Topographical Features At Divergent And Convergent Plate...

Topographical Features at Divergent and Convergent Plate...
Essay Question 1: Compare and contrast the topographical features at divergent and convergent
plate margins.
Subject: Earth Environments 1: Geomorphology and Soils
Course Code: GEOG 1231
Divergent and convergent plate margins are both studied in plate tectonics; which is the study of the
plates that makeup the lithosphere, their movements and how these movements has influenced
changes in the surface's topography (Strahler, 2011, 389). The driving force that causes these plate
movements is the gradual movement of the semi–molten rock that makes up the asthenosphere
(Kious, 1996, 28). Features observed at these margins share some similarities but, also vary quite
largely. These differences are caused by the different movements displayed at ... Show more content
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Finally unlike divergent plate margins convergent zones can have a continental plate colliding with
an oceanic plate. In this instance the more dense oceanic plate subducts below the continental plate.
This forms a deep sea trench similar to the oceanic plate's convergence, close to the shoreline. Also
volcanic mountain ranges may also develop further in from the shore due to rising magma and
folding. Such ranges include the Andes Mountain Range ("Plate Tectonics").
Diagram 5: showing oceanic to continental plate convergence and resulting features (Pidwirny,
2006)
So divergent plate margins are where crustal plates are moving apart from one another. These
margins can either consist of two oceanic or two continental plates. Convergent plate margins on the
other hand are where two plates are being pushed towards each other. The combination of plates at
this margin can be either two continental, two oceanic or an oceanic to continental. Both of these
margins play a major role in shaping the Earths topographical features. Some of which are similar
while others different. Both aid in the formation of volcanoes however divergent rift volcanoes do
not form cone while convergent andesitic volcanoes do. Both also show faulting however divergent
plate margins have normal faults versus the reverse faults found at convergent margins. Deep sea
trenches, volcanic islands and fold mountains are exclusive to convergent
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Mid-Atlantic Ridge Vs Volcanic Trench
from each other as magma pushes up in the rift valley. The Mid–Atlantic Ridge is just a small
portion of the mid–ocean ridge which encircles the Earth. Another boundary is called a convergent
boundary. When the crust expands at the divergent boundary the plate is pushed into another plate
where it is either sub–ducted or it buckles. This really depends on the type of lithosphere that is
involved in the convergence (Kious). This convergence can occur between two ocean plates, two
continental plates or an ocean and continental plates. Two of the features that can be found at a
convergence boundary is a volcanic arc and a deep ocean trench. The Volcanic trench can be found
over the subduction zone (Trujillo, pg 55). When an oceanic plate

Research Paper On Digging Deep
Digging Deep
On my journey to the center of the earth I saw several cool things and learned what's really
underneath my feet. Since the layers of the Earth have planetary differentiation, I closely studied
each one. I decided to entered through the dead sea, because it is the lowest point on dry land, but
because of it's hypersaline water that makes floating easy, my team built me an air bubble to put
around my submarine so that I could go through the water easily.
Once I made it to the bottom of the sea I attached a shovel to the tip of my submarine and started
digging through the crust, which is right under the oceanic crust. As I made my way through the thin
crust I noticed that it was made up of granite, basalt, and diorite rocks. I saw several more different
types of rocks that fall within these three categories; igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. The ...
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The outer cores magma like liquid creates earth's magnetic field. It reaches up to 9032 degrees
Fahrenheit, and is made up of iron and nickel. It is about 2200 km thick, and took me awhile to get
past because it is the second largest layer.
I made it to the final layer of the earth, the Inner core. This is the hottest layer reaching 10832
degrees Fahrenheit so I made sure I had my fireproof suit on just incase. The inner core is a solid
ball, composed of an element named NiFe, which stands for nickel and iron. I steered my submarine
down while shoveling a path. Since it is the second smallest layer it didn't take me a lot of time to go
through like the mantle.
I finally made my way through all the other layers after passing the inner core, and I am now In the
south of the Pacific ocean. Since I started my journey and ended it digging through the oceanic
crust, I didn't get to go through the continental crust, but i'm so glad to have been able to explore the
Earth, and hope to do it again

Volcanic and Seismic Events as Proof of Plate Tectonic Theory
Volcanic and Seismic events are major pieces of evidence towards proving that plate tectonics
theory is valid.
A seismic event is the transient motion and release of kinetic energy caused by sudden failure of the
earth's crust, usually felt as shaking or tremors in the rock mass. Seismic events range in size from
barely perceptible tremors to major earthquakes. Volcanic events occur when there is a release of
magma, gas and ash from the Earth's crust.
The entire outer surface of the planet is divided into these plate formations with approximately 30 in
total. These different plates vary in size from over 100,000,000 square miles, for example The
Pacific Plate, to the Galapagos micro plate at 12,000 square miles. Fault lines separate each ... Show
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New Basaltic magma rises to the surface, cools and pushes the plates apart. The convection currents
also help drag the plates apart and then pull them down at convergent boundaries. This can be seen
at the mid–ocean ridges. Eruptions are non–violent with the exceptions of the East African Rift
Valley where the recent eruption in 2002 in the Republic of Congo had a devastating effect on the
local population, and where the ocean ridges rise up out of the sea such as in Iceland.
The theory of plate tectonics also explains the formation of destructive plate boundaries which
account for creating 80% of the world's active volcanoes. The melting crust at Subduction Zones
(oceanic–oceanic or continental–oceanic) are due to differences in density between oceanic and
continental lithospheres, where the less dense plate is pushed beneath the more dense plate, and
becomes part of the asthenosphere forming magma that is andesitic in its nature. This creates the
most violent volcanic activity. Island Arc volcanoes such as Pinatubo and Fold Mountain Volcanoes
such as Nevado Del Ruiz (Andes) are very destructive.
The evidence for deep, hot, convective currents combined with plate movement (and concurrent
continental drift) also explained the mid–plate "hot spot" formation of volcanic island chains for
example the Hawaiian Islands and the formation of rift valleys such as The Rift Valley of Africa.
Mid–plate earthquakes, such as the powerful New Madrid

Chapter 2
STUDY GUIDE: Chaps. 2 GEOL 111G–Survey of Geology At the end of each chapter are Review
Questions and Key Terms. To study for the final, be sure to know the answers (or where to find the
answers) for the given review question numbers and know the definitions of the key terms indicated.
The Key Terms have page numbers for reference in the textbook. CHAPTER 2 Review Questions:
#'s are based upon the 10th edition. These may be different in older or newer editions. 2. What was
the first line of evidence that led early investigators to suspect that the continents were once
connected? The puzzle–like fit of the continents, especially Africa and South America. 3. What was
Pangaea? Pangaea, the supercontinent named by Alfred Wegener, is ... Show more content on
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However, if you travel away from the ridges you will encounter rocks with reverse polarity and then
rocks of normal polarity which are followed by reverse polarity rocks, etc. Vine and Matthews
observed that there were symmetrical bands of rocks with similar polarities on each side of every
mid–ocean ridge. They hypothesized that the reverse polarized rocks formed at the ridges during the
geologic past when the earth's magnetic field had reverse polarization. Their work provided rather
elegant proof that the seafloor spreading actually occurs. 11. Compare and contrast the lithosphere
and the asthenosphere. –Both in the mantle. –Lithosphere is Earth's crust and at 100–150 km of the
mantle. –Asthenosphere is in the upper mantle. –Lithosphere is relatively rigid while asthenosphere
has low rigidity. –Asthenosphere acts as a lubricant. –Plates in the lithosphere move because of
asthenosphere. 12. List the three types of plate boundaries and describe the relative motion at each
of them. Divergent boundaries–where plates are moving apart Convergent boundaries–where plates
are moving together Transform boundaries–where plates slide past one another along faults 13.
Where does new lithosphere form? Where is it consumed? Why does the rate at which new
lithosphere forms roughly balance the rate at which lithosphere is destroyed. Elevated position of
the oceanic ridge, increase in ocean depths away from

GEO 151 WA1 Essay examples
1. What are the relationships among Earth's mantle, crust, asthenosphere, and lithosphere?
The lithosphere is basically the strong outer shell of earth. It is roughly 100km thick depending on
its age, and is broken into plates, known as the tectonic plates. Within the lithosphere is the crust as
a portion of the upper mantle.
The crust is the outer most portion of the earth and takes up less than 1% than the total volume of
the earth. It is commonly compared to the skin of an apple, whereas the apple represents the earth.
The temperature of the crust varies from the air on top, to upward of 1600 at the deepest parts. The
tectonic plates are part of the crust of the earth, moving and shifting on the softer mantle or ... Show
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Thanks to static electricity ice, dirt, rocks and other grains of solid material slowly began to gather
together forming bigger pieces, those pieces formed bigger pieces, having a snowball effect. They
eventually became big enough to have their own gravitational field which then collected more
material, eventually creating a planet. More material meant more mass, which gave the forming
planet even more gravity. With tons and tons of material, and gravity pushing it together, intense
pressure causes intense heat. This combination of pressure and heat gives the earth its molten
interior.
The Jovian (gas) planets formed by a similar process but with less solid materials and with much
more gas that was blown further out by the solar winds. Jupiter and the rest of the gas giant probably
contain a solid core, of rock and other metals. Although none of the gas planets have a solid surface
like we do on earth, only a thicker and thicker atmosphere until reaching the core. It's important to
note, that because Jupiter is so large (317 times the mass of the earth, 1321 times bigger by volume),
and has such large pressure on the interior, elements found as gases on earth could possibly be a
solid or vice versa. For example, metallic hydrogen (which is a state where hydrogen behaves as an
electrical conductor) is only still a theory since we are unable to create the pressures needed here on
earth. Metallic hydrogen is known as the Holy Grail in high pressure physics.

Essay On Earthquakes And Earthquakes
Where are earthquakes and volcanoes found? Volcanoes and earthquakes have been known to man
for thousands of years, but until fairly recently their distribution on the globe was thought of as
totally haphazard with each event an isolated phenomenon. Yet, if the positioning of the world's
volcanoes is considered, it can be seen that most volcanoes are situated within several hundred
kilometres of the sea, and moreover, that the regions of volcanic activity are concentrated into
several girdles or bands circling the Earth. Most notable amongst these are the so–called Ring of
Fire surrounding the Pacific Ocean (see figure 1), and the more tenuous and disjointed line running
down the centre of the Atlantic Ocean. Throughout geological history, igneous activity has been
restricted in the same way, as studies of ancient igneous rocks show. Similarly, earthquakes do not
occur randomly over the whole surface of the Earth. Their epicentres also fall into welldefined
bands girdling the planet, and in fact, seismic and volcanic activity are well–correlated – so that
bands of concentration for each coincide (Figure 1). Figure 1. Map of the world showing the
location of tectonic plate boundaries, volcanoes, hot spots, and earthquake zones. Note how the
majority of seismic and volcanic events are concentrated on plate boundaries. Tectonic plates and
their boundaries These concentrations of geological activity actually define the boundaries of huge,
rigid fragments of the

The Magnicent Earth's Surface
One other aspect of the magnificent earth is the surface itself. The layers of the Earth are very
different in their composition. The crust, mantle, and core of the earth are all very fascinating. Also,
a theory called plate tectonics attempts to explain many phenomena that occur on the surface of the
earth, such as earthquakes. Some properties of the earth's surface are its layers, the plate tectonics
theory, and earthquakes. The layers of the earth are very complex. These layers are the crust, mantle,
and core (Wile 132). The core is divided into two regions: the inner core and the outer core (Wile
131). Earth's crust is defined as Earth's outermost layer of rock (Wile 132). The thickness of the
crust averages 55 to 12 miles (Wile 132). In addition to rock, the crust of the earth contains soil and
sediment (Wile 132). Sediment is defined as small, solid fragments of rock and other materials
that are carried and deposited by wind, water, or ice (Wile 132). Sedimentary rock is also found on
the earth's crust. Sedimentary rock is rock formed when chemical reactions cement sediments
together, hardening them (Wile 133). Igneous rock, rock that forms from molten rock, is also
found in the crust (Wile 133). Melted rock that cools and re–solidifies becomes igneous rock (Wile
133). The last kind of rock in the crust is called meromorphic rock (Wile 133). This is igneous or
sedimentary rock that has been changed into a new kind of rock as a result of great pressure

Personal Narrative: A California Earthquake
I have only experienced an earthquake. I live in Visalia, California which is the central part of the
state. The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends approximately 750 miles
through California. Los Angeles shares 35 miles of the Fault running through the city. When I
moved to California I was told that the central valley (Visalia) very rarely experiences earthquakes.
It was an evening that I realized that I was most definitely experiencing an earthquake. At the time I
was married and my x–husband and I were fast asleep in bed when all of the sudden we were
awoken by a slight shaking of the bed. Started with the question what was that, we began to hear the
water in the in the ground swimming pool sloshing back

My Experience On My Life
My life peaked when I was around seven years old. My two best friends were in my class, I read at a
third–grade level, I spent my time investigating my backyard while watching my mother garden and
climbing trees with my brother. I had it all. Come age eight I was hindered by prescription glasses,
forced to wear pigtails because the Great Lice Outbreak of '08 and to top that nice pile off, none of
my friends were in my class. I can only imagine what I seemed like to others. During that time
period one thing stayed constant–– my curiosity for the things around me, exploring my garden. I
would dig up different rocks and neatly arrange them in a line, always wondering where they came
from. My curiosity heightened when I went to California and actually experienced an earthquake, a
small one albeit, but an earthquake nonetheless. Now, things have gotten better since second grade,
but I've never quite achieved the same level of satisfaction in my life as my seven–year old self. I
have, however, been able to research and attempt to understand with the way the subterranean world
works.
Imagine the Earth's layers as a hard–boiled egg: in the very center you have the inner core, which is
like the yolk. Lying roughly 6400 km below the surface, the inner core is composed of iron and
nickel. It's extremely hot and dense, so much so that it takes up roughly 1/3 of the Earth's
mass(Earth 's Interior). Next we have the metaphorical egg whites– the outer core and the mantle.
The outer core

National Parks Across The Planet
Wonder, vastness, unsullied nature, and untouched beauty: all words that describe national parks
across the planet. One such place, a series of islands about 600 miles off the coast of Ecuador,
became officially recognized as an Ecuadorian National Park in 1959, and later a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1979 (Galapagos Islands Geology Volcanoes, n.d.). None other than the
Galapagos Islands themselves, the park is perhaps one of, if not the most captivating National Parks
on the globe. When one hears Galapagos Islands, the ecological diversity is often the first
association brought to mind. While it holds true that the islands contain possibly one of the most
diversified bionomics in the world, its geological history is just as ... Show more content on
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The Ecuadorian archipelago sits entirely on the Nazca tectonic plate, a continental plate constantly
subjected to volcanic and tectonic activity. While the plate endlessly drifts east–southeast, it
encounters the Galapagos hot spot, a source of intense and relentless volcanic activity in the ocean.
According to White (1997), large columns of torrid rock approximately 100 kilometers in diameter,
called mantle plumes, emerge from the mantle at a rate of an estimated ten centimeters per year. A
peculiar interaction occurs with these plumes; once they rise from the lower asthenosphere to the
upper lithosphere, the plumes actually melt by approximately twenty percent from the sheer force of
pressure decompression rather than heat, as the lithosphere is cooler than the asthenosphere. This
melting begins at roughly 150 kilometers in depth, and continues rising until the process is halted by
reaching the lithosphere; the resulting magma rises into collections in and immediately beneath the
lithosphere, named magma chambers. When the conditions are ideal, these chambers can release
their magma onto the surface in an explosive attempt to equalize density and pressure, colloquially
known as a volcanic eruption (White, 1997). Consecutive eruptions like these over hundreds of
thousands of years cause the actual formation of a volcano; furthermore, over time, magma can
crystallise in the magma chamber causing a thickening of the chamber, and thus an addition

Alaskan Way Viaduct: Cause Of An Earthquake
Alaskan Way Viaduct The Alaskan Way Viaduct is going to collapse eventually because of an
earthquake. The way an earthquake occurs is because each layer( Core, Condential crust, Oceanic
crust, Mantle, Athinothphre, Lithosphere, Mesosphere, Tectonic plates, Outer core, Inner core) each
has different density like in the density column. The density lab was where we poured 5 different
liquid that each have different densities into a test tube, each liquid stacked on top of each other. In
the lab we observed that the least the dense liquid would be the Crust and the most dense liquid
would be the Core. Density is how much of an object can fit in a certain amount of space. We
learned this in the density cube lab,

Sample Resume : On The Temperature Of The Magma
Updated Take Home Answers 1. a. hornblende b. muscovite c. quartz d. olivine e. plagioclase f. clay
minerals 2. Bowen 's reaction series shows us how minerals crystallize based on the temperature of
the magma. Different minerals will crystallize at different temperatures. In a discontinuous
variations, the minerals crystallize in steps, as the temperature cools to allow the next mineral to
crystallize. The continuous series forms plagioclase feldspars, because it is the same mineral group
but different chemical variations. 3. Wegner believed in a supercontinent, with the areas with proof
of glaciers centered over the South Pole, which would explain the climates better than mulitple
continents. 4. Active margins differ from passive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
6. The asthenosphere can flow, where the lithosphere cannot. The lithosphere is considered rigid,
where the asthenosphere is plastic. The boundaries are found at distinct areas of seismic
discontinuity. The lithosphere is the crust and part of the upper mantle, where the asthenosphere is
only mantle. The asthenosphere will migrate into the lithosphere, meaning the lithosphere becomes
denser as time goes on, and the asthenosphere thins. 7. The age of the seafloor is youngest at oceanic
ridges and ages symetrically on either side from there. This led Hess to theorize that the seafloor
spread to cause continental drift. The midoceanic ridge is a spreading center, where hot magma
emerges from the upper mantle to create new seafloor. Supporting this is the magnetism of the
seafloor, which have bands that are magnetic anomalies parallel to the midoceanic ridges. The bands
coincide with known polar reversals, which supports seafloor spreading theory. 8. The silica oxygen
tetrahedra is an anionic group that composed the majority of silicates in the crust. Isolated tetrahedra
don 't share oxygen atoms. Olivine is an example. Signle chains share two oxygen atoms, such as
Pyroxene. Double chains share two to three oxygen atoms, such as amphibioles. Sheet share three
atoms, like micas. Framework forms a three dimensional structure by sharing four atoms, such as
quartz. 9. Shield volcanoes tend to be lower sloped and mostly

Pangea Research Paper
As the tsunamis surging like hurricanes, volcanoes bursting into the sky, mountains crumbling into
pieces, the destruction of super continent had begun. I wanted to go to the center of pangea. When I
arrived there were scary dinosaurs and other unnatural animals. I ran away as fast as I could,
because there animals were dangerous. Fortunately, I found a place to hide in. The weather was very
windy and I was barely able to breathe due to the oxygen. It was a terrible and at the same time an
intriguing experience, but I tried my best to survive.
I was there during the late Paleozoic. During the time period, insects such as beetles and dragonflies
flourished. But pangea overlapped with the worst mass extinction in history. Pangea made most
species go extinct. The earth is a dynamic or constantly changing planet. Plates slide slowly on the
mantle's upper layer, which is caused when the mantle's convection currents slowly turning over and
over. These plates have constant motion, which causes earthquakes, mountain building, volcanism
and etc.
The earth is broken down into many pieces called plates. These plates are believed to be moving for
millions of year. The seven ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Patterns in rock strata are another indicator for the existence of Pangea. Geologists will probably
discover the distinctive patterns in rocks in continents that are now thousands of miles apart. By
having matching patterns it indicates that the two continents and their rocks were at one time one
continent. When the continents were moving, it was very unpleasant because I almost died. The
experience of living during this time period was unsatisfying, therefore, I was able to learn new
information about Pangea and how it happened. My trip was interesting in some sort of way. It was
fun to experience something I haven't experienced

Geology Midterm Review
Introduction to Geology GEOL–101
Midterm 1 Review
Based on the textbook: Understanding Earth, 6th Edition, by Grotzinger and Press
CH 1: earth system
Summary
The human creative process, field and lab observations, and experiments help geoscientists
formulate testable hypotheses (models) for how the Earth works and its history. A hypothesis is a
tentative explanation focusing attention on plausible features and relationships of a working model.
If a testable hypothesis is confirmed by a large body of data, it may be elevated to a theory. Theories
are abandoned when subsequent investigations show them to be false. Confidence grows in those
theories that withstand repeated tests and successfully predict the results of new ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Questions being addressed include:
Where do the plate driving forces originate?
At what depth does recycling occur?
What is the nature of rising Convection Currents?
The assembly and subsequent break up of Pangaea represent a striking example of the effects of
plate tectonics acting over geologic time. The story begins with the breakup of the ancient
supercontinent of Rodinia 750 million years ago. Plate tectonic processes dispersed the fragments of
Rodinia forming a system of ancient continents that existed from the late Proterozoic through much
of the Paleozoic. Continued tectonic movement eventually resulted in a set of continental collisions
and reformation of the ancient continents into Pangaea. Assembly was completed during the early
Triasic, about
240 million years ago. Then, about 200 million years ago the rift that would evolve into the Atlantic
Ridge began to open and the separation of Pangaea was underway. By the beginning of the
Cenezoic, India was well on its way to Asia, and the Tethys sea that had separated Africa from
Eurasia began to close into the modern inland sea that we know as the Mediterranean. Continued
changes during the Cenozoic produced our modern world and its geography.
Terms and Concepts
Continental drift
Continent–continent convergent boundary
Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary
Island arc

Isochron
Lithospheric plates
Magnetic anomaly
Magnetic time scale
Mid–ocean ridge
Mountain

The Crust Research Paper
The crust is the outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite, which is chemically
distinct from the underlying mantle. The crust of the Earth is very thin compared to all of the other
layers, measuring only three to five miles deep under oceanic crust. The temperature of the crust can
vary from air temperature to 1600 degrees Fahrenheit. One example of how the crust relies on the
other layers because the seven continents and ocean plates practically float across the mantle which
is composed of much hotter and denser material than the crust. Katherine Kelley, an assistant
professor at the University of Rhode Island, stated The cycling of oxygen at the Earth's surface is
central to the life and activity that takes place at ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lithosphere is important because it sits on top of the asthenosphere which is made up of hot
magma. If we did not have the lithosphere, we would be sitting on the asthenosphere, which would
be impossible conditions for humans to live in. After the lithosphere, there is the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is the upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere. There is relatively low
resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur. It is semi solid molten metal that
causes the movement of tectonic plates. The magma is ejected from this layer during volcanic
eruptions. The asthenosphere is important to the other layers because since convection occurs there,
it drives plate tectonics. Following the asthenosphere is the mantle. The mantle is about 1,800 miles
deep and can vary in temperatures anywhere from 900 to 1700 degrees Fahrenheit. The mantle
makes up eighty–five percent of the total weight and mass of the earth. The mantle is an important
layer of the Earth because it adds to the gravity of the planet. The Mantle is also responsible for the
movement of the Tectonic Plates over the Earth which comes from the decay of radioactive elements
in the Mantle that cause the convection currents. This causes the movement of the tectonic plates.
Therefore, this convection is responsible for shaping the Earth's

Plate Tectonics Research Paper
Have you ever wondered why our continents are in the positions that they are in today? Plate
Tectonics can be used to explain the movement of the plates and the landforms they make. These
landforms include mountains, volcanoes, rift valleys, and much more that are made by convergent
and divergent boundaries. The plates are moved by the convection currents below the surface which
is caused by a heat source, the mantle. Another landform that is made is a mid–ocean ridge, at which
sea floor spreading is taken place, and allows magma to rise and harden on the ocean floor.
Two different types of landforms that form at convergent boundaries are mountains and volcanoes.
Mountains, such as Mount Everest and K2, are formed when two continental plates collide, which
causes the landforms to rise. Volcanoes, such as Mount Saint Helens and Mount Fuji, forms when
the more dense oceanic plate subducts under the less dense continental plate and is driven down into
the hot asthenosphere. Subducted plate melts due to extreme heat and friction. Melted plate rises up
through the crust, where it reaches the surface and cools. Those weak spots allow the magma to
come out, forming into lava. There are also volcanic island arcs, which form when two oceanic
plates collide, and continental volcanic arcs, which forms when an ... Show more content on
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Mid–Ocean Ridges, such as the Mid–Atlantic Ridge, are formed when two oceanic plates move
away from each other, allowing magma to rise up from inside the Earth. The magma reaches the
bottom of the ocean, turns into lava and cools, forming new rock. This cycle continues constantly
spreading the sea floor and adding new material along this chain of mountains. Rift Valleys, such as
Baikal Rift Valley, are formed when two continental plates move away from each other, stretching
out the crust, until it begins to break. As crust is stretched wider, the valley drops

The Great East African Rift With The Rio Grande Rift
Magmatism refers to action and movement of magma. Magma is the molten rock that exists within
the earth's mantle, and that is in a state of constant motion resulting from the enormous amount of
pressure exerted on it by the overlying layers. The earth's crust is divided into many plates which are
also in a constant state of slow motion against each other. The edges of these plates form weak
points at which volcanic activity often occurs. Rifts also form edges that run down to the earth's
mantle. As such, volcanic activities often take place along these rifts. Multiple volcanic features are
found along these faults which are evidence of the magmatism. Furthermore, the movement of the
plates and the magma along the faults also causes the regular occurrence of earthquakes in these
regions. Also, magmatism also plays an important role in the formation of the rifts. However, not all
rifts experience magmatism and in some cases, some fault lines are volcanically dormant. This paper
shall compare the Great East African Rift with the Rio Grande Rift to identify similarities and
differences between these rift systems. The East African Rift compromises of the Eastern and the
Western arms of the rifts, however, these rifts are part of an even larger rift system extending from
Mozambique to the south, through East Africa, through the Red Sea, the Dead Sea to Turkey in the
North. This rift system is known as the Afro–Arabian Rift system. The East African Rift system
forms an

Volcanos: The Most Important Features Of The Hawaiian Islands
Volcanos typically formed as a consequence of plate tectonics. In fact, they tend to form when plates
converge into each other. In the process of subduction, one plate of the lithosphere, cupped by
oceanic crust, slides beneath another one, giving origin to a subduction zone. While sliding down,
heat is generated and water is released, causing the formation of magma that rises up to the surface
and forms volcanos parallels to overriding plate. The Pacific West region of the United States is
known for presenting this type of structure in which the oceanic lithosphere pushes towards the
continent and sinks down into the asthenosphere.
One of the most important features of the Hawaiian Islands is the increase in age of the islands from
southeast

Dr. Phil's Short Story
Dr. Phil loved the earth's layers. He spent every minute of his life reading theories and watching
videos about them and he always wanted to see the layers. One day, he finally made his drill that
could drill down into the earth and see all the layers as well as learn about them. Dr. Phil put on his
special pressure and cooling suit and set out. As he drilled down he could feel the pressure getting
stronger and stronger.
He got deeper and deeper and came down right in front of Crusty's face. Crusty was in the middle of
his daily walk so he was raged. Dr. Phil could hear him screaming and said Sorry. Crusty said it's
ok. why are you here? to learn about earth's layers said Dr. Phil Oh said Crusty i'll tell ...
Phil got to the last layer of the Earth, the Inner Core.
Wow! The last layer! exclaimed Dr. Phil, very excited.
Oh... hello. I wasn't expecting any visitors. said the mysterious blob of solid iron.
Hi! My name is Dr. Phil and I was here to learn more about the layers of the Earth! I also brought
Crusty, Monica, and Spike with me! Dr. Phil happily told the blob.
Oh, hello my friends! Welcome to the last layer, the Inner Core. Since you told a little about
yourself I will tell a little about myself. This layer is the last and smallest. It is 1,250 kilometers
thick and 5000 to 6000 degrees celsius. this place is pretty hot if I do say so myself. Its also made of
Nickel and Iron. Though I am small, I am slowly growing larger and larger. The blob informed
them.
I guess that's all I need to know about you.
Yep. By the way, my name is Boba
Thanks for telling Boba! Well, I have to get back to the surface.
Have a great trip back, Dr. Phil and the others.
Thanks! Dr. Phil got back into the drill, turned around, and left.
That was amazing! Dr. Phil shouted as he took of his heavy suit. It was already night when he was
back from his adventure, but he still took the time to write down all what he saw and heard in his
blue scientific journal. By midnight, he was already asleep, dreaming about what he would do the
next time he went down into the

Plate Tectonics Theory
The good thing about science is that it's true whether you believe in it or not, stated Neil Degrasse
Tyson. The 'Theory of Plate Tectonics' is accredited to most of the creations of mountain ranges, the
Centennial Drifting Theory, earthquakes, and other landforms nature has made.
The idea of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s (Andel). Plate tectonics explains the origin
of Earth's surface features (Plate Tectonics BrainPop). Alfred Wegner was just guessing about the
way plate tectonics were formed and no one believed him (Plate Tectonics). Scientists thought all
hills and uneven ground was due to the Earth shrinking. Scientists later found out that plates move
about 5 to 10 cm. per year. During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, researchers found out that
plate–tectonics had influenced the composition of Earth's atmosphere and the oceans. After Wegner
died, his 'Theory of Pangea' was proven correct due to further research on plate tectonics
(Kratochvil). Plate tectonics is also a prime cause of long–term climate change (Andel). Plate
tectonics also give the rock cycle the ability to keep continuing. (Plate Tectonics BrainPop)
Plates tectonics are very complex, they have many steps that make them work like they do. Plates
float on top of the mantle, it is the part of the earth between the core. The mantle starts to churn in
circular convection currents as they drag the tectonic plates along (Plate Tectonics BrainPop). The
Earth's crust is split into

Personal Narrative: Journey To The Core
Journey to the Core Today, my team of two, Kadeyn, Jasmine, went with me to the lowest area on
this Earth, the land alongside the dead sea, and started to dig. We we dug 38 kilometers into the
crust with a huge shovel contraption attached to our capsule., and as we went through, we saw huge
pockets of the mineral Halite, which Jasmine kept licking for the greater good of science, and also
saw lots of sedimentary rock which we took samples of. Once about 19 miles into the crust, we
entered the lithosphere, where we saw many types of metamorphic rock, such as Gneiss, and
Quartzite, which Kadeyn wanted to take to use as decorations for her room. After about 60 out of the
100 kilometers, we started to have troubles getting down, because of the hardness of the stone all
around us. After about a day of digging, we were finally able to reach the Asthenosphere. The
Asthenosphere is gets hotter and hotter as you get deeper in the ground. As Kadeyn and Jasmine
fought over who's rock was better, I took note that it is less rigid than the rock in the lithosphere
above. It was much easier to dig through it because it is softer, bends like plastic, but it still took
about as long as it did to get through the lithosphere, because of the 350 kilometers we had to go
through. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When we reached it, I was glad to see that science had been right, and there was a huge metal ball
right in front of us. We attempted to dig into it, but were unable to with the contraption we had on
our capsule, so we had to attach a much harder and heavier shovel–like arm on our vehicle. When
we dug through the core and were inside, we noted that the entire ball was made of pure metal.
The pressure inside of the core is so immense that we could feel it inside of the capsule. After
traveling about halfway through, 610 kilometers, we decided to turn around and go back up to the

Sudden and Violent Shifting of Tectonic Plates Cause...
Earthquakes are a natural phenomena caused by the violent and sudden shifting of plates along
tectonic boundaries. Movement of tectonic plates releases stored energy producing seismic waves,
which travel through the solid rock of the upper layers of the earth's crust. Earthquakes occur along
belts, circum–Pacific or Alpine, located near the edges of tectonic plates. Energy released by the
interaction between two plates can produce severe damage to the surrounding environment.
Earthquakes occur along tectonic plate boundaries and fault lines. Movement of tectonic plates can
be associated with three different types of boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. The
lithosphere forms the outer most layer of the earth's crust, which over lays a hotter, softer layer
called the asthenosphere. A divergent boundary is located along a margin where two plates are
moving away from one another. As the two plates move away from one another magma flows up
into the empty space, and forms a new section of the ocean floor. The creation of a new sea floor
along a divergent boundary produces oceanic ridges. The best know example of this type of
boundary is the mid– Atlantic ridge. Convergent boundaries occur in area's where two plates merge
forcing the lithosphere below the asthenosphere. Once the lithosphere is forced back down into the
earth, it is melted and reused as magma volcanic arcs. This type of boundary forms oceanic trenches.
Transform boundary occurs when two continental

Plate Tectonics Essay
A plate tectonic is defined as a solid rock mass that builds up the Earth's surface. The plate tectonic
theory is a theory that geologists use to help explain the surface processes and events. The word
plate means large pieces of the earth that are always in motion, lithosphere plates. Tectonics means
how the continents formed and move over time. This is the theory that most geologists accept as to
what happened to our continents. It states that Earth is made up of two layers, the lithosphere, outer,
and the inner asthenosphere. Lithosphere is made up different chemicals and uneven rocks. They are
however, very rigid and brittle. The lithosphere is made up of ten major plates. Its major plates are
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When looking at this, it appears like two cars crashing into each other very slowly. The front ends
fold and bend with the edge of the continental plate folding into a mountain range. You will also
notice that the edge of the oceanic plate has bent down. This makes the rock in both plates break and
slip, causing earthquakes. As the edge of the oceanic plate digs into Earth's hot interior, some of the
rock in it melts. Convergent boundaries are dangerous places to live. Some insist that with careful
planning and preparation, this land is livable. There are also divergent boundaries where plates seem
to come apart. When the lithosphere of Earth is pulled apart, it tends to break and separate along the
boundary. This is a slow process. The block between the faults cracks and drops down into the
asthenosphere. The sinking of the block forms a rift and liquid rock fills the cracks. New crust is
formed along the boundary. Earthquakes occur near the faults with volcanoes forming where the
magma reaches the surface. When a divergent boundary crosses the land, the rift valleys created are
usually between 30–50 km wide. One can see this in the East Africa rift in Kenya. There third
boundary that occurs is the transform boundary. This boundary is the least spectacular of them. This
boundary happens when plates slide past each other. This means that plates are not tearing each
other apart. The sliding motion of them does cause a lot of earthquakes. Transform boundaries

Volcanic and Seismic Events Are Major Pieces of Evidence...
Volcanic and Seismic events are major pieces of evidence towards proving that plate tectonics
theory is valid (40 marks) The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's lithosphere (top layer
of the Earth's crust) is split up into rigid sections called plates that are moving relative to one
another as they move on top of the underlying semi–molten mantle. These plates are either
continental, The North American Plate, or oceanic, The Nazca Plate. Tectonic plates are powered by
convection currents, which is the circular movement of magma within the mantle. These currents are
powered by the core, which heats the magma, causing it to rise, cool and fall back down. This
circular motion causes the plates, which float on the mantle, to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Earthquakes can be created on any of the plate boundaries. Earthquakes occur when tension is
released from inside the crust. Plates do not always move smoothly alongside each other and
sometimes get stuck. When this happens pressure builds up. When this pressure is eventually
released, an earthquake tends to occur. The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is
called the focus. The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicentre. Earthquake
energy is released in seismic waves. These waves spread out from the focus. The waves are felt most
strongly at the epicentre, becoming less strong as they travel further away. The most severe damage
caused by an earthquake will happen close to the epicentre. But there are some anomalies as there
are earthquakes which don't take place on a plate boundary and it's the same with volcanoes. An
example of this is Hawaii. Hawaii is a volcanic island which is found in the middle of a tectonic
plate. Hawaii is an example of a hotspot. The places known as hotspots are volcanic regions thought
to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the mantle elsewhere. They
may be on, near to, or far from tectonic plate boundaries. There are two hypotheses to explain them.
One suggests that they are due to hot mantle plumes that rise from the core–mantle boundary. The
other hypothesis postulates that it is not high

Theories Of Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics have been recently discovered. Earthquakes and volcanoes can now be located and
the public can find out when it will erupt or occur. Our earth has a fragile shell, which moves around
recycling itself, to form new layers of crust.The theory of plate tectonics was helped develop by the
theory of plate tectonics. Convection currents and gravitational forces move tectonic plates. The
contact between plates, creates earthquakes, volcanoes, islands and mid ocean ridges. Mountain
ranges, are examples of converging plates and modern technology can help scientists locate tumours
or movement in the Earth.–Thesis–Convection currents and Plate tectonics explains global
anomalies and phenomenon like earthquakes, volcanoes, mid ocean ridges ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This then send out a massive wave of energy through solid rock and water. This then results to the
ground and water shaking, as the massive wave of energy passes through. The ring of fire is where
90% of all recorded earthquakes have occurred. Most earthquakes form near the plate boundaries.
The most strongest earthquakes have been near converging boundaries. The location of the different
earthquakes can help explain and give further information for the theory of plate tectonics and
where the boundaries for different plates

Compare And Contrast How Magmas Are Generated At Mid-Ocean
COMPARE AND CONTRAST HOW MAGMAS ARE GENERATED AT MID–OCEAN RIDGES
AND SUBDUCTION ZONES. According to Middlemost (1988)'s basic definition, magma is a
heated rock–forming substance that is created within a planet and exists only below Earth. When
magma escapes to the Earth's surface and is extruded, they are known as lavas. Grotzinger and
Jordan (2010) suggests that magma mainly comes from the asthenosphere– the upper part of the
mantle. Magmas are usually generated when rocks are under the right temperature and pressure
conditions to undergo partial melting (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2010). At high temperatures and low
enough pressures, rocks would reach its melting point easily. It is known for a fact that temperature
increases with depth ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Subduction zone magmas are formed by convergent plate boundaries between oceanic–continental
plates or oceanic–oceanic plates (at least one tectonic plate has to be oceanic) (see Fig.1). According
to Grotzinger and Jordan (2010), when the oceanic lithosphere gets subducted, there is fluid induced
melting occurring to the mantle wedge. Therefore, this generates magmas of varying composition.
From Prichard et al.'s findings, mid–ocean ridge magmas are usually basaltic in composition
whereas subduction zone magmas are andesitic and more silicic. Subduction zone magma
compositions also depend on the materials being subducted. Hence, in terms of chemical
composition, the subduction zone magmas and are definitely more varied compared to the mid–
ocean ridge magmas. Subduction zone magmas range from basaltic to rhyolitic– with andesitic
magmas being the most common (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2010). Fig.2 Geothermal gradient varying
in different geological settings: also showing the solidus for MOR and subduction zone mantle rock
MAGMA GENESIS Middlemost (1988) states that in the mantle at depths between 60–250 km (i.e.
the low–velocity zone), magma can be generated through either of the 3 ways; when you add

The Discovery Of Mount Everest
Over nine thousand people died and thousands were displaced when an earthquake with a magnitude
of 8.1 hit Nepal in April 2015. Consequently, this earthquake triggered the deadliest event in the
history of Mount Everest when an avalanche killed 19 people two weeks later (1). This tragedy was
caused by two pieces of the planet's crust that have been colliding for millions of years now.
Moreover, this collision is based on the scientific theory of plate tectonics that cases the large–scale
motion of the planet's lithosphere. The same theory also explains how Mount Everest, a part of the
Himalayas, was affected. Nepal's seismic nature and the Himalayas are connected through the
collision of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian plate. First and foremost, plate tectonic theory deals
with the idea that lithospheric plates or tectonic plates move around the crust. Tectonic plates are
slabs of the Earth's lithosphere which is a combination of the crust and uppermost mantle. The
lithosphere is characterized by its rigid and cooler nature. On the other hand, the asthenosphere is
hotter and more viscous and lies beneath the lithosphere. Together, the lithosphere and the
asthenosphere makes up the outer layers of the Earth. These two layers are really important because
the rigid pieces of the lithosphere ride on the viscosity of the asthenosphere (2). As previously
mentioned, the Nepal earthquake was caused collision of these plates and it has numerous
underlying factors that started

Describe How Several Ways Mineral Crystals Can Form
1. What is a mineral, as geologists understand the term? How is this definition different from the
everyday usage of the word?
To a geologist, a mineral is naturally occurring solid, formed by geologic processes that have a
crystalline structure and a definable chemical composition. Its internal structure characterized by an
orderly arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline lattice. Almost all minerals are
inorganic, for instance, sugar is an organic chemical in which is made by carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen that it is not a mineral.
2. Why is glass not a mineral?
A glass isn't a mineral because crystalline structure in which the atoms make up a mineral aren't
distributed randomly and cannot move around easily, and the atoms in a glass aren't arranged in an
orderly pattern. Moreover, both minerals and glasses are solids, and they can retain their shape, but a
mineral is crystalline ,and glass is not because the atoms, ions, or molecules are the elements in a
mineral are ordered into a crystal lattice, and glass doesn't has those elements and disorderly
arrange.
3. Describe the several ways that mineral crystals can form.
The mineral crystals can form in five ways. First, they can form by the solidification of a melt which
the freezing of a liquid, such as ice crystals are a type of mineral made by freezing water. Second,
they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The formation of LIPs associated with superplumes might have affected sea level, climate, and may
have caused the extinction of some species. Because when volcanic eruptions begin, the huge
quantities of basaltic lava spew out of the ground, the hot basaltic lava has low viscosity that can
erupts the localities, and it can flow tens to hundreds of kilometers across the

Plate Tectonics: Why The Continents Look The Way They Do?
Have you ever wondered why the Earth looks the way it does today? Well, you are not the only one.
Not too long ago was it that scientist asked themselves the same question and were able to come up
with an answer. Now, lets take a quick look back at that question. Why do the continents look the
way they do? Well, the short answer is basically plate tectonics. What is that you say? Plate
tectonics is a theory that describes the formation, movements, and interactions of the Earth's
lithosphere with its' asthenosphere. The lithospheric layer of Earth's crust is broken into plates that
move on the asthenosphere, the layer located under. This theory is what basically explains how
continents, volcanoes, and mountains got where they are today. Now,

The Theory Of Plate Tectonics And Earth 's Crust Displacement
For millions of years the Earth has experienced geologic catastrophes. Since the existence of Theia
itself, the Earth's crust has been formed, deformed, and even demolished. The crust has never been a
completed masterpiece due to this. Why is this? The most recent physical changes were caused by
the theory of plate tectonics and earth's crust displacement. Plate tectonics and its movement
resulted in our continents drifting across the earth's surface, and the creation of mountain belts,
volcanoes, and the faults of today's Earth. A German meteorologist and explorer Alfred Wegener put
forth the theory of continental drift in the early 1900's. Wegener pointed out that the earth's
continents looked as if they were all connected at one point in time. He also pointed out that some of
earth's features, including the long S–shaped mountain structure formed on the Atlantic seafloor,
could fit snugly against the corresponding western seafloor of Europe and Africa (Sieh and LeVay
1998). Wegener proposed that all of the earth's continents once formed one single landmass, which
he named Pangaea or all–land. He concluded that Pangaea had broken up and separated due to the
unidentifiable forces estimated 300 million years ago (Sieh and LeVay 1998). Geologists did not
fully understand at the time that Earth's continents could drift (Hazen 2012). After all, the continents
do not float in the oceans. They are made from a solid material connecting to the mantle, a sphere of
solid rock

Boundaries In The United States And The Galapagos Islands
A constructive boundary is a boundary that seems to add to the surface of the earth, one example
would be mountains. These plate boundaries include continental–oceanic boundary, oceanic–oceanic
boundary, and continental–continental boundary. For continental–oceanic convergent the oceanic
sinks under the lighter continental plate and then melts into magma, this magma rises through the
crust to form volcanoes. An oceanic–oceanic convergent boundary creates volcanic island chain, by
the subduction and melting of one plate then magma rises through the crust to form islands and
volcanoes. A continental–continental convergent boundary is where two continental plates collide
and neither of them are dense enough to subdue so the wrinkle up to form mountains. One example
of this is the Himalayan mountains which are formed from the Indian continental plate pushing into
the Eurasian plate causing the to ruffle up into mountains.
One great example of this the Galapagos Islands which is a chain of volcanic islands located off the
coast of Ecuador. Theses islands are formed from two oceanic plates pushing against one another.
The two plates that formed this island chain are the South American and Pacific plates, the Pacific
plate subdue underneath the South American plate and melted, this magma rose to ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some examples of this kind of plate boundary are, oceanic–oceanic or oceanic continental
convergent boundaries which can both lead to the formation of trenches in the ocean. Continental–
Continental divergent plates happen when two continental plates pull apart from another causing
rock in between them to drop deeper and deeper and if it drops low enough it may be filled with
water. Oceanic–oceanic divergent two plates are pushed apart by the continual expansion of magma
at the mid–ocean ridge causing it to expand and subdue underneath another plate and

Earth Science: Exploring the Geology of Planet Earth
Part 1 Earth's Mantle, Crust, etc. The physical geology of the earth consists of a Core (inner and
outer), the mantle, the asthenosphere and the lithosphere. The inner core is primarily a solid ball
about 70% the size of the moon and thought to consist of an iron–nickel alloy with a temperature
about the same as the sun. The outer core is a liquid layer about 1500 mils thick that is composed of
iron and nickel, just below the mantle. The mantle is divided into layers, and is a rocky shell
surrounding the core of the earth with about 84% of the total volume of the planet. It is primarily
solid and encloses the iron rich hot core and was formed by numerous past incidents of volcanism.
Two main zones are in the upper mantle of the earth. The inner asthenosphere that is composed of
flowing rock about 200 km thick and the lithosphere which is composed of rigid rock about 50–120
km thick. There is also a thick crust which is the upper part of the lithosphere that surrounds the
mantle, anywhere from 5–75 km thick. Additionally, the asthenosphere may be described as being
highly viscous that is crucial to the plate tectonic theory in that in spite of its high temperature,
pressures keep it malleable and at a relatively low density. The lithosphere is the crust and upper
mantle of the earth that is the hard and rigid layer in which humans live. This portion of the earth
reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through erosion and weathering, resulting the
soil forming

Volcano Is A Volcano, Volcanic Eruptions, Earth, And Earth
What is a Volcano: A volcano is a rupture in the crust of planets such as Earth. They allow hot lava,
volcanic ash and gasses to escape from a magma chamber. Magma is formed from the melting of
rocks in the Earth's lithosphere, which is part of the Earth's crust and is broken up into giant puzzle–
like pieces, and also from the shell below the lithosphere which is the asthenosphere. The
asthenosphere is a soft, fluid part of the Earth that can be pushed around because of the Earth's
warmth. Volcanoes form from eruptions. Once the eruption occurs the lava from the eruption cools
to form a new crust. After several eruptions, the rock builds up and forms the cone shaped
mountains or hills in which we call volcanoes.
What causes an eruption: A volcanic eruption is just a natural way that the Earth cools down and
releases internal heat and pressure. In an eruption, super–heated magma from deep within the Earth's
interior works its way to the surface. They most often occur at the tectonic plate boundaries but can
also occur over hotspots or weak areas in the Earth's crust. The two most known types of eruptions
are effusive eruptions and explosive eruptions. Effusive eruptions are eruptions where magma rises
through the surface and flows out of the volcano as the thick liquid that is lava. Explosive eruptions
are eruptions where the magma is torn apart as it rises and reaches the surface in pieces known as
pyro clasts. Effusive eruptions are caused when hot basalt magma reaches the

Tectonic Plates
The Earth is a very detailed planet; there are many actions going on at once on this planet. The Earth
has many boundaries, plates. and layers. The plates beneath our feet mold the world we live in.
While very slowly, the plates are indeed moving. There are a few variations to the plates; they have
different directions in which they move in relation to separate plates. These changes in plate
movement have different side effects, from ocean trenches to miles of mountain ranges. In 1912, a
german climatologist, Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once joined and made one
land mass. He named this super continent Pangaea. He had a lot of evidence to prove that they were
once together, but he was missing one key section of information, ... Show more content on
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Each plate is moving a certain direction due to the convection from the Asthenosphere. The meeting
of two plates is called a boundary, there are three types of boundaries in the world: Convergent
Boundaries, Divergent Boundaries. And Transform Boundaries. In the case of Convergent
Boundaries, two plates are pushing against each other, which can create Deep Ocean Trenches,
Huge Mountains, and/or Volcanic Mountain chains. An example of this happening is the Mariana
Trench, During Convergence, the denser crust, oceanic crust, is subducted below the less dense
crust. If the crusts have the same density then the plates are pushed upwards. At Divergent
Boundaries, the plates are moving away from each other, this can create Mid–Ocean Ridges and Rift
Valleys. An example of this happening is the Mid–Atlantic Ridge. At the final boundary, Transform
Boundaries, the plates slide the past one another in the opposite direction, causing shallow
earthquakes and offset features. An example of this Boundary is The San Andreas Fault. While the
crust moves, there are places called Hot spots in which a hot portion of the mantle rises up beneath
the crust for millions of years. An example of this is the Hawaii Island

The Likely Cause Of Earthquakes In The United States
Name: Olawale Oluwakoya
Media report: The likely cause of recent southeast US earthquakes.
The southeastern part of the United States should not encounter too many seismic activities because
it is located in the interior of the North American Plate, a good distance away from plate boundaries
where earthquakes mostly occur. However the southeast have seen some seismic, the latest was the
2011 magnitude–5.8 earthquake at Virginia.
Scientists recently reported in a new study a likely explanation for this unexpected incident, some
tiny pieces of the mantle under the region have been breaking off and moving deep down into the
Earth. Thereby weakening the remaining plates and making it more prone to slipping that causes
earthquakes. Most study authors have concluded that this process is ongoing and very likely ...
Earthquakes does not often occur in the middle of plates, however they do happen when old faults or
rifts far below the surface reactivate. These areas are weak compared to the surrounding plate, and
can slip easily and cause earthquake.
A CAT scan of the Earth
To find out what had been happening below the surface, researchers created 3D images of the
mantle portion of the North American Plate. Seismologists image the internal part of the Earth by
tracing the paths of seismic waves created by earthquakes as they move through the ground. The
waves move faster through colder rocks and less quickly through warmer rocks. Rocks cool and
harden as they become older, so the faster seismic waves, the older the rock.
The researchers used tremors created by earthquakes a little more than 2,000 miles away to create a
3D map of the mantle. They discovered that plate thickness in the southeast U.S. is uneven, they saw
thick areas of dense, aged rock stretching down and thin areas of less dense, younger

Plate Tectonic Mountains: How Are They Formed?
Plate tectonics is the theory that the Earth's crust is divided into a number of plates that move
because they float on the asthenosphere. Plate tectonics are moved by convection loops driven by
geothermal activity. High temperatures inside Earth causes magma to rise into the asthenosphere and
eventually reach the base of the Earth's crust. The magma spreads horizontally and cool. The cooling
magma moves parts of the crust, creating mountains (Arbogast 290). There are three types of
mountains associate with plate tectonics and they are volcanic, fold and block mountains. These are
formed as compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces rock
upward (Williams). Volcanic mountains are formed when a tectonic plate ... Show more content on
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Mountains: How Are They Formed? Universe Today. N.p., 04 May 2017. Web. 23 June 2017.
Hi Sabryna,
I like how detailed and concise your response was. I see that you mentioned some of the ways
mountains are formed. This explains why there are so many types of mountains and why they have
different characteristics. Their shape, height, width, can all be traced back to their formation. When
we look at a mountain, we often overlook all the complex processes that went into its formation. I
live in The San Fernando valley surrounded by hills, but it is heartbreaking to see how we take them
for granted by blowing them up to make space for houses and highways.
Hi Lorraine,
Your response was great like always! Reading it along with the pictures and diagram made the
concepts much clearer. I like that you included examples like the Himalayas because it makes it
easier to remember the concepts. It was interesting to read some of the factors that influence the
movement of plates. The more we learn about the Earth, the more intriguing it becomes. It's mind–
blowing so many components work in conjunction to create mountains, canyons, valleys, and all the
natural formations around us. It would be nice to know how certain landscapes were formed just by
looking at them and having some knowing about the

Galapagos Islands Research Paper
Discovered in 1535, the Galapagos Islands have been a place of mystery and wonder for centuries.
The Galapagos Islands are a group of volcanic islands located approximately 1000 kilometers west
of the South American coast on the equator. Thirteen main islands make up the island chain, along
with 6 smaller islands and numerous other islets, small rocks, and pinnacles, with a total land
surface area of approximately 8,000 square kilometers. The islands are known for their unique
species of countless different animals, found nowhere else in the world, and for the discoveries
made by Darwin at this island chain. The Galapagos Islands are unique in many aspects, including
the hot spot underneath, the plate tectonics, the two different volcano types ... Show more content on
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These crater like volcanoes are quite an uncommon occurrence, although they are not unique to just
the Galapagos. However, the unusual part of these calderas is their size, especially compared to their
relation to the size of the volcano. Calderas form after a collapse of a magma chamber located under
the surface. The magma in these chambers give support to the volcano, but after the magma
withdraws, the surrounding rock becomes unsupported and cannot bear the weight above them, and
therefore they collapse. These calderas do not form in just one collapse; they slowly grow after
many collapses. This was proven after a partial collapse of the caldera on Fernandina in 1968, as
part of the crater dropped nearly 200 meters. Several other smaller collapses have occurred on
Fernandina as well as other islands since the collapse in 1968. These calderas can also be refilled
with magma, partially or all the way, and then reform. An example of this is Isla Marchena, located
in the northeast, which has nearly been filled all the way with lava. If these calderas drop below sea
level and part of the rim breaks, the caldera can form a bay just as Genovesa's caldera

Earthquakes In North America
The southeastern United States should, by all means, be relatively quiet in terms of seismic activity.
It's located in the interior of the North American Plate, far away from plate boundaries where
earthquakes usually occur. But the area has seen some notable seismic events –– most recently, the
2011 magnitude–5.8 earthquake near Mineral, Virginia that shook the nation's capital.
Now scientists report in a new study a likely explanation for this unusual activity: pieces of the
mantle under this region have been periodically breaking off and sinking down into the Earth. This
thins and weakens the remaining plate, making it more prone to slipping that causes earthquakes.
The study authors conclude this process is ongoing and likely to produce more earthquakes in the
future.
Our idea supports the view that this seismicity will continue due to unbalanced stresses in the
plate, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At first, they thought the thick, old rocks could be remnants of ancient tectonic plates. But the
shapes and locations of the thick and thin regions suggested a different explanation: through past
rifting and accretion, areas of the North American Plate have become more dense and were pulled
downward into the mantle through gravity. At certain times, the densest parts broke off from the
plate and sank into the warm asthenosphere below. The asthenosphere, being lighter and more
buoyant, surged in to fill the void created by the missing pieces of mantle, eventually cooling to
become the thin, young rock in the images.
The researchers concluded this process is likely what causes earthquakes in this otherwise stable
region: when the pieces of the mantle break off, the plate above them becomes thinner and more
prone to slip along ancient fault lines. Typically, the thicker the plate, the stronger it is, and the less
likely to produce

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