowntocause mutationsthatcan cause cancer.
Lifestyle andenvironmentalcausesare toa large extentcontrollableoravoidable.Examplesinclude:
1. Bodyweight,dietandphysical activity - Cancerexpertsestimatethatmaintainingahealthy
bodyweight,makingchangestoourdietandtakingregularphysical activitycouldpreventabout
one inthree deathsfromcancer. Many people eattoomuchred and processedmeatandnot
enoughfreshfruitandvegetables.Thistype of dietisknowntoincrease the riskof cancer.
2. Overweightor obesity- 'Obese'meansbeingmore thanabout25% overweight.Overweightor
obese people have anincreasedriskof bowel andpancreaticcancer,probablydue toa
tendencytowardshigherinsulinlevels.Obesitycanalsoincrease the riskof cancerof the
foodpipe (oesophagealcancer),kidneyandgallbladdercancer,aswell asbreastor womb
(uterine) cancerinwomen.
3. Alcohol - The evidence thatall typesof alcoholicdrinksare acause of a numberof cancersis
nowstrongerthan everbefore. Alcohol canincrease the riskof a numberof cancers,including
3. mouth,throat (whichincludespharyngeal cancer),laryngeal andcancerof the food pipe,plus
liver,breastandbowel cancer(inmen).Evenmoderate alcoholintake increasesthe riskof
cancer .
4. Tobacco – Tobacco smoke containsat least80 differentcancer-causingsubstances(carcinogenic
agents).Whensmoke isinhaledthe chemicalsenterthe lungs,passintothe bloodstreamand
are transportedthroughoutthe body.6Thisiswhysmokingorchewingtobacconot onlycauses
lungcancer and mouthcancers,but isalsorelatedtomany othercancers.The more a person
smokes,the youngertheystart,andthe longertheykeepsmoking,all furtherincreasethe risk
of cancer.
5. Ionisingradiation – Manmade sourcesof radiationcan cause cancer and are a riskfor workers.
The main riskishowever,prolongedandunprotectedexposure toultravioletradiationsfrom
the sun whichcan leadtomelanomaandskinmalignancies.7Fairskinnedpeople,those withlot
of molesorwhohave a relative whohashad melanomaornonmelanomaskincancer,are at
highestrisk.
6. Work place hazards - Some people riskbeingexposedtoacancer causingsubstance because of
the work thattheydo. For example,workersinthe chemical dye industryhave beenfoundto
have a higherincidence thannormal of bladdercancer.Asbestosisawellknownworkplace
cause of cancer - particularlyacancer calledmesothelioma,3whichmostcommonlyaffectsthe
coveringof the lungs(pleura) .
7. Infection– A proportionof cancerscan be causedby infectionwithavirus.However,thisdoes
not meanthat these cancerscan be caught like aninfection;ratherthe viruscancause changes3
incellsthat make themmore likelytobecome cancerous
o Examplesincludecervical cancer,linkedtothe HumanPapillomaVirus,primaryliver
cancer whichcan be causedby the HepatitisBand C virusand lymphomaslinkedtothe
Epstein-Barrvirus8.
o Bacterial infectionshave notbeenthoughtof ascancer causingagentsinthe past. But
studieshave shownthatpeople whohave helicobacterpylori infectionof theirstomach
developinflammationof the stomachlining,whichincreasesthe riskof stomachcancer.
Signsand symptomsAsthere are so manydifferenttypesof cancerthe symptomsare varied
and dependonwhere the diseaseislocated.However,thereare some keysignsandsymptoms9
, including:
Lumps – some cancerscan be feltthroughthe skin.Cancerouslumpsare oftenpainlessandmay
increase insize asthe cancer progresses.
Coughing, breathlessness–persistentcoughingepisodesandbreathlessnesscanbe associated
withlungcancer.
Changesin bowel habit – symptomsof bowel cancermayinclude bloodinthe stoolsanda
change in bowel habitssuchasconstipationanddiarrhea.
Bleeding–anyunexpectedbleedingcanbe a signof cancer:
Bleedingfromthe anal passage maybe a signof bowel cancero
Bleedingfromthe cervix maybe asignof cervical cancero Bloodpresentinthe urine
may be a signof kidneyorbladdercancer•
4. Unexplainedweightloss– a large amountof unexplainedweightlossoverashortperiodof
time (acouple of months) can be a signof cancer •
Fatigue - fatigue isextreme tirednessandasevere lackof energy.If fatigue isdue tocancer,
sufferers normallyalsohave othersymptoms.
The global cancer epidemicThe incidenceandburdenof canceris huge andis setto rise.Cancerkills
more people ona global scale thanAIDS,malariaand TB combined.Manyof the 600,000 deathseach
monthattributedto cancer can be preventedwithincreasedgovernmental supportandfundingfor
prevention,detectionandtreatmentprogrammes.
The incidence of canceris highestindevelopedcountries,particularlyinNorthernAmerica,Australia
and NewZealandandinNorthernandWesternEurope.However,the impactinthe developingworldis
growingat an alarmingrate.More than 70% of all cancer deathsalreadyoccurin low- andmiddle-
income countriesandthese regionsare projectedtoaccountfor twothirds of all cases of cancer
worldwide by2050 (an increase of 15% since 1975).
There are significantregional differencesincancerprevalence,butthe biggestcancerkillersworldwide
are lungcancer (1.4 milliondeathsin2008),stomach cancer (740,000 deathsin2008), livercancer
(700,000 deathsin2008), colorectal cancer (610,000 deathsin2008), and breastcancer (460,000 deaths
in2008).
In additiontothe impacton lossof life,the economicimpactof canceris huge.Currentlyitisestimated
that the disease costseconomiesacrossthe worldanestimated$290 billionin2010 - $154 billionof
whichwere medical costs.
The future cancer burden:
The global cancer epidemicissettocontinue rising,placingfurtherstrainsonbothindividualsandthe
families,andthe societiesinwhichtheylive.The numberof cancercasesand relateddeathsworldwide
isestimatedtodouble overthe next20-40 years.Withthe greatestincrease inlow- andmiddle-income
countries;those leastequippedtocope withboththe social and economicimpactof the disease
Worryingly,it isexpectedthat by 2030:
There will be 12 millioncancerdeathsperyear•
The global costs of cancer are estimatedtorise to458 billion.
The risingburdenof canceracross the worldcan be linkedtoa numberof factorsincluding:
Expandingandageingpopulations.
Increasesinmodifiable riskfactors(smoking,western dietandphysical inactivity) .
Higherincidencesof cancersrelatedto preventableortreatable infections(particularlyin
developingcountries)
5. Preventionand earlydetectionof cancer
More than a thirdof all cancers are preventable byreducingexposure toriskfactorsincludingtobacco,
obesity,physicalinactivityand sexuallytransmittedinfections.11Preventative measuressuchas
vaccinationprogrammesagainstHBV andHPV andpubliceducationcampaignsare vital now,andinthe
future,tomitigate the expectedincreaseof peopleaffectedbycancerinthe comingdecades.
Early detectioncanalsoplayitspart inreducingthe global cancerepidemic.Implementationof
screeningprogrammestoidentifypre-cancerorearlystage cancerare crucial in the fightagainstthe
disease inbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries. Inorderforearlydetectionprogrammestobe
effective,stronghealthcare systemsmustbe inplace to provide equityof accesstodiagnosisand
treatmentforall cancer patients.Inaddition,publiceducationcampaignsare neededacrossthe world
to tackle the cancer epidemicbyhelpingpeoplerecognise the earlysignsof disease andencourage the
seekingof promptmedical attention.
Call to action : Unlessurgentactionistakento raise awarenessaboutcancerand encourage
governmentstodeveloppractical,multisectoral strategiestoaddressthe disease,millionsof people
aroundthe worldwill continuetodie prematurelyorsuffereveryyearbecauseof thisdevastating
disease.
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2013
3. Cancer ReaserchUK. Availablefrom: http://cancerhelp.cancerresearchuk.org/about-
cancer/what-iscancer/cells/types-of-cells-and-cancer.LastaccessedJanuary2013
4. WorldCancer ResearchFund.Available from:
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http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/healthyliving/smokingandtobacco/.
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PreparedBy Amjad Khan Afridi