Traffic jams are a major global problem. This project aims to reduce traffic jams using wireless radio signals. Police will monitor roads for jams and transmit locations to stations. Stations will send this to access points near roads, which will broadcast using FM radio. A circuit will be added to car radios to prioritize the police traffic channel. This will guide drivers along clear roads in real-time to avoid detected jams. The system will transmit traffic data over various areas using modulation methods like FM that vary a carrier signal's frequency to encode information.
This document proposes a traffic guide system using wireless radio to help reduce traffic jams. It would work by transmitting guidance signals from access points using FM radio frequencies. Drivers' car radios would receive the signals on a reserved channel to guide them away from traffic jams. The system uses an FM microphone to transmit signals, a mini radio and PIC microcontroller to receive signals and control drivers' car radios to tune to the reserved channel. The PIC would switch the car radio on if off, change to the radio mode if on tape/CD, and tune to the police channel if on another station, guiding drivers away from jams.
Ch1 gsm “ global system for mobile communicationMohamed Shaaban
This document provides an overview of the history and fundamentals of cellular communication systems. It discusses early communication networks and switching devices. It then covers the transition to digital cellular networks and describes key technologies like FDMA, TDMA, frequency reuse, and cellular structure. The document outlines generations of cellular standards and discusses aspects of cellular networks like cell shapes, sizes, splitting, and channel allocation techniques. It also covers issues like multipath fading, Doppler shift, interference, and methods to address them.
This presentation covers:
What is a Radio Resource Unit ?
Why do we need RRM ?
Need of RRM in WCDMA ?
RRM algorithms Objectives
Different RRM functions : Handover, Power control, Admission Control, Code Management
The document discusses the basic principles of wireless communication, including radio propagation characteristics, spreading technology, channel coding, interleave technology, and modulation. It then focuses on the specific mechanisms used in WCDMA networks, including the data transmission procedure, channel coding methods of convolutional codes and turbo codes, spreading using orthogonal variable spreading factor codes, and modulation techniques.
This chapter provides an overview of basic wireless communication concepts such as frequency, bandwidth, channels, transmission rate and modulation methods. It describes Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) used in digital cellular systems and discusses advantages of digital transmission over analog. Transmission problems like path loss, shadowing, multipath fading and solutions like channel coding, interleaving, antenna diversity and adaptive equalization are also covered. The chapter then explains the GSM transmission process from analog to digital conversion to burst formatting and modulation.
Topics covered in this presentation:
What is a Base Transceiver Station ?
Components of any BTS
BTS transceiver, BTS O&M module, clock module
BTS Transmitter and Receiver Characteristics
BTS configurations
BTS functions and Protocols on Um and Abis Interface
BTS security aspects
GSM(Global System For Mobile) CommunicationNavin Kumar
GSM is a standard for second-generation digital cellular networks, first deployed in 1991. It describes protocols for 2G cellular networks used by mobile devices. The document discusses GSM's development and standardization by ETSI, its goals of improved spectrum efficiency, international roaming, and compatibility with other networks. It also outlines GSM's network architecture including subsystems for the mobile station, base station, switching, and operation support.
The GSM network architecture consists of three major subsystems: the network and switching subsystem (NSS), the base station subsystem (BSS), and the operation and support subsystem (OSS). The BSS is composed of the base transceiver station (BTS), base station controller (BSC), and transcoder (TCU/TRAU). The BTS handles radio transmission/reception, the BSC manages radio resources and handles radio call processing, and the TCU converts between GSM and PSTN/ISDN formats. The NSS contains the mobile switching center (MSC), home location register (HLR), visitor location register (VLR), and equipment identity register (EIR), which manage subscriber
This document proposes a traffic guide system using wireless radio to help reduce traffic jams. It would work by transmitting guidance signals from access points using FM radio frequencies. Drivers' car radios would receive the signals on a reserved channel to guide them away from traffic jams. The system uses an FM microphone to transmit signals, a mini radio and PIC microcontroller to receive signals and control drivers' car radios to tune to the reserved channel. The PIC would switch the car radio on if off, change to the radio mode if on tape/CD, and tune to the police channel if on another station, guiding drivers away from jams.
Ch1 gsm “ global system for mobile communicationMohamed Shaaban
This document provides an overview of the history and fundamentals of cellular communication systems. It discusses early communication networks and switching devices. It then covers the transition to digital cellular networks and describes key technologies like FDMA, TDMA, frequency reuse, and cellular structure. The document outlines generations of cellular standards and discusses aspects of cellular networks like cell shapes, sizes, splitting, and channel allocation techniques. It also covers issues like multipath fading, Doppler shift, interference, and methods to address them.
This presentation covers:
What is a Radio Resource Unit ?
Why do we need RRM ?
Need of RRM in WCDMA ?
RRM algorithms Objectives
Different RRM functions : Handover, Power control, Admission Control, Code Management
The document discusses the basic principles of wireless communication, including radio propagation characteristics, spreading technology, channel coding, interleave technology, and modulation. It then focuses on the specific mechanisms used in WCDMA networks, including the data transmission procedure, channel coding methods of convolutional codes and turbo codes, spreading using orthogonal variable spreading factor codes, and modulation techniques.
This chapter provides an overview of basic wireless communication concepts such as frequency, bandwidth, channels, transmission rate and modulation methods. It describes Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) used in digital cellular systems and discusses advantages of digital transmission over analog. Transmission problems like path loss, shadowing, multipath fading and solutions like channel coding, interleaving, antenna diversity and adaptive equalization are also covered. The chapter then explains the GSM transmission process from analog to digital conversion to burst formatting and modulation.
Topics covered in this presentation:
What is a Base Transceiver Station ?
Components of any BTS
BTS transceiver, BTS O&M module, clock module
BTS Transmitter and Receiver Characteristics
BTS configurations
BTS functions and Protocols on Um and Abis Interface
BTS security aspects
GSM(Global System For Mobile) CommunicationNavin Kumar
GSM is a standard for second-generation digital cellular networks, first deployed in 1991. It describes protocols for 2G cellular networks used by mobile devices. The document discusses GSM's development and standardization by ETSI, its goals of improved spectrum efficiency, international roaming, and compatibility with other networks. It also outlines GSM's network architecture including subsystems for the mobile station, base station, switching, and operation support.
The GSM network architecture consists of three major subsystems: the network and switching subsystem (NSS), the base station subsystem (BSS), and the operation and support subsystem (OSS). The BSS is composed of the base transceiver station (BTS), base station controller (BSC), and transcoder (TCU/TRAU). The BTS handles radio transmission/reception, the BSC manages radio resources and handles radio call processing, and the TCU converts between GSM and PSTN/ISDN formats. The NSS contains the mobile switching center (MSC), home location register (HLR), visitor location register (VLR), and equipment identity register (EIR), which manage subscriber
This document provides an overview of 3rd generation WCDMA/UMTS wireless networks. It describes the evolution from 2G to 3G networks and the key aspects of WCDMA/UMTS architecture, including the air interface, radio access network, core network and radio resource management functions such as admission control, load control, packet scheduling, handover control and power control. The document also briefly discusses additional topics such as radio network planning issues, high speed data packet access, and a comparison of WCDMA and CDMA2000.
The document provides an overview of the GSM network including its history, architecture, technical specifications, and applications. It discusses the key components of GSM including the mobile station, base station subsystem, network switching subsystem, logical and physical channels, and security features. The architecture consists of the mobile station, base station subsystem with BTS and BSC, and the network switching subsystem including the MSC, HLR, VLR, and AUC. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA and operates in the 900/1800MHz spectrum. It provides voice and data services and allows international roaming.
This document provides an overview of GSM principles and network structure. It discusses key aspects of the GSM system including frequency reuse, multiple access techniques, network components, numbering plans and identifiers. The objectives are to understand the GSM system, its structure, protocols, channel combinations, radio techniques and the introduction of GPRS and EDGE. It contains detailed descriptions and illustrations of concepts such as cells, frequency division duplexing, time division multiple access, frequency planning and network interfaces.
The document discusses the history and development of GSM technology. It began in 1981 with analog cellular technology and a Franco-German study exploring digital cellular. In 1982, the Groupe Spécial Mobile was formed within CEPT to continue this work. In 1989, GSM was moved to ETSI and renamed to the Global System for Mobile Communications. The document then provides an overview of the GSM network architecture and components, including the SIM, BTS, BSC, MSC, HLR, VLR, and more. It also includes a diagram of a general GSM network and descriptions of the GSM channel plans and frequencies.
Mobile networks use radio frequencies to allow cellular devices to connect to a network of base stations. Base stations transmit and receive signals within assigned frequency bands to serve mobile terminals in a given coverage area. As terminals move between areas covered by different base stations, the network performs handoffs to transfer service to the closest base station. A study measured the impact of mobility on HSPA networks, finding that mobility reduced available bandwidth for users on public transportation due to increased handoffs and interference between cells.
Umts Radio Interface System Planning And OptimizationDavid Rottmayer
The document discusses planning and optimizing UMTS radio networks. It begins with an overview of UMTS network architecture and the differences between UMTS and GSM radio system planning. Key aspects of UMTS planning include coverage and capacity planning occurring simultaneously, as capacity requirements influence coverage. The document then covers WCDMA air interface specifications, propagation environments, and the UMTS radio system planning process. It discusses challenges such as varying traffic levels and distributions. The document provides a typical link budget example and explains transmitter, receiver, and channel parameters considered in UMTS coverage planning.
The document discusses the Global System for Mobiles (GSM) mobile communication technology. It describes GSM concepts like cellular structure and frequency division duplexing. It outlines the GSM network architecture including components like the mobile station, base station, base station controller, mobile switching center, home location register, and visitor location register. It also covers GSM channels, mobility management, and call management functions.
Overview Of Gsm Cellular Network & OperationsDeepak Sharma
The document provides an overview of the GSM cellular network and its operations. It describes the main components including the mobile switching center (MSC), home location register (HLR), visitor location register (VLR), and authentication center (AUC). It also discusses the mobile handset, radio interface, network architecture, and how capacity is increased through frequency reuse, cell splitting, and sectoring.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a 2G digital cellular network standard that became the world's leading standard for mobile communications. GSM uses TDMA multiple access to allow multiple users to share the same radio frequency by dividing each radio channel into time slots. It offers advantages over 1G analog networks like increased network capacity, support for additional services beyond voice calls, and more efficient use of available spectrum.
What is GSM?
The Global System for Mobile communications is a digital cellular communications system. It was developed in order to create a common European mobile telephone standard but it has been rapidly accepted worldwide.
Formerly it was “Groupe Spéciale Mobile” (founded in 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication.
Services:
Tele-services
Bearer or Data Services
Supplementary services
Applications:
Mobile telephony
GSM-R
Telemetry System
- Fleet management
- Automatic meter reading
- Toll Collection
- Remote control and fault reporting of DG sets
Value Added Services
Advantages:
Better Quality of speech
Data transmission is supported
New services offered due to ISDN compatibility
International Roaming possible
Large market
Crisper, cleaner quieter calls
disadvantages:
Dropped and missed calls
Less Efficiency
Security Issues
conclusion
The mobile telephony industry rapidly growing and that has become backbone for business success and efficiency and a part of modern lifestyles all over the world.
In this session I have tried to give and over view of the GSM system. I hope that I gave the general flavor of GSM and the philosophy behind its design.
The GSM is standard that insures interoperability without stifling competition and innovation among the suppliers to the benefit of the public both in terms of cost and service quality.
The document discusses GSM radio coverage and the air interface in 3 main points:
1. It describes the geometry of GSM cells and frequency reuse techniques used to divide a service area into smaller cells to improve coverage and capacity. Different cluster sizes such as 3/9, 4/12 and 7/21 are discussed.
2. It explains the GSM frequency bands and channel structure, including physical channels divided into timeslots, and logical channels for traffic and control data.
3. It outlines the structure of bursts transmitted on the air interface, including normal bursts containing encrypted speech blocks, training sequences, and guard periods between bursts.
My PptIntroduction to 3G, GSM, GPRS, EDGE NetworkARVIND SARDAR
The document provides an introduction to 3G mobile networks including GSM, GPRS and EDGE. It discusses the evolution from 1G to 2G to 3G networks, with 2G introducing GSM and 2.5G being GPRS. 3G aimed to support higher data speeds. GPRS offered speeds up to 114kbps, EDGE up to 384kbps, and UMTS/HSDPA up to 14Mbps. It then describes the key components and architecture of GSM and GPRS networks.
Introduction to GSM - an Overview of Global System for Mobile Communicationiptvmagazine
This slideshow explains the basic components, technologies used, and operation of Global System for Mobile Communication - GSM - systems. You will discover the evolution of GSM; 1st generation analog systems, 2nd generation GSM systems (digital voice), 3rd generation multimedia, and 4th generation wideband ultra broadband systems.
You will learn the key system components and basic services that GSM systems can provide. Discover the types of GSM devices which include mobile telephones, wireless PCMCIA cards, embedded radio modules, and external radio modems. The different types of services are described including voice services, data services, and messaging services.
Learn about the physical and logical radio channel structures of the GSM system along with the basic frame and slot structures. The operation of the GSM radio channels are explained including channel coding, modulation types, speech coding, RF power control, and mobile assisted handover. GSM radio channel have 8 time slots per frame and that some of these are used for signaling (control channels) and others are used for user traffic (voice and data).
The document discusses the history and development of 3G mobile communication technology, specifically UMTS. It provides details on:
- The evolution from 1G to 2G mobile networks and the need for 3G to support higher data rates and multimedia services.
- The standardization of UMTS through ETSI and ITU, focusing on the two selected radio transmission technologies - UTRA FDD and TDD.
- The architecture of 3G UMTS networks, including frequency reuse techniques used to maximize capacity within limited spectrum availability.
The document discusses Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology. It covers various radio problems in wireless communication like fading and time dispersion. It explains how GSM solves these problems using techniques like increasing fading margin, antenna diversity, frequency hopping, and increasing carrier-to-reflection ratio. It also describes the GSM transmission process which includes speech coding, channel coding, interleaving, encryption, analog-to-digital conversion, burst formatting, and modulation for digital transmission of voice calls over the cellular network.
GSM and CDMA are the two main digital mobile technologies. CDMA uses direct sequence spread spectrum technology and allows multiple users to access the network using the same frequency band at the same time through the use of unique codes. In CDMA, users share the same bandwidth and are separated by codes rather than frequency or time slots. CDMA provides advantages like better voice quality and easier frequency planning compared to TDMA/FDMA systems. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA to allow multiple access through allocating users to different time slots and frequency channels.
The document provides an overview of the Global System for Mobile (GSM) network structure. It describes the basic nodes that compose the GSM network including the mobile station, base station subsystem consisting of base transceiver stations and base station controllers, and the network switching subsystem containing elements like the mobile switching center, home location register, and visitor location register. It also outlines the services offered in GSM like teleservices, bearer services, and supplementary services.
3G is defined by the ITU and called IMT-2000. It evolved from 2G technologies through intermediary 2.5G and 3.5G standards. UMTS is the 3G standard developed by 3GPP as an upgrade from GSM, using W-CDMA technology. UMTS network architecture consists of the core network, UTRAN radio access network, and user equipment. The UTRAN air interface uses W-CDMA technology with Node-B base stations controlled by RNCs. 3.5G technologies like HSPA extend UMTS with features like adaptive modulation and fast scheduling to enhance performance.
The document provides an overview of mobile communications networks and technologies. It discusses (1) how electromagnetic waves are used to transmit voice and data wirelessly, (2) the evolution of cellular networks from 1G to 4G with increasing data capabilities, and (3) examples of common applications that require higher data rates like multimedia content, online gaming, and mobile banking.
The document discusses the functions of base station systems in cellular networks. It describes the roles of the Base Station Controller (BSC) and Base Transceiver Station (BTS). The BSC manages radio resources and controls the BTSs. It handles radio channel allocation and handovers between cells. The BTS provides the radio interface to mobile stations in its cell. It transmits and receives radio signals and manages lower level radio functions under control of the BSC.
Three phase bridge controlled by microprocessor(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document summarizes a student project to build a three-phase thyristor bridge controlled by a microprocessor. A PIC 16F877 microcontroller was programmed to trigger thyristors at specific firing angles to control the output voltage. Testing showed the bridge could control DC motor speed by varying the firing angle and output voltage. Harmonics in the input current were reduced using passive low-pass filters. Applications include power electronic labs, motor speed control, battery charging, and uninterruptible power systems.
This document acknowledges and thanks various individuals for their contributions to a graduation project. It begins by thanking family members for their support and encouragement. It then thanks friends, prisoners who sacrificed for others' freedom, and martyrs of Palestine. Next, it thanks those involved in education and knowledge, the project's supervisor Dr. Falah Hassan, the author's home country of Palestine, and colleagues at An-Najah National University. Finally, it thanks all others who contributed to the project's success. The document goes on to provide an introduction to developing a home automation system as the graduation project. It describes controlling home devices remotely using a mobile web application to turn systems on and off from a distance.
This document provides an overview of 3rd generation WCDMA/UMTS wireless networks. It describes the evolution from 2G to 3G networks and the key aspects of WCDMA/UMTS architecture, including the air interface, radio access network, core network and radio resource management functions such as admission control, load control, packet scheduling, handover control and power control. The document also briefly discusses additional topics such as radio network planning issues, high speed data packet access, and a comparison of WCDMA and CDMA2000.
The document provides an overview of the GSM network including its history, architecture, technical specifications, and applications. It discusses the key components of GSM including the mobile station, base station subsystem, network switching subsystem, logical and physical channels, and security features. The architecture consists of the mobile station, base station subsystem with BTS and BSC, and the network switching subsystem including the MSC, HLR, VLR, and AUC. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA and operates in the 900/1800MHz spectrum. It provides voice and data services and allows international roaming.
This document provides an overview of GSM principles and network structure. It discusses key aspects of the GSM system including frequency reuse, multiple access techniques, network components, numbering plans and identifiers. The objectives are to understand the GSM system, its structure, protocols, channel combinations, radio techniques and the introduction of GPRS and EDGE. It contains detailed descriptions and illustrations of concepts such as cells, frequency division duplexing, time division multiple access, frequency planning and network interfaces.
The document discusses the history and development of GSM technology. It began in 1981 with analog cellular technology and a Franco-German study exploring digital cellular. In 1982, the Groupe Spécial Mobile was formed within CEPT to continue this work. In 1989, GSM was moved to ETSI and renamed to the Global System for Mobile Communications. The document then provides an overview of the GSM network architecture and components, including the SIM, BTS, BSC, MSC, HLR, VLR, and more. It also includes a diagram of a general GSM network and descriptions of the GSM channel plans and frequencies.
Mobile networks use radio frequencies to allow cellular devices to connect to a network of base stations. Base stations transmit and receive signals within assigned frequency bands to serve mobile terminals in a given coverage area. As terminals move between areas covered by different base stations, the network performs handoffs to transfer service to the closest base station. A study measured the impact of mobility on HSPA networks, finding that mobility reduced available bandwidth for users on public transportation due to increased handoffs and interference between cells.
Umts Radio Interface System Planning And OptimizationDavid Rottmayer
The document discusses planning and optimizing UMTS radio networks. It begins with an overview of UMTS network architecture and the differences between UMTS and GSM radio system planning. Key aspects of UMTS planning include coverage and capacity planning occurring simultaneously, as capacity requirements influence coverage. The document then covers WCDMA air interface specifications, propagation environments, and the UMTS radio system planning process. It discusses challenges such as varying traffic levels and distributions. The document provides a typical link budget example and explains transmitter, receiver, and channel parameters considered in UMTS coverage planning.
The document discusses the Global System for Mobiles (GSM) mobile communication technology. It describes GSM concepts like cellular structure and frequency division duplexing. It outlines the GSM network architecture including components like the mobile station, base station, base station controller, mobile switching center, home location register, and visitor location register. It also covers GSM channels, mobility management, and call management functions.
Overview Of Gsm Cellular Network & OperationsDeepak Sharma
The document provides an overview of the GSM cellular network and its operations. It describes the main components including the mobile switching center (MSC), home location register (HLR), visitor location register (VLR), and authentication center (AUC). It also discusses the mobile handset, radio interface, network architecture, and how capacity is increased through frequency reuse, cell splitting, and sectoring.
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a 2G digital cellular network standard that became the world's leading standard for mobile communications. GSM uses TDMA multiple access to allow multiple users to share the same radio frequency by dividing each radio channel into time slots. It offers advantages over 1G analog networks like increased network capacity, support for additional services beyond voice calls, and more efficient use of available spectrum.
What is GSM?
The Global System for Mobile communications is a digital cellular communications system. It was developed in order to create a common European mobile telephone standard but it has been rapidly accepted worldwide.
Formerly it was “Groupe Spéciale Mobile” (founded in 1982)
now: Global System for Mobile Communication.
Services:
Tele-services
Bearer or Data Services
Supplementary services
Applications:
Mobile telephony
GSM-R
Telemetry System
- Fleet management
- Automatic meter reading
- Toll Collection
- Remote control and fault reporting of DG sets
Value Added Services
Advantages:
Better Quality of speech
Data transmission is supported
New services offered due to ISDN compatibility
International Roaming possible
Large market
Crisper, cleaner quieter calls
disadvantages:
Dropped and missed calls
Less Efficiency
Security Issues
conclusion
The mobile telephony industry rapidly growing and that has become backbone for business success and efficiency and a part of modern lifestyles all over the world.
In this session I have tried to give and over view of the GSM system. I hope that I gave the general flavor of GSM and the philosophy behind its design.
The GSM is standard that insures interoperability without stifling competition and innovation among the suppliers to the benefit of the public both in terms of cost and service quality.
The document discusses GSM radio coverage and the air interface in 3 main points:
1. It describes the geometry of GSM cells and frequency reuse techniques used to divide a service area into smaller cells to improve coverage and capacity. Different cluster sizes such as 3/9, 4/12 and 7/21 are discussed.
2. It explains the GSM frequency bands and channel structure, including physical channels divided into timeslots, and logical channels for traffic and control data.
3. It outlines the structure of bursts transmitted on the air interface, including normal bursts containing encrypted speech blocks, training sequences, and guard periods between bursts.
My PptIntroduction to 3G, GSM, GPRS, EDGE NetworkARVIND SARDAR
The document provides an introduction to 3G mobile networks including GSM, GPRS and EDGE. It discusses the evolution from 1G to 2G to 3G networks, with 2G introducing GSM and 2.5G being GPRS. 3G aimed to support higher data speeds. GPRS offered speeds up to 114kbps, EDGE up to 384kbps, and UMTS/HSDPA up to 14Mbps. It then describes the key components and architecture of GSM and GPRS networks.
Introduction to GSM - an Overview of Global System for Mobile Communicationiptvmagazine
This slideshow explains the basic components, technologies used, and operation of Global System for Mobile Communication - GSM - systems. You will discover the evolution of GSM; 1st generation analog systems, 2nd generation GSM systems (digital voice), 3rd generation multimedia, and 4th generation wideband ultra broadband systems.
You will learn the key system components and basic services that GSM systems can provide. Discover the types of GSM devices which include mobile telephones, wireless PCMCIA cards, embedded radio modules, and external radio modems. The different types of services are described including voice services, data services, and messaging services.
Learn about the physical and logical radio channel structures of the GSM system along with the basic frame and slot structures. The operation of the GSM radio channels are explained including channel coding, modulation types, speech coding, RF power control, and mobile assisted handover. GSM radio channel have 8 time slots per frame and that some of these are used for signaling (control channels) and others are used for user traffic (voice and data).
The document discusses the history and development of 3G mobile communication technology, specifically UMTS. It provides details on:
- The evolution from 1G to 2G mobile networks and the need for 3G to support higher data rates and multimedia services.
- The standardization of UMTS through ETSI and ITU, focusing on the two selected radio transmission technologies - UTRA FDD and TDD.
- The architecture of 3G UMTS networks, including frequency reuse techniques used to maximize capacity within limited spectrum availability.
The document discusses Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology. It covers various radio problems in wireless communication like fading and time dispersion. It explains how GSM solves these problems using techniques like increasing fading margin, antenna diversity, frequency hopping, and increasing carrier-to-reflection ratio. It also describes the GSM transmission process which includes speech coding, channel coding, interleaving, encryption, analog-to-digital conversion, burst formatting, and modulation for digital transmission of voice calls over the cellular network.
GSM and CDMA are the two main digital mobile technologies. CDMA uses direct sequence spread spectrum technology and allows multiple users to access the network using the same frequency band at the same time through the use of unique codes. In CDMA, users share the same bandwidth and are separated by codes rather than frequency or time slots. CDMA provides advantages like better voice quality and easier frequency planning compared to TDMA/FDMA systems. GSM uses TDMA and FDMA to allow multiple access through allocating users to different time slots and frequency channels.
The document provides an overview of the Global System for Mobile (GSM) network structure. It describes the basic nodes that compose the GSM network including the mobile station, base station subsystem consisting of base transceiver stations and base station controllers, and the network switching subsystem containing elements like the mobile switching center, home location register, and visitor location register. It also outlines the services offered in GSM like teleservices, bearer services, and supplementary services.
3G is defined by the ITU and called IMT-2000. It evolved from 2G technologies through intermediary 2.5G and 3.5G standards. UMTS is the 3G standard developed by 3GPP as an upgrade from GSM, using W-CDMA technology. UMTS network architecture consists of the core network, UTRAN radio access network, and user equipment. The UTRAN air interface uses W-CDMA technology with Node-B base stations controlled by RNCs. 3.5G technologies like HSPA extend UMTS with features like adaptive modulation and fast scheduling to enhance performance.
The document provides an overview of mobile communications networks and technologies. It discusses (1) how electromagnetic waves are used to transmit voice and data wirelessly, (2) the evolution of cellular networks from 1G to 4G with increasing data capabilities, and (3) examples of common applications that require higher data rates like multimedia content, online gaming, and mobile banking.
The document discusses the functions of base station systems in cellular networks. It describes the roles of the Base Station Controller (BSC) and Base Transceiver Station (BTS). The BSC manages radio resources and controls the BTSs. It handles radio channel allocation and handovers between cells. The BTS provides the radio interface to mobile stations in its cell. It transmits and receives radio signals and manages lower level radio functions under control of the BSC.
Three phase bridge controlled by microprocessor(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document summarizes a student project to build a three-phase thyristor bridge controlled by a microprocessor. A PIC 16F877 microcontroller was programmed to trigger thyristors at specific firing angles to control the output voltage. Testing showed the bridge could control DC motor speed by varying the firing angle and output voltage. Harmonics in the input current were reduced using passive low-pass filters. Applications include power electronic labs, motor speed control, battery charging, and uninterruptible power systems.
This document acknowledges and thanks various individuals for their contributions to a graduation project. It begins by thanking family members for their support and encouragement. It then thanks friends, prisoners who sacrificed for others' freedom, and martyrs of Palestine. Next, it thanks those involved in education and knowledge, the project's supervisor Dr. Falah Hassan, the author's home country of Palestine, and colleagues at An-Najah National University. Finally, it thanks all others who contributed to the project's success. The document goes on to provide an introduction to developing a home automation system as the graduation project. It describes controlling home devices remotely using a mobile web application to turn systems on and off from a distance.
Pv i v characteristic tester(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document describes a project to measure the I-V characteristics of solar cells and modules using power electronics, PIC circuits, and a C# interface. The project will allow for measuring and collecting current and voltage data from solar cells in order to analyze their electrical features. A standard silicon solar module rated at 22V open circuit voltage and 3.4A short circuit current will be used to test the measurement system. The interface will store measurement data including time, current, voltage, radiation, and temperature readings. Voltage dividers and op-amps will be used to scale the voltage and current readings before sending the data to the interface.
This document describes an RFID system project completed by students at An-Najah National University. It is organized into 5 chapters that cover the design and implementation of the transmitting, receiving, and data processing components of the RFID system. The transmitting section generates a 125 kHz carrier signal that is amplified and transmitted via a tuned antenna coil. Tags utilize backscatter modulation to transmit data to the reader by altering the amplitude of the reflected carrier signal. The receiving section demodulates the backscattered signal and filters it before sending it to a microcontroller for decoding. The students faced challenges during the project but gained hands-on experience applying their technical knowledge to a research topic.
Pv i v characteristic tester(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document discusses measuring the I-V characteristics of photovoltaic cells. It begins by explaining that measuring the I-V curve is important for determining key parameters like short circuit current, open circuit voltage, and maximum power point that indicate a cell's quality and performance under different conditions. It then describes two common methods for measuring the I-V curve - using a variable resistor load or charging a capacitor. The document states that the capacitor method provides a more accurate and uniform measurement as it is performed quickly. Finally, it discusses developing an I-V curve tester capable of measuring the maximum power of 80 watts solar cells and extracting other important electrical metrics.
Remote control of electrical equipment(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document contains circuit diagrams for two devices, a transmitter and receiver, connected via pins 13 and 12 respectively. It shows the components, connections, and pinouts for the microcontrollers, transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other electrical components used in both circuits. The transmitter is designed to transmit a logic 1 signal at 75 kHz by switching the voltage to 9V.
Single phase induction motor(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
This document describes a project to control an induction motor using a microcontroller. It discusses the motor specifications and components used, including a capacitor to provide 90 degrees of phase shift between the main and auxiliary windings. The design uses an inverter to convert DC to AC voltage and vary frequency to control motor speed and direction. Software implements semi-sinusoidal waveforms at 7 kHz to achieve the 90 degree phase shift needed for motor control.
Three phase-induction-motor(eee499.blospot.com)slmnsvn
This presentation discusses speed control methods for three-phase induction motors, focusing on voltage source inverters (VSI) with pulse width modulation (PWM). Maintaining a constant ratio of output voltage to frequency (V/f) is identified as the best method, as it keeps the motor flux constant at all speeds. The project uses a PWM chip and isolated driver circuit to generate switching signals to control a three-leg VSI driving an induction motor. Measurements show the V/f ratio remains constant as the output frequency varies from 30Hz to 85Hz, demonstrating effective speed control of the induction motor.
Remote control of electrical equipment(eee499.blogspot.com)slmnsvn
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- Analog signals are continuous over time and amplitude while digital signals involve quantization.
- A basic communication system includes a source, transmitter to convert the signal to a transmission format, a channel with noise, a receiver to decode the signal, and a destination.
- Modulation involves varying properties of a carrier signal like amplitude, frequency, or phase to transmit a message signal over a channel.
- Common modulation techniques are amplitude modulation which varies signal strength, and frequency modulation which varies carrier frequency.
This document provides an overview of telecommunication systems and communication engineering. It discusses analog and digital signals, the components of a basic communication system including the source, transmitter, channel, receiver and destination. It describes different types of modulation used in communication systems including amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and pulse modulation. It also includes block diagrams of wireless communication systems and their components such as the transmitter, encoder, noisy channel, decoder and receiver.
AM – Frequency spectrum – vector representation – power relations – generation of AM – DSB, DSB/SC, SSB, VSB AM Transmitter & Receiver; FM and PM – frequency spectrum – power relations : NBFM & WBFM, Generation of FM and DM, Armstrong method & Reactance modulations : FM & PM frequency.
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Modulation is the process of encoding information onto a carrier signal by varying its amplitude, frequency, phase or other properties. This allows the signal to be transmitted efficiently over long distances. Common modulation types include amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). Modulation is used in radio, television, Wi-Fi and other wireless communications to transmit data or audio on an electromagnetic carrier wave.
Fundamental of FM modulation and demodulation.pptDhirajPatel58
This document summarizes Chapter 5 of a textbook on frequency modulation. It covers the basic principles of frequency modulation and phase modulation, including how the carrier frequency varies with the modulating signal. It also discusses modulation index and sidebands, describing how sideband amplitude is determined by Bessel functions. The chapter examines noise suppression benefits of FM and how limiter circuits can remove noise from FM signals. It provides examples of calculating modulation index and signal bandwidth.
Different type of modulation schemes used in Analog Modulation04720VivekaS
Modulation is a technique used to vary the characteristics of a carrier signal in accordance with a message signal. There are two main types of modulation: analog and digital. Analog modulation varies amplitude, frequency, or phase of a sinusoidal carrier signal. The three types of analog modulation are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). AM varies the amplitude of the carrier, FM varies the frequency, and PM varies the phase. Digital modulation uses digital signals such as amplitude-shift keying, frequency-shift keying, and phase-shift keying.
This document discusses analog and digital modulation techniques used in communication systems. It defines key concepts like signals, bandwidth, transmitters, receivers and communication channels. It then explains different types of analog modulation like amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. Next, it covers digital modulation techniques and their advantages over analog techniques like higher noise immunity. The document lists various digital modulation schemes including amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying, phase shift keying etc and provides a brief overview of each. In less than 3 sentences.
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This document discusses methods for improving spectral efficiency in communication systems. It provides information on different modulation techniques and factors that influence spectral efficiency, such as signal-to-noise ratio, bandwidth efficiency, forward error correction, data compression, and MIMO. It also describes how modulation and demodulation are implemented using software-defined radios and digital signal processing. The pursuit of greater spectral efficiency is important given the finite amount of radio spectrum and growing demand for wireless services.
COMPARISON OF BER AND NUMBER OF ERRORS WITH DIFFERENT MODULATION TECHNIQUES I...Sukhvinder Singh Malik
This paper provides analysis of BER and Number of Errors for MIMO-OFDM wireless communication system by using different modulation techniques. Wireless designers constantly seek to improve the spectrum efficiency/capacity, coverage of wireless networks, and link reliability. So the performances of the wireless communication systems can be enhanced by using multiple transmit and receive antennas, which is generally referred to as the MIMO technique. Here analysis will be carried out for an OFDM wireless communication system using different modulation techniques and considering the effect and the wireless channel like AWGN, fading. Performance results will be evaluated numerically and graphically using the plots of BER versus SNR and plots of number of errors versus SNR.
This ppt contains information about concepts of wireless communication, signal propagation effects, spread spectrum, cellular systems, multiple access systems.
This document discusses analog and digital modulation techniques used in communication systems. It describes how analog modulation techniques like amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) work by varying the amplitude or frequency of a carrier wave. Digital modulation techniques discussed include amplitude shift keying (ASK) and frequency shift keying (FSK) which encode digital signals by turning a carrier wave on and off or shifting its frequency. The document also covers modems, which are devices that modulate and demodulate signals to transmit digital data over analog networks like phone lines.
This document analyzes the simulation parameters of a pulse shaping FIR filter for WCDMA. It simulates a square root raised cosine pulse shaping filter in MATLAB Simulink with varying group delay parameters. The simulation measures the number of bits, number of errors, and bit error rate at different group delays. It finds that the bit error rate is minimized at a group delay of 6 symbol periods. The optimal values found are a group delay of 6 and a roll off factor of 0.22.
This document discusses frequency modulation (FM) transmitters and receivers. It begins with an overview of FM, how it conveys information over a carrier wave by varying the frequency. It then discusses FM broadcasting bands and how stations are assigned frequencies in 30 kHz intervals from 87.5 to 108 MHz. The document concludes with a detailed explanation of FM modulation and several common types of FM demodulation methods including quadrature detection, phase-locked loops, Foster-Seeley discriminators, and ratio detectors.
This lecture discusses communication systems and modulation techniques. It introduces analog modulation methods like amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) as well as digital modulation techniques including amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). It also discusses modems, which are devices that modulate and demodulate signals to transmit digital data over analog channels like telephone lines. Common modem types include internal, external, DSL, and cable modems.
This lecture discusses communication systems and modulation techniques. It introduces analog modulation methods like amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) as well as digital modulation techniques including amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). Modems are also introduced as devices that modulate and demodulate signals to transmit digital data over analog networks like telephone lines.
This document provides an overview of analog communication systems and modulation techniques. It discusses the basic components of communication systems including the transmitter, transmission channel, receiver, and transducers. It then describes analog modulation methods like amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) and how they vary the amplitude or frequency of a carrier wave to transmit a baseband signal. Digital modulation techniques like amplitude-shift keying (ASK) and frequency-shift keying (FSK) are also introduced. Modems are defined as devices that enable data transfer over analog networks by modulating and demodulating signals.
1 . introduction to communication systemabhijitjnec
This document provides an introduction to communication systems. It discusses the basic components and elements of a communication system including the input, transmitter, channel, receiver and output. It also covers various modulation techniques used to transmit signals over different types of channels. Finally, it discusses different types of signal propagation including ground waves, sky waves and space waves and how radio frequency spectrum is allocated internationally.
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Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
1. AN-NAJAH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL ENGENEERING DEPARTEMENT
Project name:
Traffic Guide using Wireless Radio
Prepared by :
Diana Qassam
Razan Ghannam
Heyam Shamasneh
Supervised by:
Dr. Allam Mousa
Date: 24/12/2008
1
2. Acknowledgment
First and last, we would thank ALLAH for enabling us to complete
this project.
And we dedicate Dr. Allam Mousa with our special thanks and
appreciation for his for his support and help, and supervision the
construction of this project.
Other thanks to our university, our lecturers, and every person help
us during this work.
We would also thank our friends who encouraged us to perfectly
finish this project.
Very deep thanks to our families and kindhearted parents who
continuously prayed and stood besides us.
2
4. Chapter one
Introduction
Traffic jam is one of the most global problems that faced all over the world in the
last 50 years, and its not concerned in several country, it is found everywhere we go, there
must be a traffic problem in all cities in the world.
Traffic shows a great problem in the capitals of the countries. As an example is
Palestine, the traffic is a very serious problem that can't be ignored, the problem increased
in unusual way, this is because the rapid increase of the vehicles number and the little size
and poor quality of streets.
However this project seems to be a little solution for traffic problem, the main idea
of the project is to reduce the traffic jam on the streets, circles and traffic lights by guiding
drivers where the traffic jam is found. As a result driver could avoid going through the
traffic jam and use another way if it is applicable.
The guiding process tool will be the car radio which will be used as a receiver for
the information that should guide the driver to the roads he should follow up to avoid
streets traffic jamming.
This idea should be applied as collaboration with the traffic police; since they are
the main source of knowing the situation of roads and where the traffic jam can be found
as they are spread around the cities and main roads, by this mean they could guide the
drivers to the streets they should follow up to avoid the traffic jam.
4
5. There is two main parts for the project:
First part:
1. Collect roads information by police officers, this information should be
transmitted to the main police station.
2. Separate this information as their coverage areas, each 2 or 3 km's area should
have its specific information. After separation process this information has to be
transmitted to substations that have a coverage area of 2 or 3 km.
3. Transmit this information from substations to access points that have to be
distributed on the roads, circles and where the traffic is found. These access points
basically a transceiver system.
4. Transmit the information from access points using FM in MHz. This process must
have permission from telecommunication regulatory commission in palstine to
hold a free channel in FM range; this is because there is no way to transmit
anything in the range of MHz without having permission.
Second part:
To achieve this feature of guiding tool, a development to the car radio should be made
to have the capability to receive the transmitted information for roads and give it the
highest priority of receiving; this should be done by building a circuit which consists of:
1. Antenna
2. FM receiver
3. PIC (Programmable Interface Circuit)
4. Car radio
5
6. The idea of the circuit is to program the PIC to give the police traffic channel the highest
priority of receiving, figure shows the system of traffic guide using wireless radio
Fig 1.1: Traffic Guide using Wireless Radio
6
7. Chapter two
FM modulation
1.2 Introduction:
It is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the
instantaneous frequency of a carrier wave in analog applications; the carrier frequency
is varied in direct proportion to changes in the amplitude of an input signal. Digital
data can be represented by shifting the carrier frequency among a set of discrete
values, a technique known as frequency-shift keying.
FM is commonly used at VHF radio frequencies for high-fidelity broadcasts of music
and speech, Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A narrowband
form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. The
type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way
radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is
used to send signals into space.
FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by most analog VCR systems, including
VHS, to record the luminance (black and white) portion of the video signal. FM is the
only feasible method of recording video to and retrieving video from magnetic tape
without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency
components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work
with due to electronic noise below -60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level,
and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a simple limiter can mask
variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through
and pre-echo.
7
8. FM is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. This technique, known as F
synthesis, was popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature
for several generations of personal computer sound cards.
Before showing the Frequency Modulation concept, the meaning of modulation and
the other types will be reviewed.
2.2 Modulation and Demodulation:
Modulation is the process of varying a periodic waveform in order to use that
signal to convey a message. Normally a high-frequency sinusoid waveform is used as
a carrier signal. The three key parameters of a sine wave are its amplitude, phase, and
frequency, all of which can be modified in accordance with a low frequency
information signal to obtain the modulated signal.
The variation of these key parameters of the sinusoid wave produces three types of
modulation: amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation.
Each will be briefly described below.
2.3 Amplitude Modulation (AM):
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication,
most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by
varying the amplitude of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being
sent.
Basic form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at
the carrier frequency and in two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in
bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other.
Amplitude modulation that results in two sidebands and a carrier is often called
double sideband amplitude modulation (DSB-AM). Amplitude modulation is
inefficient in terms of power usage and much of it is wasted. At least two-thirds of the
8
9. power is concentrated in the carrier signal, which carries no useful information; the
remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, though only one of these is
needed since they contain identical information.
To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be removed (suppressed) from
the AM signal. This produces a reduced-carrier transmission or double-sideband
suppressed-carrier (DSBSC) signal. A suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation
scheme is three times more power-efficient than traditional DSB-AM.
Even greater efficiency is achieved—at the expense of increased transmitter and
receiver complexity—by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the
sidebands. This is single- sideband modulation, widely used in amateur radio due to
its efficient use of both power and bandwidth. A typical AM signal is shown in the
following figure.
Figure 2.1: AM signal modulation
In Amplitude Modulation or AM, the carrier signal
has its amplitude
9
10. modulated in proportion to the message bearing (lower frequency) signal
to give
The magnitude of
is chosen to be less than or equal to 1, from reasons having to do with demodulation,
i.e. recovery of the signal
from the received signal. The modulation index is then defined to be
Figures 1 and 2 are some matlab plots of what the modulated signal looks like for
The frequency of the modulating signal is chosen to be much smaller than that of
the carrier signal. Try to think of what would happen if the modulating index were
bigger than 1.
10
11. Figure 2.2: AM modulation with modulation index .2
Note that the AM signal is of the form
This has frequency components at frequencies
Figure 2.3: AM modulation with modulation index .4
11
12. 2.4 Phase Modulation (PM):
Phase modulation (PM) is a form of modulation that represents information as
variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier wave.
Unlike its more popular counterpart, frequency modulation (FM), PM is not very
widely used. This is because it tends to require more complex receiving hardware and
there can be ambiguity problems with determining whether, for example, the signal
has 0° phase or 180° phase.
Demodulation is the act of removing the modulation from an analog signal to get the
original baseband signal back. Demodulating is necessary because the receiver system
receives a modulated signal with specific characteristics and it needs to turn it back to
the baseband form.
There are several ways of demodulation depending on what parameters of the
baseband signal are transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or
phase.
The following Figure shows the Phase Modulation
Figure 2.4 : phase modulation.
12
13. 2.5 Frequency modulation (FM):
Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier
frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three signals
in mathematical form:
Information: Vm(t)
Carrier: Vc(t) = Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 π fc t + φ )
FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 π [fc + (∆f/Vmo) Vm (t) ] t + φ)
We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency.
We have also introduced a new term: ∆f, the peak frequency deviation. In this form,
you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: fc + (∆f/Vmo) Vm(t) now
varies between the extremes of fc - ∆f and fc + ∆f. The interpretation of ∆f becomes
clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM signal can be.
Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.
We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM:
β = ∆f/fm, where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.
The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, β is as a measure of the peak
frequency deviation, ∆f. In other words, β represents a way to express the peak
deviation frequency as a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm, i.e. ∆f
=βfm.
Here is a simple FM signal:
13
14. Figure 2.5: simple Fm signal
Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The
modulation index is about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15 Hz. That
means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz. How fast the cycle
is completed is a function of the modulating frequency.
And here modulating wave implies an analog signal.
Figure 2.6: modulation wave analog signal
14
15. 2.6 FM Spectrum:
A spectrum represents the relative amounts of different frequency components in
any signal. Its like the display on the graphic-equalizer in your stereo which has leds
showing the relative amounts of bass, midrange and treble. These correspond directly
to increasing frequencies (treble being the high frequency components). It is a well-
known fact of mathematics, that any function (signal) can be decomposed into purely
sinusoidal components (with a few pathological exceptions) . In technical terms, the
sines and cosines form a complete set of functions, also known as a basis in the
infinite-dimensional vector space of real-valued functions (gag reflex). Given that any
signal can be thought to be made up of sinusoidal signals, the spectrum then
represents the "recipe card" of how to make the signal from sinusoids. Like: 1 part of
50 Hz and 2 parts of 200 Hz. Pure sinusoids have the simplest spectrum of all, just one
component:
In this example, the carrier has 8 Hz and so the spectrum has a single component with
value 1.0 at 8 Hz
The FM spectrum is considerably more complicated. The spectrum of a simple FM
signal looks like:
15
16. The carrier is now 65 Hz, the modulating signal is a pure 5 Hz tone, and the
modulation index is 2. What we see are multiple side-bands (spikes at other than the
carrier frequency) separated by the modulating frequency, 5 Hz. There are roughly 3
side-bands on either side of the carrier. The shape of the spectrum may be explained
using a simple heterodyne argument: when you mix the three frequencies (fc, fm and
∆f) together you get the sum and difference frequencies. The largest combination is fc
+ fm + ∆f, and the smallest is fc - fm - ∆f. Since ∆f = β fm, the frequency varies (β + 1)
fm above and below the carrier.
A more realistic example is to use an audio spectrum to provide the modulation:
In this example, the information signal varies between 1 and 11 Hz. The carrier is
at 65 Hz and the modulation index is 2. The individual side-band spikes are replaced
by a more-or-less continuous spectrum. However, the extent of the side-bands is
limited (approximately) to (β + 1) fm above and below. Here, that would be 33 Hz
above and below, making the bandwidth about 66 Hz. We see the side-bands extend
from 35 to 90 Hz, so out observed bandwidth is 65 Hz.
16
17. 2.7 Mathematical Analysis of FM:
A mathematical analysis of a high-frequency sine wave, modulated by a single
tone or frequency, will be used to yield information about the frequency components
in an FM wave, FM power relations, and the bandwidth of an FM signal.
From the definition of frequency deviation, an equation can be written for the
signal frequency of an FM wave as a function of time:
( ) sinCsignal f M C f M Mf f k e t f k E tω= + = + ……………………………. 1
And substitution of δ= kf х EM yields:
sinsignal C Mf f tδ ω= + …………………………………………………….. 2
But this equation indicate seems to be saying that the frequency of the transmitter
is varying with time, the truth that With AM, the signal appeared to be a sine wave
that's amplitude was changing with time. At the time, it was pointed out that a sine
wave, by definition, has constant peak amplitude, and thus cannot have peak
amplitude that varies with time. And about the sine wave’s frequency, it also must be
a constant and cannot be varying with time. As was the case with AM, where it turned
out that our modulated wave is actually the vector sum of three sine waves, a similar
situation is true for FM. An FM wave will consist of three or more frequency
components vectorially added together to give the appearance of a sine wave that's
frequency is varying with time when displayed in the time domain.
A somewhat complex mathematical analysis will yield an equation for the
instantaneous voltage of an FM wave of the form shown here:
( ) sin( sin )FM C C f Me t E t m tω ω= + ……………………………………………….3
17
18. Where EC is the rest-frequency peak amplitude, ωC and ωM represent the rest and
modulating frequencies, and mf is the index of modulation. This equation represents a
single low-frequency sine wave, fM, frequency modulating another high-frequency
sine wave, fC. Note that equation indicates that the argument of the sine wave is itself
a sine wave.
Example: FM Radio
FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM radio
is about 88 to 108 MHz. The information signal is music and voice which falls in the
audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges form 20 to 20,000 Hz, but FM radio
limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio which limits the upper
frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may be lost above 15 kHz, most
people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of fidelity. FM radio maybe
appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity."
If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the resulting
bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations ) 0.2 MHz apart
to prevent overlapping signals (coincidence? I think not!). If you were to fill up the
FM band with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about the same
number as AM radio (107). This sounds convincing, but is actually more complicated.
FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In practice,
they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:
the L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz.
a 19 kHz pilot carrier.
the L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed) that ranges
from 23 to 53 kHz .
18
19. So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of 53 kHz,
requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the total signal
bandwidth about 200 kHz.
The main advantages of FM over AM are:
1. Improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man made interference.
2. Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations.
3. Less radiated power.
4. Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.
Disadvantages of FM:
1. Much more Bandwidth (as much as 20 times as much).
2. More complicated receiver and transmitter.
Bandwidth
the bandwidth of a FM signal may be predicted using:
BW = 2 (β + 1 ) fm
where β is the modulation index and,
fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.
FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band
is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels about the
same.
19
20. The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM
case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the maximum modulation
frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the modulating frequency affect the
bandwidth. As the information is made stronger, the bandwidth also grows.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a fraction of the total.
In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands produced, the efficiency is
generally high. Recall that conventional AM is limited to about 33 % efficiency to
prevent distortion in the receiver when the modulation index was greater than 1. FM
has no analogous problem.
The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the efficiency is
generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it should be). But if
you make the modulation index larger, so make the bandwidth larger (unlike AM)
which has its disadvantages. As is typical in engineering, a compromise between
efficiency and performance is struck. The modulation index is normally limited to a
value between 1 and 5, depending on the application.
Noise
FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is
spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise, meaning wide
spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these frequencies. The
change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be picked up in the AM
system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to random noise. An example
might be ignition system noise in your car. Special filters need to be installed to keep
the interference out of your car radio.
20
21. FM systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to
interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is
distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is
virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes called "static
free, " referring to its superior immunity to random noise.
The Effect of Noise on FM
If random electrical variation added to the FM signal, noise still adds to the signal,
but because the information resides in frequency changes instead of amplitude
changes, the noise tends to have less of an effect. Expanding upon this idea a bit, one
notes that the random electrical variations encountered by the FM signal will indeed
cause distortion by jittering the frequency of the FM signal. However, the change in
frequency modulation caused by the jittering usually turns out to be less than the
change in the amplitude modulation caused by the same relative amplitude noise
variations on an AM signal. Also unlike AM, the effect of the frequency jittering
becomes progressively worse as the modulating frequency increases. In other words,
the effect of noise increases with modulation frequency.
21
22. Chapter three
PIC Microcontroller
3.1 PIC Microcontroller
Microcontrollers have changed electronic design aspects. Instead of hard wiring a
number of logic gates together to perform some function, we now use instructions to wire
the gates electronically. The list of these instructions given to the microcontroller is called
a program.
There is a variety of microcontrollers:
Atmel – AT90S8535
Motorola – 68HC11
Intel - 8051
Texas Instruments
Microchip – PIC
PIC is the name for the microcontroller (MCU) family manufactured by
Microchip, consisting of a microprocessor, I/O ports, timers and other internal integrated
hardware. The main advantages are low external part count, wide range of chip sizes,
great availability of compilers and source code, and ease of programming.
Traffic Guide using Wireless Radio uses the Microchip product (PIC16F877A)
microcontroller. Figure 3.1 shows the PIC16F877A microcontroller.
22
23. Figure 3.1: PIC16F877A
3.2 PIC16F877A Features
The 16F877A PIC microcontroller has the following features:
High-performance RISC CPU (RISC: Reduced Instruction Set
Computer).
8 Kbytes of FLASH Program Memory.
368 bytes of Data Memory (RAM).
256 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory.
33 input/output pins.
4 MHz operating speed (50 ns instruction cycle).
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V.
Max. 25 mA current from an output pin.
3.3 PIC16F877A Description
The 16F877A is the core of the project that everything is completely done through
it.
It consists of 40 pins, as shown in Figure 3.2; each pin might be multiplexed with more
than one function.
23
24. Figure 3.2: PIC16F877A Pin Layout
There are three memory blocks in PIC16F877A; the Program Memory, Data
Memory (RAM), and EEPROM data memory.
3.4 Memory Organization
There are three memory blocks in PIC16F877A; the Program Memory, Data Memory
(RAM), and EEPROM data memory.
3.4.1 Program Memory Organization:
The PIC16F877A has a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K x 14 program
memory space. And has 8K x 14 words of FLASH, so by accessing a location above the
physically implemented address will cause a wraparound. The reset vector is at 0000h and
the interrupt vector is at 0004h.
3.4.2 Data Memory Organization
24
25. The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General
Purpose Registers (GPR) and the Special Function Registers (SFR). Bits RP1
(STATUS.6) and RP0 (STATUS.5) are the bank select bits, as shown in the following
Table.
Table 3.1 Bank Selection
RP1:RP
0
Bank
00 0
01 1
10 2
11 3
Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are
reserved for the SFR and the ones above are for GPR, implementing a static RAM. All
implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some “high use” Special
Function Registers from one bank may be mirrored in another bank for code reduction
and quicker access. These registers are illustrated in figure 3.3.
3.4.3 Special Function Registers (SFR):
The SFRs are used by the CPU and peripheral modules for controlling the desired
operation of the device. These registers are implemented as static RAM.
3.4.4 General Purpose Registers (GPR):
25
26. The register file can be accessed either directly or indirectly through the File Select
Register (FSR).
Figure 3.3: Memory Banks
3.4.5 Data EEPROM and Flash Program Memory
The data EEPROM and Flash program memory is readable and writable during
normal operation (over the full VDD range). This memory is not directly mapped in the
register file space. Instead, it is indirectly addressed through the SFRs.
3.5 PIC 16F877A I/O Ports
26
27. It can be seen that most pins are used for input/output operations, and arranged in
5 ports: A(6), B(8), C(8), D(8) and E(3), giving a total of 33 I/O pins. These can all
operate as simple digital I/O pins, but most have more than one function, and the mode of
operation of each is selected by initializing various control registers within the chip.
Each port can be assigned as input or output, and each pin state can be identified
by using the TRIS register.
1) PORTA: PORTA is a 6-bit wide bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISA. Setting TRISA bit to (1) will make the corresponding
PORTA pins as input. Clearing TRISA bit (0) will make the corresponding
PORTA pins as output. Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins,
whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-
modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are
read; the value is modified and then written to the port data latch.
2) PORTB: PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISB. Setting TRISB bit to binary ‘1’ will make the
corresponding PORTB pins as input. Clearing TRISB bit to binary ‘0’ will make
the corresponding PORTB pins as output.
3) PORTC: PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bi-directional port. The corresponding data
direction register is TRISC. Setting TRISC bit to binary ‘1’ will make the
corresponding PORTC pins as input. Clearing TRISC bit to binary ‘0’ will make
the corresponding PORTC pins as output. PORTC is multiplexed with several
peripheral functions.
4) PORTD: PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is
individually configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-
bit wide microprocessor port.
5) PORTE: PORTE has three pins, which are individually configurable as input or
output. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers.
Hardware and Software Implementation
27
28. In order to use the microcontroller in a circuit, there are basically two facts one
need to understand:
1. How to connect the microcontroller to the hardware?
2. How to write and program the code into the microcontroller?
PIC Connections:
The hardware connections that the PIC microcontroller need to function and the
connections of PIC to the other components of the circuit are shown in figures 3.4.
Figure 3.4: PIC connections in base circuit
28
29. Figure 3.5: Basic circuit for the PIC.
Special Pins Connection
As shown before, the 40 pin 16F877A microcontroller has 33 pins as I/O, the rest seven
pins have other functions and they are: MCLR/Vpp, OSC1, OSC2, 2-VDD and 2- VSS.
MCLR/Vpp:
MCLR (pin 1) is an active low reset pin; it is connected through a resistor to +5V supply.
Figure 3.5 shows the MCLR pin connection.
29
30. Figure 3.6: MCLR pin connection
When the switch is open, 5V, logic 1 is connected to the PIC (normal operation),
and when the switch is closed, 0V, logic 0 is connected to the PIC (reset the PIC).
The reason of using the 10kΩ resistor:
1) Each pin of the 16F877A is capable of driving 5V I/O, and maximum current of
20mA, by simple calculation we would see that
5
0.5 20
10
V
I mA mA
k
= = <
Ω
So the resistor limits the current entering the PIC.
2) When MCLR is active, the 5V supply is shorted to the ground (0V), and then the
resistor prevents that.
The components that attached to the PIC are:
C5 & C3: These capacitors (Band Pass Filter) used to reduce the ripple of the power
supply.
Figure 3.7: Power Circuit using Capacitors
30
31. 100nF Capacitor is placed as closed to the chip as possible between VDD and VSS its
role is to filter any electrical on the 5v power supply line to guarantee constant input
voltage equal to 5v.
100nF Capacitor must always be connected to stop any noise affecting the normal
running of the microcontroller.
Crystal oscillator
The 4 MHz crystal oscillator connected to pin 13(CLK in) and 14(CLK out) of the
PIC 16F877A produces the clock pulses that are required to step the
microcontroller through the program and provide the timing pulses. Crystal
oscillator connection is shown in figure 4.6.
Figure 3.8: Crystal Connection
Switch: An active low reset pin; it is connected through a resistor to +5V supply.
Figure 4.7 shows the MCLR pin connection.
Figure 3.9: MCLR Pin Connections
When the switch is open (5V), logic 1 is connected to the PIC (normal operation) and
when the switch is closed (0V), logic 0 is connected to the PIC (reset the PIC).
31
32. Chapter four
Project description
Our project consists of two sides:
The transmitter side which is a Wireless FM Microphone.
The receiver side that should be done by building a circuit which consists of the
following main parts:
1. Antenna
2. FM receiver
3. PIC (Programmable Interface Circuit)
4. Car radio
The following figure describes our project:
Figure 4.1: Practical Traffic Guide using Wireless Radio
32
33. As shown in the previous figure we have many components which will be discussed in the
coming sections.
1. FM microphone
Wireless FM Microphone, FM MIC uses FM radio frequency and generate a signal with
a frequency value (90 MHz.) we choose it as a police channel, this range is a free one and
so we can transmit guiding signal without any permission, the MIC is used as a
transmitter for guiding signal. So it solves the problem of how we can send information in
MHz frequency range.
In our project we built the following FM transmitter which transmits at 90 GHz
frequency.
Fig 4.2: FM Transmitter
33
34. 2. Mini radio
The mini radio is tuned on the police channel (90 MHz) to receive the transmitted signal
which was sent by the FM MIC. The mini radio is used to give an indication to the PIC
that there is a transmitted signal from FM MIC; the PIC will start executing the program
depending on the feedbacks from the car radio.
3. Car radio
Car radio will be powered on using 12V, 10A power supply, on the car radio we will save
the frequency of the police channel (for an example we save it in channel 1) which is not
used by any station in Nablus. As the PIC powered on, the channel will changed
automatically to channel 1 where the selected channel is saved and the car radio will also
connected to an antenna and a speakers which we will hear the voice signal through it.
4. Relay
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a level and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw
switches. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely
separate from the first. The figure below shows the relay circuit.
Figure 4.3: Relay Circuit
34
35. When to use a relay?
Transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not
usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be
needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for
the relay's coil!
Advantages of relays:
1. Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
2. Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
3. Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
4. Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
1. Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
2. Relays cannot switch rapidly; transistors can switch in many times per second.
3. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
4. Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Relay is a controllable switch works as the car radio buttons, relay controlled by the PIC;
so when the PIC gives A 5V signal for 500ms to the relay the inductor become a magnet
so the switch is closed and the action take effect on the car radio.
35
36. Circuit diagram of the project
Figure 4.5: Circuit Diagram OF The Project.
PIC (Programmable Interface Circuit)
The main task of the PIC is to execute the written program to control the car radio, the
PIC is used to control car radio whatever its status, the PIC is supplied by 5V from the
power supply.
Programming the PIC has three options as there is a guiding signal from police guiding
channel:
1. If the radio is OFF, the radio status will be change to be ON.
2. If tape mode was playing, the PIC will change its mode to the radio mode.
36
37. 3. If the radio is tuned on any other channel, the PIC will change the channel to the
police guiding channel.
To guarantee that these steps are done correctly, there must be a feedback signals that give
an idea about radio status. For this case a modern digital car radio will be used since it
consists of buttons which could be easily controlled using electrical pulses signals, analog
buttons were used, another way of controlling would be used such as a motor to tune
between desired channels. These processes are shown on figure
Figure 4.6: PIC signals and feedbacks.
Mini radio
Works as a position sensor that as the car inters a coverage area when the transmitter is ON
(there is a guiding signal) the light of tuning in the mini-radio is ON, the status of the light
will give the PIC an induction if there is a guiding signal or not.
If there is a guiding signal, then the led is light (it gives 1.8v).
If there is no a guiding signal, then the led is off (it gives 0v), according to these values
the PIC will start executing the program.
37
38. Fig 4.7: Tuning light of the mini-radio (the red light).
Car radio Feedbacks:
The PIC needs to know what is the status of the car radio to execute the program in a
correct way, so we must take feedbacks from somewhere from the car radio.
While we are doing on the project we saw that two feedbacks must be taken from the car
radio, one to give an induction if the radio is ON or OFF and the second to give an
induction if it is radio or CD mode.
The first feedback from ON/OFF system point.
The second feedback from CD IC.
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39. Fig 4.8: CD feedback from car-radio
The results that we take from the car-radio feedbacks are listed in the table below.
SYSTEM
ON/OFF
RADIO/CD
MODE
ON/OFF
FEEDBACK
VOLTS
CD
FEEDBACK
VOLTS
OFF ---- 0 1.5
ON RARIO 0 1.5
ON CD 5 5
Table- Car-radio feedbacks values
And the program algorithm can be described through the following flow chart:
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41. Firstly, checking the radio status, if it’s off, it will be turned On, and if its On, then
to the next step. Secondly, checking the Tape, if there is a CD inserted and played, it will
go to radio mode, and if not then to the next step. Finally, the radio will be tuned to the
required frequency, then the program is finished and the signal message will be heard.
Bipolar junction transistor
Bipolar junction transistor was the first type of transistor ,bipolar junctions are named
because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers ,they are three
terminals of BJT are named emitter, base and collector, also BJT has two P-N junctions
exist inside it: base/emitter junction and base/collector junction.
BJT is useful in amplifiers the current because the emitter and collector currents are
controllable by the small base current.BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-
emitter configuration
Types of transistor:
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols.
The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon.
Figure 4.10 :Transistor circuit symbols
41
42. The transistor works as an amplifier; so it amplifies the incoming signal from the PIC to
exceed a 5V to activate the diode.
The steps of testing the project:
Case 1: Car _radio is off and the last mode before turning it off is CD mode
The test: the transmitter is ON, so tune led get on (it gives > 1.5v), PIC starting to
execute the program, a led will light it means that there is a guiding signal, then the PIC
will read the value of ON/ OFF feedback which is 0v (car radio is OFF), it will give a
pulse to the relay that is connected to ON/ OFF switch, the car radio will be ON, then the
PIC will read the value of CD feedback which is 5v (CD mode), it will give a pulse to the
relay that is connected to the CD/ Radio switch to change from CD to Radio mode, then it
will give a pulse to the relay that is connected to channel 1 switch (police channel) at the
last we can hear the guiding signal on car radio.
Case 2: Car _radio is off and the last mode before turning it off is Radio mode
The test: the transmitter is ON, so tune led get on (it gives > 1.5v), PIC starting to
execute the program, a led will light it means that there is a guiding signal, then the PIC
will read the value of ON/ OFF feedback which is 0v(car radio is OFF), it will give a
pulse to the relay that is connected to ON/ OFF switch, the car radio will be ON, then the
PIC will read the value of CD feedback which is 1.5v (Radio mode), it will give a pulse to
the relay that is connected to channel 1 switch (police channel) at the last we can hear the
guiding signal on car radio.
Case 3: Car _radio is ON and CD mode was playing
The test: the transmitter is ON, so tune led get on (it gives > 1.5v), PIC starting to
execute the program, a led will light it means that there is a guiding signal, then the PIC
will read the value of ON/ OFF feedback which is 5v (car Radio is ON), the PIC will read
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43. the value of CD feedback which is 5v (CD mode), it will give a pulse to the relay that is
connected to the CD/ Radio switch to change from CD to Radio mode, then it will give a
pulse to the relay that is connected to channel 1 switch (police channel) at the last we can
hear the guiding signal on car radio.
Case 4: Car _radio is ON and radio is tuned on any other channel
The test: the transmitter is ON, so tune led get on (it gives > 1.5v), PIC starting to
execute the program, a led will light it means that there is a guiding signal, then the PIC
will read the value of ON/ OFF feedback which is 5v (car Radio is ON), the PIC will read
the value of CD feedback which is 1.5v (Radio mode), it will give a pulse to the relay that
is connected to channel 1 switch (police channel) at the last we can hear the guiding signal
on car radio.
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44. Problems
1. While searching for a power feedback signal from the radio, we faced a problem from
where we should take it.
2. In this project we concerned on the Digital car radio which consists of buttons since
they can be easily controlled, but it could be improved to be compatible with all kinds
of radio such as analog and other types of radio
3. There is no way to hold a specific BW for our FM transmission, this is because we
will need permission from the telecommunication regulatory commission and a very
specific components.
44
45. Solutions
After making some discussion with our supervisor and searching on the internet, we came
out with some solutions for the above problems:
1. Using a commercial wireless microphone that sends voice information or in our case
street traffic information using FM radio freq range, the range of the used microphone
is between (90-104)MHz, as a result there is no need for FM transmitter since the
wireless microphone give the same function.
2. A mini radio was used which is treated as FM MHz receiver. The main purpose of the
receiver (mini radio) is to give a pulse for the PIC to start work. Mini radio is tuned to
the same working channel of the wireless microphone.
3. Feedback: The first feedback from ON/OFF system point. And the second feedback
from CD IC.
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46. Future work
After the system has been analyzed, the following conclusion can be drawn:
The system can help the countries from the traffics jam since it can organize the
cars and guide the drivers to places away from these traffic jams. By this they can
avoid accidents and dangers which can be faced in the emergency situations such
as fires, snows and hard rains.
The system is cheap and easy to be implemented in any car, so it can easily be
used in countries without problems
On the other hand, the system achieves a good synchronization between its parts
(the user and the application). The use of the Microchip PIC microcontroller was
appropriate because it provides a good control basis besides the ease of
programming and using it.
Moreover, the FM modulation was efficient to the use in relatively to other range
applications. Finally, the system has proved a good efficiency regarding all possible
circumstances.
46
47. Conclusions
The system can help the countries from the traffics jam since it can organize the cars
and guide the drivers to places away from these traffic jams. By this they can avoid
accidents and dangers which can be faced in the emergency situations such as fires,
snows and hard rains.
The system is cheap and easy to be implemented in any car, so it can easily be used in
countries without problems
On the other hand, the system achieves a good synchronization between its parts (the
user and the application). The use of the Microchip PIC microcontroller was
appropriate because it provides a good control basis besides the ease of programming
and using it.
Moreover, the FM modulation was efficient to the use in relatively to other range
applications. Finally, the system has proved a good efficiency regarding all possible
circumstances.
47
48. References
[1] Martin Bates, “Interfacing PIC Microcontrollers: Embedded Design by
Interactive Simulation” Elsevier, 2006.
[2] Louis E. Frenzel, “Communication Electronics: principle and application”
Macgraw – Hill, 2001.
[3] B. P. lathi “Modern digital and analog communication systems” Oxford
University Press Inc., 1998.
[4] www.wikipedia.org.
[5] Ian A. Glover, Peter M. Grant, “Digital Communications”, Prentice Hall, 2nd
edition, 2004.
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